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MODULE IN PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

(Midterms)

I. Obtaining, Providing and Disseminating Information

In learning, obtaining information is very significant since it is the first stage of cognitive
or learning process. After obtaining information, a learner can continue the cognitive
process to varying levels. For instance, he or she may accomplish basic cognitive processes
by taking in information and simply storing it in the memory for later recall or
remembering.

Significantly, providing information plays a vital role in the field of education, career, life,
business, etc. As educators, one of the most important things is to provide relevance for
students. This would give them a context within which they can develop into engaged,
motivated and self-regulated learners because relevance can help students realize how
useful all knowledge can be. Similarly, as a speaker, as a person, as a learner, and as a
businessman, the information provided should be sufficient, reliable, valid and accurate.
In this way, the listeners and receivers of the message would believe the information given
which may intellectually direct his or her actions and decisions.

In like manner, disseminating information is equally important in learning, in life, in

business and in communication. The purpose of dissemination is to influence people's
behavior, so that they will adopt or at least become aware of a new idea, product or service
which is being disseminated. The use of various kinds of methods supporting each other is
important when planning dissemination.

A. The Types of Information and Ways of Obtaining Information

What kind of information do you usually receive each day? How do you receive
and obtain information?

Types of Information

There are three types of information that we deal with every day. They are:

Context – Big Picture

Content – details
Meaning – the impact

Information has important parts. One of which is the context. Context is a

part of a written or spoken statement that precede or follow a specific word or
passage, usually influencing its meaning or effect. It is the set of
circumstances or facts that surround a particular event, situation, etc. (i.e. You
have misinterpreted my remark because you took it out of context.)
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While, content is the information and experiences that are directed towards an
end-user or audience. Content is "something that is to be expressed through
some speech, writing or any of various arts". It is the amount of information
conveyed by a particular unit of language in a particular context.

On the other hand, meaning is the message conveyed by words, sentences,

and symbols in a context. It is only through meanings that we make sense of
our existence. In life, we find meaning through a sense of purpose which
makes life worthwhile. Frankl (1978) aptly pointed-out, a firm sense of meaning
is essential for optimal human development.

Characteristics of Information

Relevant information is capable of making a difference in making a decision.

Valid information is more in-depth information that allows greater insight.

Reliable information is

Factual information is something documented, established, confirmable,

supportable, sustainable, verifiable, indisputable, irrefutable, undeniable,
unquestionable and undoubted.

* Aside from these, the five characteristics of high-quality information are

accuracy, completeness, consistency, uniqueness, and
timeliness. Information needs to be of high quality to be useful and accurate
as well.
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B. Providing and Disseminating Information

Presentation of Content

What can you say about these pictures? What are the learners/persons doing?

Teachers and students can obtain information in a number of ways. It can be

through interview, observe, test, surf the net, read, and watch news or any
documentary film, etc. There are also other ways to get information such as
talking with people, focused group discussions, personal interviews and
surveys.

Interviewing

One convenient way to obtain information about a topic is to conduct

an information interview. The person’s goal is to discover the appropriate facts
from a person who knows them. To conduct a profitable interview, must follow
this process:

 Prepare carefully
 Maintain a professional attitude
 Probe
 Record

Observing and Testing

In both observing and testing, someone is carrying out a questioning strategy.

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Observing is watching intentionally in order to discover the elements in a
situation. Someone places herself or himself in the situation to observe and
record his or her observations. When observing in order to collect information,
the basic facts should be considered.

Surveying
A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-
defined group of respondents to gain information and insights on various
topics of interest. Surveys have variety of purposes and can be carried out in
many ways. This can be done through telephone surveys, mail surveys, email
surveys, and internet surveys.

Definition of Information Dissemination

Information Dissemination means spreading of information, knowledge,

opinions widely to a certain person, people or to a bigger group of audience.
The purpose of dissemination is to influence people's behavior, so that they will
adopt or at least become aware of a new idea, product or service which is being
disseminated. The use of various kinds of methods supporting each other is
important when planning dissemination.

Methods in Disseminating Information

Information should be disseminated properly and accurately. Exact and

sufficient information are only the things to be provided to the proper authority
or person. The following are some methods for disseminating information:

1. News release is a written or recorded communication directed at members

of the news media for the purpose of announcing something ostensibly
newsworthy.

