244 Chapter 9

gustatory (taste) portion of brainstem nuclei. Axons of neurons in

A Case in Point
Loss of Taste
T. Burnes boiled a pot of water to make some tea. After pouring
the water over the tea bag in her teacup, she absentmindedly
took a large gulp of hot tea, severely burning her tongue. For the
next several days, sensation in her tongue, including her sense of
touch and sense of taste, was greatly reduced. Heat damage to the
tongue epithelial tissue can cause injury or even death to epithelial
cells, including taste cells in the taste buds. If the epithelial cells
are only damaged, taste sensation returns within a few hours to a
few days. If the cells die, it takes about 2 weeks for the epithelial
cells to be replaced.
Many taste sensations are strongly influenced by olfactory sen-
Nervous
these brainstem nuclei synapse in the thalamus, and axons from
neurons in the thalamus project to the taste area in the insula of
the cerebrum (figure 9.6).
Predict 3
Why doesn’t food taste as good when you have a cold?
9.7 Vision
Learning Outcomes After reading this section, you should be able to
A. List the accessory structures of the eye, and explain
their functions.
B. Name the tunics of the eye, list the parts of each tunic,
and describe the functions of each part.
C. Explain the differences in function between rods and cones.

sations. This influence can be demonstrated by comparing the taste
of some food before and after pinching your nose. It is easy to detect
that the sense of taste is reduced while the nose is pinched.
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
Taste sensations are carried by three cranial nerves. The facial
nerve (VII) transmits taste sensations from the anterior two-
thirds of the tongue, and the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) carries
taste sensations from the posterior one-third. In addition, the
vagus nerve (X) carries some taste sensations from the root of
the tongue. Axons from these three cranial nerves synapse in the
D. Describe the chambers of the eye and the fluids they contain.
E. Explain how images are focused on the retina.
The visual system includes the eyes, the accessory structures, and
sensory neurons. The eyes are housed within bony cavities called
orbits. Action potentials convey visual information from the eyes
to the brain. We obtain much of our information about the world
through the visual system. For example, education is largely based
on visual input and depends on our ability to read words and
numbers. Visual input includes information about light and dark,
movement and color.

Taste area of cortex

Thalamus

Nucleus of
tractus V
solitarius

Chorda tympani
VII
IX

Figure 9.6 Pathways for the Sense

Foramen magnum of Taste
The facial nerve (anterior two-thirds of the
Facial nerve (VII)
tongue), glossopharyngeal nerve (posterior
Trigeminal nerve (V)
one-third of the tongue), and vagus
(lingual branch)
nerve (root of the tongue) all carry taste
Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) sensations. The trigeminal nerve carries
Vagus nerve (X) tactile sensations from the anterior two-
thirds of the tongue. The chorda tympani
from the facial nerve (carrying taste input)
joins the trigeminal nerve.
 Senses 245

Accessory Structures of the Eye
Accessory structures protect, lubricate, and move the eye. They
include the eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus,
and extrinsic eye muscles (figures 9.7 and 9.8).
Eyebrows
The eyebrows protect the eyes by preventing perspiration from
running down the forehead and into the eyes, causing irritation.
They also help shade the eyes from direct sunlight (figure 9.7a).
Eyelids
The eyelids, with their associated lashes, protect the eyes from
foreign objects (figure 9.7a,b). If an object suddenly approaches
the eye, the eyelids protect the eye by closing and then opening
quite rapidly (blink reflex). Blinking, which normally occurs
nasolacrimal duct and associated structures in the inferior medial
corner of the orbit (figure 9.7c). The lacrimal gland produces
tears, which pass over the anterior surface of the eye. Most of the
fluid produced by the lacrimal glands evaporates from the surface
of the eye, but excess tears are collected in the medial angle of the
eyes by small ducts called lacrimal canaliculi (kan-ă-lik′ ū-lı̄; lit-
tle canals). These canaliculi open into a lacrimal sac, an enlarge-
ment of the nasolacrimal (nā-zō-lak′ ri-măl) duct, which opens
into the nasal cavity. Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye. They also
contain an enzyme that helps combat eye infections.
Predict 4
Explain why it is often possible to smell (or “taste”) medications,
such as eyedrops, that have been placed into the eyes.
Extrinsic Eye Muscles

