Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Geochronology and magmatic evolution of the Dieng Volcanic Complex,

Central Java, Indonesia and their relationships to geothermal resources
Agung Harijoko a,⁎, Ryusuke Uruma b, Haryo Edi Wibowo a, Lucas Doni Setijadji a, Akira Imai c,
Kotaro Yonezu b, Koichiro Watanabe b
a
Department of Geological Engineering, GadjahMada University, Jl. Grafika No. 2, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
b
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
c
Department of Earth Science and Technology, Akita University, Akita, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We analyzed new radiometric dating and petrological data of DVC in an attempt to reconstruct volcanic history as
Received 21 January 2015 groundwork to understand magmatic temporal and spatial evolution. The magma of DVC can be divided on the
Accepted 17 December 2015 basis of mineral composition into three types: olivine bearing basalt–basaltic andesite, pyroxene basaltic
Available online 24 December 2015
andesite–andesite, and biotite andesite–dacite, which coincide with three volcanic episodes of DVC: pre-caldera,
second, and youngest episode, respectively. The pre-caldera episode was active no later than 1 Ma, the second ep-
isode occurred between 0.3 and 0.4 Ma, and the youngest occurred after 0.27 Ma. Plots of CaO, K2O, Al2O3, and
Rb/Sr against FeO*/MgO and/or MgO suggest that each volcanic episode has distinct differentiation trends, indicating
the presence of multiple shallow magma chambers. The close spatial relationship between the geothermal manifes-
tation, geophysical anomalies, geothermal production zones and volcanic edifices supports the presence of multiple
shallow magma chambers beneath DVC, which act as a heat source for the existing geothermal system.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Dieng geothermal field is a high temperature, liquid-dominated
geothermal system located in the Central Java Province, Indonesia
(Fig. 1). This field is situated in the volcanic highland of Dieng Plateau
(2000 masl) and consists of several volcanic edifices, known as the
Dieng Volcanic Complex (DVC).
The occurrence of high temperature geothermal systems in a volca-
nic complex is influenced by the age and composition of the volcano
that serves as the heat source (Wohlez and Heiken, 1992; Muffler and
Duffield, 1995). To develop a geothermal field in a volcanic complex,
considerable information must be discerned regarding the magma
chamber that is the potential heat source of the geothermal system.
The DVC consists of many volcanic edifices from several episodes,
which enable the study of magmatic evolution beneath the volcanic
complex for inferring the shallow magma chamber.
This paper reports new K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of volcanic rocks
collected from volcanoes within and surrounding the DVC to confirm
their volcanic succession. The combination of the previously reported
ages and the new ages will constrain the timing of the magma evolution,
which is in turn characterized and described on the basis of mineral and
⁎ Corresponding author at: Gadjah Mada University Geological Engineering Jalan
Grafika No. 2 Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta 55281 Indonesia. Tel.:+ 62 274 513668; fax +62
274 546039
E-mail address: aharijoko@ugm.ac.id (A. Harijoko).
geochemical data from petrographic, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and ICP-
MS analyses. We construct the geological model of the shallow magma
chamber in a DVC based on those data.
The role of the magma chamber in geothermal system formation is
later revealed by assessing the spatial relationship between the volcanic
vents and the production zone, subsurface isotherm line, and geophys-
ical anomaly published by Boedihardi et al. (1991) and Layman et al.
(2002). The assessment assumed that the magma chambers are located
vertically beneath the volcanic vents.
2. Geological framework
The DVC is a Quaternary volcanic complex situated in central Java,
which is part of the Quaternary Sunda volcanic arc. However, within
the physiography of Java, Van Bemmelen (1949) included the DVC in
the North Serayu Mountain, which is composed of Eocene to Pleistocene
sedimentary rocks, whereas volcanic rocks occur as part of the Middle
Pliocene Jembangan Formation. The latter is overlain by the volcanic de-
posits of the DVC (Condon et al., 1976).
The Quaternary volcanic arc was formed as a result of the orthogonal
subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Eurasia plate and has
been active since the Early Cenozoic (Hamilton, 1979). This orthogonal
subduction governs the formation of geological structures in Java. The
major structures are characterized by E–W directions parallel to the strike
of subduction, forming the E–W trending thrust faults of Kendeng–
Barabis (Fig. 2). In this compressional stress regime, major strike slip