2. Blog is a regularly updated website or web page, typically one run by an

individual or small group, that is written in an informal or conversational style.

3. Emails are messages distributed by electronic means from one computer

user to one or more recipients via a network.

4. Text message is a written message, often containing short forms of words,

sent from one mobile phone to another.

5. Social networking websites or social media is an online platform which

people use to build social networks or social relations with other people who
share similar personal or career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life
connections.
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6. Public service announcements is a message in the public interest

disseminated without charge, with the objective of raising awareness of, and
changing public attitudes and behavior towards, a social issue.

7. Door to door is a canvassing technique that is generally used for sales,

marketing, advertising, or campaigning, in which the person or persons walk
from the door of one house to the door of another, trying to inform, announce,
sell or advertise a product or service to the general public or gather
information.

8. Community meetings is a small-group method of collecting information

from community members. It is used to provide a directed but highly
interactive discussion. Similar to but less formal than a focus group, and it
usually includes a larger group.

Summary
In this unit, you have learned that information is important to human being as
this plays a vital role in communication. Without a topic or information,
conversation will become flavorless. Information has three major parts (context,
content and meaning). And to this information should be relevant, valid,
reliable and factual so that the receiver of the message will surely believe it.
Furthermore, you also learned that information can be obtained through
interview, observe, test, surf the net, read, watch news or any documentary
film, talking with people, focus groups, personal interviews and survey. And
the obtained information can be disseminated in various methods such as
news release, blogs, emails, text message, social networking websites, public
announcement, door to door, community meeting, group discussion, etc.

II. Persuasion and Argumentation

A. What is persuasion and argument?

Traditionally, people have called argument any attempt that uses logic to
incite a person to take action or to change an opinion or belief. Persuasion is
considered to be the same call to action or to change an opinion or belief;
but persuasion is a call to action that is based on appealing to emotion and
feeling. So the difference between argument and persuasion is the difference
between using logic and using emotion. Since most debates involve subjects
that are conducive to logic and emotion, most real-life debates contain
elements of both logic and emotion.

How do I consider problems with logic? Some people use faulty logic when
they argue. Others will use fairly effective logic, but will ignore the
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implications of their logic, or they will exclude from consideration certain
logical conclusions. Other people may create arguments that seem almost
perfect. No matter how an argument is constructed logically or illogically, by
understanding the following problems with logic, which are called fallacies,
you often will be able to see how people arrive at their proposition, which is
the logical conclusion of their argument.
B. Fallacies

Before we consider the terms of a debate, let’s consider the logical problems,
or fallacies, that might be involved in an argument.