about 20 times per minute, also helps keep the eyes lubricated by
spreading tears over the surface.
Conjunctiva
The conjunctiva (kon-jŭnk-tı̄′ vă) is a thin, transparent mucous
membrane covering the inner surface of the eyelids and the ante-
rior surface of the eye (figure 9.7b). The secretions of the con-
junctiva help lubricate the surface of the eye. Conjunctivitis is an
inflammation of the conjunctiva (see the Diseases and Disorders
table at the end of this chapter).
Lacrimal Apparatus
The lacrimal (lak′ ri-măl; tear) apparatus consists of a lacrimal
gland situated in the superior lateral corner of the orbit and a
Nervous
Movement of each eyeball is accomplished by six skeletal muscles
called the extrinsic eye muscles (figure 9.8). Four of these muscles
run more or less straight from their origins in the posterior portion of
the orbit to their insertion sites on the eye, to attach to the four quad-
rants of the eyeball. They are the superior, inferior, medial, and lat-
eral rectus muscles. Two muscles, the superior and inferior oblique
muscles, are located at an angle to the long axis of the eyeball.
Anatomy of the Eye
The eyeball is a hollow, fluid-filled sphere. The wall of the eye is
composed of three tissue layers, or tunics (figure 9.9). The outer,
fibrous tunic consists of the sclera and cornea. The middle, vascular
tunic consists of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris. The inner nervous
tunic consists of the retina.

Upper
eyelid Eyebrow

Pupil Eyebrow
Orbicularis oculi muscle
Iris Muscle to
Lateral upper eyelid
Medial angle
angle of eye Superior rectus Conjunctiva over eye
of eye Lower muscle
Conjunctiva of eyelid
(a) eyelid Upper
Sebaceous gland eyelid
Connective tissue plate
Lacrimal
gland Cornea
Lacrimal Eyelash
canaliculi Lacrimal
Lacrimal ducts
sac Skin
Loose connective tissue
Inferior rectus Orbicularis oculi muscle Lower
muscle eyelid
Nasolacrimal Connective tissue plate
duct Inferior oblique Conjunctiva of eyelid
muscle

(c) (b)

Figure 9.7 The Eye and Its Accessory Structures

(a) Photo of left eye. (b) Sagittal section through the eye. (c) Lacrimal apparatus.
 246 Chapter 9

CLINICAL IMPACT Corneal Transplants

the cornea was one of the
first organs to be successfully transplanted.
corneal transplants are often performed
when corneal damage due to injury or
infection has severely altered the surface
of the cornea. Several characteristics make
it relatively easy to transplant: it is easily
accessible and relatively easily removed
from the donor and grafted to the recipi-
ent; it does not have blood vessels and
therefore does not require the growth of
extensive circulation into the tissue after
grafting; and it is less likely to stimulate
the immune system and therefore less
likely to be rejected than are other tissues.

View
Fibrous Tunic
Superior
The sclera (sklēr′ ă; hard) is the firm, white, outer connective tis-
Muscle to Superior Superior sue layer of the posterior five-sixths of the fibrous tunic. The sclera
Nervous

upper eyelid rectus oblique helps maintain the shape of the eye, protects the internal structures,
(cut)
and provides attachment sites for the extrinsic eye muscles. A small
portion of the sclera can be seen as the “white of the eye.”
The cornea (kōr′nē-ă) is the transparent anterior sixth of the eye,
which permits light to enter. As part of the focusing system of the
fibrous tunic, the cornea also bends, or refracts, the entering light.

Vascular Tunic
Optic nerve
The middle tunic of the eye is called the vascular tunic because
Inferior rectus it contains most of the blood vessels of the eye. The posterior por-
Lateral rectus tion of the vascular tunic, associated with the sclera, is the choroid
Inferior oblique (kō′royd). This very thin structure consists of a vascular network and
many melanin-containing pigment cells, causing it to appear black.
Inferior
The black color absorbs light, so that it is not reflected inside the eye.
If light were reflected inside the eye, the reflection would interfere
Figure 9.8 Extrinsic Eye Muscles with vision. The interiors of cameras are black for the same reason.
Extrinsic muscles of the right eye as seen from a lateral view with the Anteriorly, the vascular tunic consists of the ciliary body
lateral wall of the orbit removed. the medial rectus muscle cannot be and the iris. The ciliary (sil′ ē-ar-ē) body is continuous with the
seen from this view. anterior margin of the choroid. The ciliary body contains smooth

