Lecture 3: Unique Factorization Domains and

Principal Ideal Domains

Ideal Structure in F [x]

In this section, we lay down the basic tools needed to achieve our goal of constructing a field
E with F ≤ E that will contain a zero of a polynomial f (x) over F . In particular, we study
the structure of ideals in F [x] and characterize maximal ideals in F [x]. The importance of
irreducible polynomials will also become clear here.

Definition (Principal Ideal Generated by an Element). Let R be a commutative ring with

unity. If a ∈ R, the principal ideal generated by a, denoted by hai, is defined by hai =
{ar : r ∈ R}.

Examples.

1. Let n ∈ Z. Then hni = {nk : k ∈ Z} = nZ. Note that if Z is considered as a group, nZ is

the cyclic subgroup of Z generated by n.

2. Let f (x) ∈ F [x]. Then hf (x)i = {f (x)g(x) : g(x) ∈ F [x]} which is the set of all
polynomials over F having f (x) as a factor. For instance, if c is a nonzero constant in F ,
then hci = {cg(x) : g(x) ∈ F [x]} = F [x]. The principal ideal hxi of F [x] is the collection of
all polynomials over F with a zero constant term.

Definition (Principal Ideal). Let I be an ideal of a commutative ring R with unity. We say
that I is a principal ideal of R if there is an element a ∈ R such that I = hai.

Theorem. Every ideal in F [x] is a principal ideal.

Theorem. An ideal hp(x)i =

6 {0} of F [x] is maximal iff p(x) is irreducible over F .

We learned in Math 110.1 that whenever M is a maximal ideal of a commutative ring R

with unity, then R/M is a field. Hence, a maximal ideal in R can be used to construct a field.
In particular, if F is a field, then we can form the field F [x]/ hp(x)i where p(x) is irreducible
over F . Such a field will contain a zero of the irreducible polynomial p(x). These things are
going to be clarified after the first exam.

Unique Factorization Domains and Principal Ideal Do-

mains
In this lecture, we will define two special kinds of domains. We also generalize some results
concerning F [x] for other integral domains. The section ends with a very important theorem.

Definition (Factor). If D is an integral domain and a, b ∈ D, then b divides a and we write

b|a iff there exists c ∈ D such that a = bc. We also call b a factor of a.

Definition (Associates). Two nonzero elements a and b in D are called associates iff a = ub
for some unit u in D.

1
Remark. If a, b ∈ D, then hai ⊆ hbi ⇐⇒ b|a. Moreover, hai = hbi ⇐⇒ a and b are
associates.
Examples.
1. In Q, R, or C, any pair of nonzero elements are associates. This is because every nonzero
element in any
of the aforementioned sets is a unit. For instance, 7 and 25 are associates
since 7 = 35
2
2
5
.
2. The units in Z[x] are ±1. Hence, the asssociates of the polynomial x − 1 are x − 1 and
−(x − 1) = −x + 1. Since 2 is not a unit in Z[x], then x − 1 and 2x − 2 are not associates.
However, 2 is a unit in Q[x] so the polynomials x − 1 and 2x − 2 are associates.
Definition (Irreducible Element). A nonzero element p of an integral domain D that is not a
unit is called an irreducible if in any factorization p = ab, then either a or b is a unit.
Example. In Z, the irreducible elements are the prime numbers and their negatives. In F [x],
the irreducibles are precisely the irreducible polynomials over F .
Definition (Unique Factorization Domain (UFD)). An integral domain D is called a unique
factorization domain (UFD) if the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) every nonzero nonunit in D can be factored into a product of a finite number of irre-
ducibles; and
(ii) if p1 p2 · · · pr and q1 q2 · · · qs are two factorizations of the same element of D into irreducibles,
then r = s and the qj0 s can be rearranged so that pi and qi are associates for all i.
Example. Z and F [x] are unique factorization domains. In Z, for example, 20 = 2 · 2 · 5 =
−5 · 2 · −2. We can rearrange the factors on the right and see that the corresponding p0i s and qi0 s
are associates. In C[x], as seen from a previous example, x2 +1 = (x+i)(x−i) = (ix−1)(−ix−1).
Observe that x + i and ix − 1 are associates as well as the pair x − i and −ix − 1 (because ±i
are units in C[x]).
Definition (Principal Ideal Domain). An integral domain D is called a principal ideal domain
(PID) iff every ideal in D is a principal ideal.
Example. Z and F [x] are principal ideal domains.
Exercise. Show that Z[x] is not a principal ideal domain.
Lemma (Ascending Chain Condition for a PID). Let D be a PID. If N1 ⊆ N2 ⊆ . . . is a
monotonic (or strictly monotonic) ascending chain of ideals, then there exists a positive integer
r such that Nr = Ns for all s ≥ r.
Theorem. Let D be a PID. Every element a ∈ D that is neither 0 nor a unit is a product of
irreducibles.
Lemma. Let D be a PID. If p ∈ D, then hpi is maximal ⇐⇒ p is irreducible.
Lemma. If p is an irreducible in a PID, then either p|a or p|b whenever p|ab. In general, if p
is irreducible and p|a1 a2 · · · an , then p|ai for at least one i.
Definition (Prime). A nonzero nonunit p in an integral domain D with the property that
p|ab ⇒ p|a or p|b is called a prime.
Remark. In an integral domain, a prime is irreducible but an irreducible is not necessarily a
prime.
Theorem. Every PID is a UFD.