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.12.010
0377-0273/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
210 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

Fig. 1. Schematic map showing DVC location as part of two NW–SE trending volcanic chains: Dieng, Sundoro, Sumbing in the west; Ungaran, Telomoyo, Merbabu, Merapi in the east.

faults of NE–SW and NW–SE trends developed (Simandjuntak and
Barber, 1996). The NW-trending strike slip fault is interpreted as a con-
trolling factor in the distribution of volcanoes, especially in Central Java.
The volcanoes in Central Java are distributed along a NW trend
(i.e., Sumbing–Sindoro–DVC and Merapi–Merbabu–Telomoyo–Ungaran
lines) (Fig. 1). The DVC is situated in the northwestern end of the NW-
trending Quaternary volcanic chain of the Sumbing–Sindoro–DVC. The
extension of the fault surrounding the DVC is manifested by the
occurrence of gold-bearing quartz veins in the Petung Kriyono area,
which is located approximately 15 km northwest of the DVC
(Suryandari, 2007). The DVC is characterized by the occurrence of the ar-
cuate structure of Prau, which was previously interpreted as a caldera
structure (e.g., Sukhyar et al., 1986; Bogie et al., 2010) (Fig. 3). The arcuate
structure, inferred as the caldera wall, remains only at the northern part.
However, if the DVC is considered to be situated above the intersection of
the faults, it could be alternatively interpreted to have formed due to the
volcano–tectonic collapse induced by the eruption and not purely formed
by a caldera-forming eruption.
Sukhyar et al. (1986) divided volcanic activities in the DVC into three
episodes based on field observation: pre-caldera, second, and youngest
episodes (Fig. 4). The pre-caldera episode is represented by several stra-
tovolcanoes, which are also the boundary of the DVC; in a clockwise di-
rection starting from the north east, they are Prau, Telerejo, Sidede,
Bisma, Nagasari, and Jimat. All of them comprise pyroclastic rocks de-
posit and lava flow. Subsidence on the SW flank of the Prau stratovolca-
no (2565 masl) results in an arcuate structure and is responsible for the
plateau formation. Telerejo and Bisma both have craters open toward
the south. The Rogojembangan and Kendang stratovolcanoes, situated
further west of Nagasari, emerged prior to this episode. During the sec-
ond episode, four stratocones emerged, covering the depression with
their volcanic products. Pangonan and Merdada, two neighboring
stratocones east of Nagasari, both have craters, with diameters of ap-
proximately 0.8 and 1 km, respectively. Pagerkandang is a stratocone
with a ~ 0.5 km crater on top of it located north of Merdada. Seroja,
with a crater size of ~ 0.7 km, is located in the southeastern verge of
the DVC. These stratocones mostly comprise pyroclastic fall deposits

Fig. 2. Map of regional geological structures and volcanic distribution on Java Island. NW–SE volcanic chain in Central Java section coincides with trend of geological structure of Java, which
is dominated by NW–SE, SW–NE, and E–W. The geological structures map is adopted from Simandjuntak and Barber (1996). DVC: Dieng Volcanic Complex, Sdr: Sindoro, Sbg: Sumbing,
Ung: Ungaran, Tlm: Telomoyo, Mrb: Merbabu, Mrp: Merapi.
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 211

Fig. 3. The DEM image shows the distribution of volcanoes within and surrounding the DVC. Black labels represent volcanic edifices inside the caldera, gray labels represent those within
the caldera boundary, and white labels represent those outside the DVC. Lava samples were collected both from the volcanoes within the DVC and from Kendang and Rogojembangan.