Vitreous chamber Sclera

Fibrous tunic
(filled with Cornea
vitreous humor)

Vitreous Suspensory ligaments

humor Both filled
Anterior chamber with aqueous
Posterior chamber humor
Optic nerve
Pupil
Lens

Retina
(nervous tunic)
Iris
Ciliary body Vascular tunic
Choroid

Figure 9.9 Sagittal Section of the Eye, Demonstrating Its Tunics


muscles called ciliary muscles, which attach to the perimeter of
the lens by suspensory ligaments (figure 9.10). The lens is a flex-
ible, biconvex, transparent disc (see figure 9.9).
The iris is the colored part of the eye. It is attached to the
anterior margin of the ciliary body, anterior to the lens. The iris is a
contractile structure consisting mainly of smooth muscle surround-
ing an opening called the pupil. Light passes through the pupil,
and the iris regulates the diameter of the pupil, which controls the
amount of light entering the eye. Parasympathetic stimulation from
the oculomotor nerve (III) causes the circular smooth muscles of the
iris to contract, constricting the pupil, whereas sympathetic stimula-
tion causes radial smooth muscles of the iris to contract, dilating the
pupil (figure 9.11). As light intensity increases, the pupil constricts;
as light intensity decreases, the pupil dilates.
Nervous Tunic
The nervous tunic is the innermost tunic and consists of the
retina. The retina covers the posterior five-sixths of the eye and is
composed of two layers: an outer pigmented retina and an inner
Ciliary muscles
of the ciliary body
Lens
Suspensory
ligaments
Figure 9.10 Lens and Ciliary Body
Circular Radial
smooth smooth
muscles muscles
(a) (b)
Figure 9.11 Iris
(a) Circular smooth muscles of the iris constrict the pupil. (b) Radial smooth
muscles of the iris dilate the pupil.
Senses 247
sensory retina (figure 9.12a). The pigmented retina, with the
choroid, keeps light from reflecting back into the eye. The sen-
sory retina contains photoreceptor cells, called rods and cones,
which respond to light. The sensory retina also contains numerous
interneurons, some of which are named in figure 9.12. Over most
of the retina, rods are 20 times more common than cones. Rods
are very sensitive to light and can function in dim light, but they
do not provide color vision. Cones require much more light, and
they do provide color vision. There are three types of cones, each
sensitive to a different color: blue, green, or red.
Predict 5
In dim light, colors seem to fade and objects appear in shades of
gray. Explain this phenomenon.
The outer segments of rod and cone cells are modified by numer-
Nervous
ous foldings of the cell membrane to form discs (figure 9.12c–e).
Rod cells contain a photosensitive pigment called rhodopsin (rō-
dop′sin; purple pigment). Rhodopsin consists of a protein opsin
(op′sin) loosely bound to a yellow pigment called retinal (ret′i-năl)
(figure 9.12f, figure 9.13, step 1). When exposed to light, retinal
changes shape, which then changes the activity of the entire rhodop-
sin molecule. This change in rhodopsin stimulates a response in the
rod cell, resulting in vision (figure 9.13, steps 2 and 3). Retinal then
completely detaches from opsin. Energy (ATP) is required to reat-
tach retinal to opsin and return rhodopsin to the form it had before
it was stimulated by light (figure 9.13, steps 4–6).
The manufacture of retinal in rod cells takes time and
requires vitamin A. In bright light, much of the rhodopsin in rod
cells is dissociated (opsin and retinal are separated). For example,
suppose you go into a dark building on a bright day. It will take
several seconds for your eyes to adjust to the dark as opsin and
retinal reassociate to form rhodopsin in the rod cells, which can
then react to the dim light. A person with a vitamin A deficiency
may have a condition called night blindness, characterized by
difficulty seeing in dim light. Night blindness can also result from
retinal detachment, which is the separation of the sensory retina
from the pigmented retina. Retinal detachment affects the periph-
ery of the retina, where the rods are located, more than the center
of the retina, where the cones are located. Because the rods are
more sensitive than the cones to light, retinal detachment affects
vision in low light to a greater extent than vision in bright light.
The photosensitive pigments in cone cells are slightly different
from those in rod cells. The pigments in cone cells are sensitive to
colors. Each color results from stimulation by a certain wavelength of
light. Three major types of color-sensitive opsin exist; they are sensi-
tive to blue, red, or green. The many colors that we can see result from
the stimulation of combinations of these three types of cones.
The rod and cone cells synapse with bipolar cells of the sen-
sory retina (see figure 9.12). These and the horizontal cells of the
retina modify the output of the rod and cone cells. For example,
this modification helps us perceive the borders between objects of
contrasting brightness. The bipolar and horizontal cells synapse
with ganglion cells, whose axons converge at the posterior of the
eye to form the optic nerve (II; see figures 9.9 and 9.12a).
When the posterior region of the retina is examined with an
ophthalmoscope (of-thal′mō-skōp), two major features can be
observed: the macula and the optic disc (figure 9.14a). The macula
 248 Chapter 9