Ad hominem: “To the person”: this means that someone ignores the
argument itself and verbally attacks the person personally who is making the
argument. For example, if someone disagreed with the president’s decision to
raise tuition because of a state budget cut, and said, “She’s only raising
tuition because she is not smart enough to think of an alternative,” then that
person is using an ad hominem attack. Many politicians and commentators
on politics favor this kind of fallacy, because it is easier to attack a persona’s
credibility than to contend with a person’s ideas.
Ad misericordiam: This fallacy means that someone makes an argument
that offers two scenarios, and one of them is inconceivably bad. For example,
if someone said that, “Everyone should agree with the idea of war because
otherwise this country will fall apart,” then that person is offering a
proposition that seems to have as its opposite something that almost everyone
would want to avoid. But the idea of the country falling apart is only one
alternative to disagreeing with going to war. Weak arguments often use ad
misericordiam fallacies because the arguments are hastily constructed of
conceived of with an excess of emotions.
Ad populum: This fallacy assumes that if you like a person you will agree
with the person’s logic. For example, if someone told you that he had always
been a good friend and that was why you should lend him your new car for
the weekend, then this person is relying on the relationship, rather than the
logic, for you to offer him your car. If he said that he had always taken good
care of your car before and you should lend it to him now, he would not be
making an ad populem fallacy, though. This fallacy is also closely related to
the often-heard parents’ cliché: “Just because everyone jumped off a cliff, you
would too, right?”
Argument of the beard: This fallacy is used when a division between two
conditions can be ignored or a division between two states is difficult to
establish. It’s called the argument of the beard because you could conceivably
pluck one hair after another from a beard and never arrive at a specific,
perfect point when the beard stopped being a beard, by definition. For
example, if someone told you that since even one glass of beer will impair
your thinking, you might as well drink a case, then the person would be
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making an argument of the beard. Since there is no exact point for every
single person being impaired by alcohol, and since we have not defined
impairment, per se, the point of impairment could be one beer or it could be
three beers or it could be a case of beer. The fallacy is here because clearly a
case of beer would cause impairment, no matter how it was defined.
Begging the question: This fallacy occurs when evidence supporting the
logic of the argument or the proposition creates alternatives to the
proposition. For example, if someone tells you that she has a great deal for
you, which could make you a two hundred percent return on your
investment, and that because the return on your investment is so high you
should not even question making the investment, she would be begging the
question what risks there were to your investment. Just because the deal she
is offering sounds so good, this does not mean that your decision to
participate in the deal should be based on the possible two hundred percent
return. What she is asking you to do and why she is saying that you should
do it are literally begging the question of why you should go along with her.
The proposition (that you should go along with her) is not premised on how
safe the investment is or how many times she has returned a two hundred
percent return to investors; instead the proposition (that you should invest) is
premised on what might happen.
A similar fallacy is called ignoring the question, which is slightly different
from begging the question by the degree of information offered. If a person
tells you that you should make an investment that will probably return two
hundred percent profit, then the person is ignoring the question of what other
kinds of returns on the investment (or profits) other investments have made,
and the person is ignoring what other kinds of profit or loss scenarios exist in
the deal.
Circular argument: This fallacy happens when the proposition is based on
the premise and/or vice versa. For example, if you are told that the Toyota
Corolla is the most popular car in America because so many Americans drive
it, then you are not being given any reason or evidence, aside from the
proposition (that the Corolla is popular because people drive it) that goes
along with the proposition. This fallacy is often easy to locate because
everything seems logical enough, but there is no relationship to any external
factors.
Generalizations: This fallacy happens often enough because the evidence for
an element of the argument is vague, weak, or superficial. For example, the
proposition that “It’s a well known fact that democrats cannot be trusted,” is
not based on any more evidence than “the well known fact.” Similarly, “He
won’t eat it because he hates everything” is a proposition (i.e., he won’t eat it)
premised on a vague assertion (i.e., just because he hates everything), which
is as likely to be true as it is likely to be false.
New things are always better: This fallacy happens when someone says
that something should be done differently because a new idea exists. For
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example, if a person tells you that he has found a new short cut and you
should commute to school by way of his new short cut, then he is making this
fallacy. Just because it is a new short-cut does not mean that it is faster than
the old short-cut. There is no logical reason or other evidence offered that
makes the fact that it is new any reason to change what you are already
doing. If the person says that his new short-cut is two miles less than the old
short-cut, then he is not making the fallacy. You can spot these fallacies fairly
easily (but not all the time: sometimes the new idea seems seductive) because
the evidence to do something is because the something is new.
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (After something, because of something): This
fallacy confuses the actual cause or causes for something in favor of a cause
or causes that are more readily visible or evident. For example, suppose you
came home one evening to find that your apartment or residence hall room
had been vandalized and you saw your neighbor outside your door holding
one of your possessions. Your neighbor may have well just come along after
the vandalism and seen something of yours dropped on the floor outside your
doorway and then walked over and found your apartment or residence hall
door broken open. Just because something has happened does not mean that
something that happened before it caused it, or is even related to it.
Reduce to a binary: This fallacy happens when an argument is offered and
there are many options and alternatives available, but the argument is framed
as having the proposition and one alternative, generally a really bad
alternative. For example, if you say that marijuana should be legalized and
your friend Paula counters by saying, “If you legalize marijuana, you might as
well legalize heroin and crack,” then Paula is framing the argument as only
having two alternatives: leave the law alone or risk chaos by going along with
your alternative. When you can counter the alternative with something,
generally more moderate, then you have spotted this fallacy.
Weak analogy: This fallacy happens when two things are said to be similar
enough to merit their comparison; but the two things are not similar enough
for the comparison. For example, if Will tells you that the cafeteria food is
garbage, Will’s analogy, no matter how much you both might want to agree, is
faulty: food becomes garbage when it is discarded. Food cannot be garbage,
by definition. Even if Will says that the cafeteria food smells like garbage, Will
is using a weak analogy: anyone who has been close to garbage knows that it
smells a lot worse than virtually any cafeteria food. Saying that the cafeteria
food smells like garbage, on the other hand, is logical, if the food smells like
garbage.