Fig. 4. Geological map of DVC, modified from Sukhyar et al. (1986). Modification is mainly to the stratigraphic order based on the radiometric age data of Boedihardi et al. (1991) and the
new K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar dating result of this study.
212 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

Fig. 5. Overlay map of geothermal manifestation, MT anomaly, isotherm line at sea level elevation and distribution of volcanoes in the DVC. There is a close spatial relationship between the
fumarolic area, high conductivity zone and production zone of the Dieng Geothermal Field. The production zone is situated beneath the G. Pangonan–Merdada and G. Pagerkandang. (G is
an abbreviation of Gunung (in Bahasa Indonesia), which means volcano). Conductivity map, isotherm line and productivity zone are from Layman et al. (2002).

and lava. Activities of the second stage edifices are believed to be the located SW of Prau, as part of the second stage groups. Volcanic products
main source of Dieng tephra, which blanket the Dieng and Batur depres- of the youngest episode cover the SE area of the DVC. Pakuwaja, with
sions (Sukhyar et al., 1986). We propose adding the Bucu stratocone, summit craters of 0.2 km and 0.5 km, comprises lava flow and

Table 1
List of samples used for radiometric age measurement

Volcanic edifices Sample number Composition Analyzed materials

SiO2 K2O LOI Phenocrysts

Rogojembangan RGJ-01 64.72 1.80 0.12 ol, opx, cpx, plg, hb, Fe-Ti ox Plagioclase
Prau PRH-14 54.52 1.63 1.33 ol, cpx, opx, plg, Fe-Ti ox Plagioclase
Telerejo TLR-03 61.44 1.91 0.51 cpx, opx, plg, Fe-Ti ox Groundmass
Kendang KDG-12 57.52 1.84 1.15 opx, cpx, plg, Fe-Ti ox Groundmass
Kendil KDL-03 61.42 2.74 0.31 bi, plg, cpx, opx, hb, Fe-Ti ox Biotite
Pakuwaja PKW-01 62.38 3.08 0.75 plg, bi, cpx, opx, Fe-Ti ox Biotite
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 213