Choroid
Pigmented Pigment
retina cell

Direction
of action
potential
Photoreceptor propagation
Cone cell
layer
l
Rod cell

Horizontal
r
cell
Sensory
Bipolar
retina
cell

Interneurons
Nervous

Ganglion Direction
cell of light
Nerve fibers
to optic nerve
(a)

Optic nerve

Disc
Disc Outer membrane
Outer
segment Folding of outer
membrane to
form discs
Rod

Inner Disc
Cone
segment
(e)

(b)
Nuclei
Outside Opsin
Rhodopsin
of disc Retinal
membrane

Disc
Axons membrane
Synaptic
Figure 9.12 Retina ending
(a) Enlarged section through the Rod Inside
retina, with its major layers labeled. (c) of disc
(b) Colorized electron micrograph of membrane
rods and cones. (c) Rod cell. (d) Cone (d) Cone
(f)
cell. (e) Enlargement of the discs in the
outer segment. (f ) Enlargement of one
of the discs, showing the relationship
of rhodopsin to the membrane.

Rhodopsin
1 Rhodopsin is composed of
opsin and retinal.
6
2 Light causes retinal to
change shape, which
activates rhodopsin.
3 Activated rhodopsin
stimulates cell changes that
result in vision.
4 Following rhodopsin
activation, retinal detaches
from opsin. Retinal
5 Energy from ATP is required to
bring retinal back to its original
form.
6 Retinal recombines with opsin
to form rhodopsin (return to
step 1).
PROCESS Figure 9.13 Effect of Light on Rhodopsin
(mak′ ū-lā) is a small spot near the center of the posterior retina.
In the center of the macula is a small pit, the fovea (fō′vē-ă; pit)
centralis. The fovea centralis is the part of the retina where light
is most focused when the eye is looking directly at an object. The
fovea centralis contains only cone cells, and the cells are more tight-
ly packed there than anywhere else in the retina. Hence, the fovea
centralis is the region with the greatest ability to discriminate fine
images, which explains why objects are best seen straight ahead.
The optic disc is a white spot just medial to the macula,
through which a number of blood vessels enter the eye and spread
over the surface of the retina. This is also the spot at which axons
from the retina meet, pass through the two outer tunics, and exit
the eye as the optic nerve. The optic disc contains no photoreceptor
cells and does not respond to light; it is therefore called the blind
spot of the eye. A small image projected onto the blind spot cannot
be seen (figure 9.14b).
Chambers of the Eye
The interior of the eye is divided into the anterior chamber, the
posterior chamber, and the vitreous (vit′rē-ŭs; glassy) chamber
(see figure 9.9). The anterior and posterior chambers are located
between the cornea and the lens. The iris separates the anterior
and the posterior chambers, which are continuous with each other
through the pupil. The much larger vitreous chamber is posterior to
the lens.
The anterior and posterior chambers are filled with aqueous
humor (watery fluid), which helps maintain pressure within the
Senses 249
1
Opsin Light
Retinal
2
Nervous
3
5 Cell changes
that result
in vision
Energy (ATP)
Retinal
4
eye, refracts light, and provides nutrients to the inner surface of
the eye. Aqueous humor is produced by the ciliary body as a blood
filtrate and is returned to the circulation through a venous ring that
surrounds the cornea. The presence of aqueous humor keeps the
eye inflated, much like the air in a basketball. If flow of the aqueous
humor from the eye through the venous ring is blocked, the pres-
sure in the eye increases, resulting in a condition called glaucoma
(see the Diseases and Disorders table at the end of this chapter).
Glaucoma can eventually lead to blindness because the fluid com-
presses the retina, thereby restricting blood flow through it.
The vitreous chamber of the eye is filled with a transparent,
jellylike substance called vitreous humor. The vitreous humor
helps maintain pressure within the eye and holds the lens and the
retina in place. It also refracts light. Unlike the aqueous humor,
the vitreous humor does not circulate.
Functions of the Eye
The eye functions much like a camera. The iris allows light into
the eye, which is focused by the cornea, lens, and humors onto the
retina. The light striking the retina produces action potentials that
are relayed to the brain.
Light Refraction
An important characteristic of light is that it can be refracted
(bent). As light passes from air to some other, denser transparent
substance, the light rays are refracted. If the surface of a lens is
concave, the light rays are bent, so that they diverge as they pass
 250 Chapter 9