C. Types of Arguments

What is a deduction argument?

Deduction relies on a logical statement, called a syllogism, to form its
organization. A syllogism is a three-part statement that begins with a
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generalization, qualifies that generalization for a specific purpose, and
reaches a conclusion by comparing the information given in the first two
parts. Essentially, a syllogism uses valid statements from one scenario and
uses them in other cases. An example of a syllogism would be:

 Generalization: Friends should not gossip about each other.

 Qualifier: You are my friend.

 Conclusion: Therefore, you should not gossip about me.

While the names of the three parts of the syllogism, and the word syllogism
itself, may seem foreign to you; the use of syllogism to make decisions and
arrive at conclusions is an everyday practice. You might say, I don’t like
bananas, and that yogurt has bananas in it; therefore, I won’t like that
yogurt. The main weakness of syllogisms can be found in the generalization.
Let’s say that you actually tasted the banana yogurt and found that you
enjoyed it. The problem with the syllogism, then, would be the problem with
your not liking bananas. Because you are enjoying banana yogurt, you do, in
fact, like bananas to a certain extent, and you cannot say definitively that you
do not like bananas. Now this is a rather banal and mundane syllogism; but it
can be made much more political and socially-relevant.

Normally, a deduction argument uses the elements of the syllogism to form an

extended thesis statement at the end of the conclusion, and each of the three
elements of the syllogism are then used as the paper’s topic sentences . Many
writers return to the syllogism in the conclusion to emphasize its logic and
relevance for the context and conditions of the writer’s argument.

What is a Toulmin argument?

The philosopher Stephen Toulmin invented an organizational system for using
what he called informal or casual logic. Toulmin’s system relies on the normal
uses of dialogue to create an effective argument. Toulmin’s argument
structure considers what an audience is likely to accept, what emotions and
feelings do to effect the argument, what that audience is likely to do if it
accepts the premises and propositions of the argument, and what potential
and chance and probability, as opposed to firm truth, will do to cause an
audience to accept your proposition.

Normally, a Toulmin argument uses the following organization:

1. A Claim for a proposition that is discussed as your belief. You will

then explain why your belief is important for the particular
audience to consider
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2. Supporting evidence for your claim
3. Warrants or reasons why your audience should accept the
supporting evidence, which are normally a part of each
presentation of supporting evidence (i.e., the warrants are usually
written after the supporting evidence is offered in the body
paragraphs)
4. Polite concessions and/or civil refutations that acknowledge
other arguments but insist on the claim for your argument

What is a Rogerian argument?

You may have encountered debates that pit one side against another side,
with little to no ground for any other position. For instance, the death penalty
and abortion both have debates that are either/or debates. Other debates,
such as Affirmative Action, which has many differing and conflicting aspects,
values, facets, and definitions is clearly not an either/or debate. In either/or
debates, resolution, victory, or progress often seem to be slowed by the fact
that both sides are unwilling to yield any ground in the debate. Both sides
have much at stake, whether it is social, financial, or moral, in achieving total
victory. One of the problems with trying to join into these either/or debates is
the lack of civility and, in some cases, humanity, that either sides practices
within the debate. Sometimes the rudeness, hatefulness, and incivility
problems involve debates that are not either/or debates.

Psychologist Carl Rogers created a system for joining these either/or debates,
so that you can emphasize resolution, agreement, and civility. Rogers hoped
that all the participants in debates could respect one another, agree on some
basic issues, and all work productively toward a peaceful and harmonious
resolution. Rogers was no blind optimist, though; he understood that some
debates would never be solved or won, and he hoped that the two sides could
live peaceably even though they fundamentally disagreed.

A Rogerian argument uses empathetic listening, which has listeners repeat

back to the speakers what they just heard. Instead of disagreeing or agreeing
with points or premises, the listener gets involved in a process of negotiation
that searches for points and premises of agreement and disagreement; but a
system of negotiation that causes no hurt feelings and no uncivil tones and
attitudes. A Rogerian argument often has no obvious winner or loser in a
debate. By searching for the disagreements and agreements, both parties
usually gain an understanding of each other that enables them to appreciate
the other party and, Rogers hoped, to negotiate a middle ground or moderate
position that would be acceptable to both. At the least, Rogers hoped that
even if nobody won, lost, or even negotiated a settlement in the debate, the
participants would learn to value the people involved in the debate as equal
human beings with the same core values of compassion and understanding.
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A Rogerian argument is normally organized much like a Toulmin argument,
except that when the Toulmin argument would anticipate and then concede
and/or refute an opposing perspective, a Rogerian argument would
acknowledge and make accommodations for these points and premises. A
Rogerian argument normally is organized like this:

1. A Claim, which is often articulated as your belief but is qualified

as being a claim that many other people might not agree with. Any
shared points and premises are normally articulated so that your
readers will accept you as someone who will respect their opinions
and propositions within the debate. As you discuss other opinions
and propositions within the debate, be as honest, respectful, and
objective as possible, using neutral and non-emotional language.
(See the Problems with Language above for further guidance in
what to avoid.)
2. Supporting evidence for your claim that is presented in ways that
avoid language problems. If needed, explain the context or
background for your claim.
3. Civil concessions for the existence and value of other points and
premises that do not subordinate these points and premises.
4. Concluding remarks that discuss in honest and respectful ways
other propositions and conclusions. You must strive to make your
audience feel as if their argument has a valid right to exist, even if
you disagree with it. These remarks should also validate the
presence of other people in the debate, no matter your difference
with their opinions and feelings.

D. Persuasive Text and Speech

Editorial Writing

Editorial is a concise expression of facts and opinions or an analytical

interpretation of significant and timely topics or issues. It is a formal writing
where the paper has the chance to write what it thinks about a certain issue
affecting the readers.

Characteristics of an Editorial
1. It follows a pattern. It is an essay written like a feature story. The
editorial article should have an introduction, body, and conclusion.
2. It simplifies an issue. It should be an objective explanation of the
hottest issue within the coverage of the paper’s release. It simplifies an
issue by eliminating extraneous parts of the news.
3. It provokes opinions from the opposing viewpoints. Although an
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editorial presents the paper’s stand on an issue, it always attempts to be
objective by presenting other views.
4. It shows evidence delivered in a professional and formal manner.
Good editorials engage issues, not personalities. It is written with
formality including the use of language and the style of argumentation.
5. It offers alternative solutions. Aside from criticizing the chosen issue,
a good editorial presents alternative solutions to address the mentioned
concerns.
6. It proffers a solid and concise conclusion. A good editorial ends with a
powerfully summarized opinion. It gives the readers an unforgettable line
that they can live by.

Functions of Editorial
1. Explain or Interpret
Editorials are often used to explain the way the newspaper covered a
sensitive or controversial subject.

2. Criticize
Editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions, or situations. When
an editorial criticizes, it provides solutions to the problems identified.

3. Persuade
Editorials primarily aim at driving the readers to go with the paper’s
stand. It has a goal of encouraging others to take a specific positive
action.

4. Praise
Editorials are used to commend people and organizations for their
contributions to progress, development, or peace.
Types of Editorial
1. Editorial of Criticism
The editorial points out the faults of the situation or in an issue mentioned in
the news. It uses a scientific method by defining the problem, examining the
evidences available and then, perhaps suggesting a solution.
2. Editorial of Interpretation
The main aim of this editorial is to put the news in its proper perspective. The
paper may take a neutral stand on the specified issue and may give
responsibility of choosing a side to the readers themselves.
3. Editorial of Commendation or Tribute
This editorial is used to praise a worthy deed done by a person, a group or an
organization, or by the institution. This type of editorial must clarify how such
contribution impacts on the lives of the reading public or the academic
community.
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4. Editorial of Argumentation or Persuasion
This is the most common type of editorial which takes a stand in a
controversial issue and tries to convince the readers to adopt that stand.
5. Editorial of Entertainment
Some editorials also discuss issues lightly but present serious points.

6. Editorial of Crusade
This editorial usually endorses a thought or course of action. It promotes a
concept, an idea or an advocacy. This is also called campaign editorial.
7. Editorial Liners
These are short, witty paragraphs, either serious or light.