through the lens; if the surface is convex, they converge. As the

light rays converge, they finally reach a point at which they cross.
The crossing point is called the focal point (FP) (figure 9.15),
and causing light to converge is called focusing. The focal point
in the eye occurs just anterior to the retina, and the tiny image that
Medial Lateral is focused on the retina is inverted compared to the actual object.
Optic Macula
disc Focusing Images on the Retina
Retinal Fovea centralis
vessels The cornea is a convex structure, and as light rays pass from the
air through the cornea, they converge (figure 9.15). Additional
convergence occurs as light passes through the aqueous humor,
lens, and vitreous humor. The greatest contrast in media density
is between the air and the cornea. The greatest amount of conver-
gence therefore occurs at that point. However, the shape of the
(a) cornea and its distance from the retina are fixed, so the cornea
cannot make any adjustment in focus. Fine adjustments in focus
Nervous

are accomplished by changing the shape of the lens.

(b)
Figure 9.14 Ophthalmoscopic View of the Retina
(a) this view shows the posterior wall of the left eye as seen through
the pupil. Notice the vessels entering the eye through the optic disc. the
macula, with the fovea centralis in the center, is located lateral to the
optic disc. (b) Demonstration of the blind spot. close your right eye. Hold
the drawing in front of your left eye and stare at the +. Move the drawing
toward your eye. At a certain point, when the image of the spot is over the
optic disc, the red spot seems to disappear.
When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the suspensory liga-
ments of the ciliary body maintain elastic pressure on the perimeter
of the lens, keeping it relatively flat and allowing for distant vision
(figure 9.15a). When an object is brought closer than 20 feet (about
6½ m) from the eye, the ciliary muscles contract as a result of
parasympathetic stimulation, pulling the ciliary body toward the
lens. This reduces the tension on the suspensory ligaments of the
lens and allows the lens to assume a more spherical form because
of its own internal elastic nature (figure 9.15b). The spherical
lens then has a more convex surface, causing greater refraction of
light. This process is called accommodation (ă-kom′ ō-dā′ shŭn),
and it enables the eye to focus on images closer than 20 feet
from the eye.
Predict 6
As you are driving a car, what changes occur when you look down
at the speedometer and then back up at the road?

Near vision
Distant vision
Ciliary muscles in the
Ciliary muscles in the ciliary body contract, moving
ciliary body are relaxed. ciliary body toward lens.

Tension in suspensory Tension in suspensory

ligaments is high. ligaments is low.

A
A
FP FP

Lens flattened
Lens thickened

(a) (b)

Figure 9.15 Focus by the Eye

the focal point (fP) is where light rays cross. (a) When viewing a distant image, the lens is flattened, and the image is focused on
the retina. (b) in accommodation for near vision, the lens becomes more rounded, allowing the image to be focused on the retina.
 Senses 251

CLINICAL IMPACT Color Blindness

Color blindness is the

absence of perception of one or more
colors (figure 9A). color perception may
be decreased or completely lost. the loss
may involve perception of all three colors
or of one or two colors. Most forms of
color blindness occur more frequently in
males and are X-linked genetic traits (see
chapter 20). in Western Europe, about
8% of all males have some form of color
blindness, whereas only about 1% of the (a) (b)
females are color blind.
Figure 9A

Nervous
these color blindness charts demonstrate the differences in color perception associated with some
forms of color blindness. (a) A person with normal vision can see the number 74, whereas a person
with red-green color blindness sees the number 21. (b) A person with normal vision can see the
number 5. A person with red-green color blindness sees the number 2.
Reproduced from Ishihara’s Tests for Colour Deficiency published by Kanehara trading, inc., tokyo, Japan. tests for
color deficiency cannot be conducted with this material. for accurate testing, the original plates should be used.

When a person’s vision is tested, a chart is placed 20 feet
from the eye, and the person is asked to read a line of letters that
has been standardized for normal vision. If the person can read the
line, he or she has 20/20 vision, which means that the person can
see at 20 feet what people with normal vision see at 20 feet. On
the other hand, if the person can only read at 20 feet the line that
people with normal vision see at 40 feet, the person’s eyesight is
20/40, and corrective lenses are probably needed.
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
Figure 9.16 shows the neuronal pathways that transmit signals
generated by light from the time light enters the eye until it
reaches the area of the brain where vision is perceived. The optic
nerve leaves the eye and exits the orbit through the optic foramen
to enter the cranial cavity. Just inside the cranial cavity, the two
optic nerves connect to each other at the optic chiasm (k ı̄′ azm;
crossing). Axons from the nasal (medial) part of each retina cross
through the optic chiasm and project to the opposite side of the
brain. Axons from the temporal (lateral) part of each retina pass
through the optic nerves and project to the brain on the same side
of the body without crossing.
Beyond the optic chiasm, the route of the ganglionic axons
is through the two optic tracts (figure 9.16). Most of the optic
tract axons terminate in the thalamus. Some axons do not termi-
nate in the thalamus but separate from the optic tracts to termi-
nate in the superior colliculi, the center for visual reflexes. An
example of a visual reflex is turning the head and eyes toward
a stimulus, such as a sudden noise or flash of light. Neurons
from the thalamus form the fibers of the optic radiations, which
project to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum
(figure 9.16). The visual cortex is the area of the cerebrum where
vision is perceived.
The image seen by each eye is the visual field of that eye
(figure 9.16a). Depth perception (three-dimensional, or binocular,
vision) requires both eyes and occurs where the two visual fields
overlap (figure 9.16c). Each eye sees a slightly different (mon-
ocular) view of the same object. The brain then processes the
two images into a three-dimensional view of the object. If only
one eye is functioning, the view of the object is flat, much like
viewing a photograph.
A cASE iN POiNt
Double Vision
i.c. Double awoke one morning and discovered that her vision was
blurred. However, when she closed one eye, her vision was clear.
She tried to ignore the problem and went about her work, but
the condition persisted. Eventually, she consulted an optometrist,
who found that her blurred vision resulted from double vision, or
diplopia. the most common cause of diplopia is misalignment of
the two eyes (binocular diplopia). this often results from weakness
of the muscles moving the eyes. Most adults cannot easily ignore
the double image and may need to wear a patch over one eye
to eliminate one image. in children with diplopia, the brain
may compensate for the two discordant images by ignoring one
of the images; thus, the problem appears to go away. Double
vision should not be ignored because it can be a symptom of a
serious neurological problem, such as an expanding brain tumor
compressing the nerves to the eye muscles, and decreasing their
function. A physician should be consulted as soon as possible.
 252 Chapter 9

Nasal parts of
visual fields

1 Each visual field is divided into temporal Temporal 1 Temporal

and nasal halves. part of left part of right
visual field visual field
2 After passing through the lens, light from
each half of a visual field projects to the Lens
opposite side of the retina stimulating
receptors. Left eye 2

Temporal
3 Axons from the retina pass through the
retina (lateral
optic nerve to the optic chiasma, where Nasal retina
part) 3
some cross. Axons from the nasal retina
(medial part)
cross, and those from the temporal retina
Optic nerves 4
do not. Superior
Optic chiasm colliculi
4 Optic tracts extend from the optic chiasm
(with or without crossing) to the thalamus. Optic tracts
Nervous

Collateral branches of the axons in the

optic tract synapse in the superior colliculi
of the midbrain. Thalamus

5 Optic radiations extend from the thalamus Optic 5

to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe.
radiations
6 The right part of each visual field (dark
green and light blue) projects to the left Visual
side of the brain, and the left part of cortex 6
each visual field (light green and dark in each
blue) projects to the right side of the Occipital lobe
brain. hemisphere

(a)

Optic nerve Left monocular Binocular Right monocular

vision vision vision
Optic chiasm
Optic tract

Thalamus

Optic radiation

Visual cortex

(b) (c)

PROCESS Figure 9.16 Visual Pathways

(a) Pathways for both eyes (superior view). (b) Photograph of transverse section of the brain showing the visual nerves, tracts, and pathways (inferior view).
(c) Overlap of the fields of vision (superior view).