Persuasive Speech

1. Manuscript Speech - It involves reading your speech word-for-word from its

written form. It is most advantageous for public figures, media personalities,
and spokespersons for government and private organizations.

Advantages
• You are well-prepared.
• You merely read, so you would not be missing any word.

Disadvantages
• It lacks impact on the audience. They might feel bored.
• It lacks emotion, and loses face/body gestures.

Tips in Speaking from a Manuscript

• Prepare! Keep the text easy to use by composing it in triple space.
• Mark! Own the manuscript by highlighting key words and phrases so that
you will be guided during the speech delivery.
• Practice! Write a lot of notes on the draft of the manuscript during the first
few rehearsals, then reprint the final script.
• Practice some more! Read the text orally and repeatedly. This will help you
avoid mispronounced words, faulty starts, and wrong pauses.
• Concentrate! Concentrate on keeping eye contact, but do not look at only one
section of the audience.
• Act t out! Use a lectern or a podium when practicing the speech so that you
will be used to putting your notes flat on the podium and looking at them once
in a while.

2. Memorized Speech - It requires you to commit the speech to memory so

that you do not bring your notes when delivering it Like the manuscript
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speech, you might sound mechanical during a memorized delivery. For this
reason, keep your memorized speech short then put more effort on harder on
your facial expressions and the tone of your voice.

Advantages
• There is an eye contact with the audience.
•You have more time to prepare.
• You need to have more time memorizing the text.
• You might forget what to say.
• Break it down! You cannot memorize a speech in one sitting. If it has four
paragraphs, you should focus on one paragraph at a time.
• Build it up! After memorizing the speech in part by part, you need to put
them together. Recite the first paragraph and move on to the second and so on.
• Speak out! Do not memorize the speech silently. When you repeatedly recite
your speech, your brain aids your memory retention.
• Identify keys! Identify a key point in every paragraph, so that you can easily
explain the key ideas in case you miss some.
• Have a break! After memorizing some parts of your speech, take a break for
some hours or for a day. After this, recite the speech again.
• Record and listen! Record yourself delivering the speech and isten to it over
and over. Like a song, the speech will get stuck in your head.
• Use note cards! Write one key point on one note card. Bring these wherever
you go and whenever you have extra time to memorize.

3. Impromptu Speech - It is delivered with little or no time for preparation. In

most instances, you are called to speak in that moment because you are
expected to be knowledgeable about the subject.

Advantages
•Your delivery will be natural, more conversational and spontaneous.
You can pay attention to audience's feedback. It makes you perform poorly
because you are unprepared.
•You may have difficulty thinking of what to say.

Tips in Effective Impromptu Speech Delivery

• Identify your purpose. Is it to inform, to entertain, to welcome, to
congratulate, to apologize, or to give birthday greetings?
• Think of one big word that can serve as your main point. If you think you
have enough, think of the rule of three.
• Start outlining in your head. Focus on what to say first because those first
few words are crucial, so make them strong, powerful and catchy.
• As you stand to deliver, establish eye contact, and begin right away with your
opening statements.
• Use appropriate transitional devices (however, moreover, finally).
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• Observe appropriate and effective nonverbal cues.
• Observe time limit. You barely have five minutes to say something.

4. Extemporaneous Speech - It is a planned and prepared speech. It is

delivered with the help of short notes and a dear outline. Most people who
speak in public often prefer the extemporaneous method of delivery.

Advantages
• Gives you time to prepare; content is well-organized and rehearsed
• Audience will pay better attention because it is engaging.

Disadvantages
•It requires strong oratory skills.
•You have to appear knowledgeable and genuine.

Tips in Preparing for an Effective Extemporaneous Speech

• Reinforce! You may explore other main points, but always refer back to your
thesis.
• Capture! State the central idea of your extemporaneous speech in one specific
declarative sentence.
• Develop! Now that you have a clear central idea, you are ready to map out the
supporting points in an outline.
• Introduce! In the introduction, make sure you: grab the attention of the
audience with a striking one-liner, give a short background to explain why they
have to listen; and state your thesis.
• Check! Develop at least three main points and check each of them if they
have one single idea, reiterate the thesis statement, and prepare the discussion
of the next main point.
• Supply! Make sure that each main point has enough examples, testimonies,
statistics, or cases.