Table 2 at a depth of 1 km: the Sileri, Sikidang and Pakuwaja sectors. These
K–Ar dating result for lava of Rogojembangan, Prahu, Telerejo, and Kendang volcanoes three potential sectors are associated with the Pagerkandang, Pangonan
Volcano Sample %K 40
Arrad, nl/g % 40Arair Age, Ma and Pakuwaja volcanoes. The potential sectors are separated from each
Rogojembangan RGJ-01 0.42 0.069 95.3
other by high resistivity zones identified by the MT survey. However,
0.44 0.091 93.5 the boundary between the Sileri and Sikidang sectors is not so obvious
0.43 0.080 4.9 ± 1.2 (Boedihardi et al., 1991). The Sileri and Sikidang sectors are recognized
Prahu PRH-14 0.19 0.007 97.5 as the productive zones based on geothermal production drilling. The
0.17 100.0
isotherm map at sea level elevation indicates that the Sileri and Sikidang
0.18 0.007 1.1 ± 0.9
Telerejo TLR-03 1.85 0.011 93.5 potential sectors are continuous and extend southeasterly beneath the
1.96 0.008 95.6 Pagerkandang and Pangonan volcanoes (Fig. 5). The reservoir tempera-
1.9 0.010 0.13 ± 0.03 ture is high, ranging from 300 °C to 335 °C and is intersected by the geo-
Kendang KDG-12 1.99 0.079 89.3 thermal well at the Sileri block at a depth between approximately 2000
1.93 0.082 87.3
1.96 0.081 1.08 ± 0.04
and 2300 m. The temperature of the reservoir at the Sikidang block is
lower than that of Sileri. The temperature ranges from approximately
240° to 300 °C at a depth ranging from 1400 to 1500 m. The potential
pyroclastic fall deposits. The Sikunir and Prambanan domes are situated of the Pakuwaja sector has been tested by using two drill holes, but
between Seroja and Pakuwaja. The Kendil dome, which is associated until now, it has not been demonstrated to be a production zone. The
with widespread lava flow, is located north of Pakuwaja. To confirm temperature measurement in the Pakuwaja sector indicates high tem-
the stratigraphic sequence of these volcanic rocks, data from radiomet- peratures of approximately 320 °C (Boedihardi et al., 1991).
ric age dating is necessary.
Boedihardi et al. (1991) reported radiometric ages of some volcanic
edifices using the K–Ar method. Prau was recognized as the oldest vol- 4. Sample selection and analysis method
cano at 3.6 Ma, followed by Nagasari (2.99 Ma), Bisma (2.53 Ma),
Pangonan–Merdada (0.37 Ma), Kendil (0.19), Pakuwaja (0.13), and We collected samples of lava erupted from each volcanic edifice of
Seroja (0.07 Ma). However, some of the radiometric age data disagree the DVC. Sample preparations were conducted at Kyushu University.
with the volcanic sequence of Sukhyar et al. (1986), e.g., Seroja Thin sections of representative samples were prepared for microscopic
(0.07 Ma) was denoted as an older edifice than Pakuwaja (0.13 Ma). studies. Whole rock compositions were determined by X-ray fluores-
Thus, in this study, we compiled the result of new radiometric dating cence using Rigaku RIX 3200. To monitor the accuracy and precision of
data with that from Boedihardi et al. (1991) to reconstruct the geochro- analysis, the machine was calibrated using the rock standard JA-3 pro-
nology of the DVC. vided by the Geological Survey of Japan. Major and trace elements
Recent activities of the DVC are characterized by phreatic explosive were determined for 72 samples, in which 17 of them were analyzed
events (VEI b 3). Some recorded activities, since the 18th centuries, oc- for trace elements and REE in a commercial laboratory of Chemex,
curred in geothermal areas such as: Sileri (6–7 eruptions), Pakuwaja Canada. Radiometric age dating measurements were carried out based
(3), Sikidang (2), and Candradimuka (1) (www.vsi.esdm.go.id). Allard on the K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar dating methods. Conditions of the samples
et al. (1989) suggested that this type of eruption is a result of self- used for age measurements are presented in Table 1. The K–Ar dating
sealing processes in active fumaroles/solfataras. was carried out at Institute of Nuclear Research, Hungarian Academy
of Science, Hungary. It was conducted on four samples of the
3. Geothermal system in the DVC volcanic rocks, collected from Prau (PRH-14), Kendang (KDG-12),
Rogojembangan (RGJ-01), and Telerejo (TLR-01). For the experimental
The geothermal system in the DVC was previously reported by technique for the K–Ar dating method, refer to Balogh et al. (1999).
Boedihardi et al. (1991) and Layman et al. (2002) and is summarized in The 40Ar/39Ar dating method was conducted on samples collected from
this section. The total geothermal energy potential of Dieng from three Kendil (KDL-03) and Pakuwaja (PKW-01) (Fig. 3). The 40Ar/39Ar incre-
potential sectors (Sileri, Sikidang and Pakuwaja) is inferred to be approx- mental heating experiments were performed at Oregon State University
imately 355 MW, which is identified based on geophysical anomalies of (OSU). Experimental methods follow those described by Duncan and
high conductivity values from the magnetotelluric (MT) method and Hogan (1994) and Plesner et al. (2002).
low gravity values at a depth of 1 km (Layman et al., 2002; Boedihardi Though the study is in a geothermal area, fresh samples can be found
et al., 1991). The Sileri, Sikidang and Pakuwaja sectors are spatially asso- with LOI (loss on ignition) values of less than 2%, following the criteria
ciated with the Pagerkandang, Pangonan and Pakuwaja volcanoes, re- suggested by Le Maitre et al. (2002). For those for radiometric age dat-
spectively (Fig. 5). On the surface, the potential areas are manifested by ing, the LOI values range from 0.12 to 1.33 wt.% and K2O from 1.63 to
the fumarolic areas of Kawah Sileri, Kawah Sikidang and Kawah 3.08 wt.%. These samples were observed under a polarized light micro-
Pakuwaja, respectively (Fig. 5). The geothermal manifestations surround- scope to confirm the absence of clay minerals. The K–Ar dating mea-
ing those volcanoes occur as fumaroles, acid sulfate springs, mud pools surement of samples from Kendang and Telerejo was conducted on
and altered rocks. The current installed capacity is 60 MWe, obtained by the concentrated groundmass because these samples contain small
utilizing steam collected from the Sileri area. grains of phenocrysts. For the samples from Prau and Rogojembangan
Geophysical surveys using magnetotelluric and gravity methods in- that contain olivine, plagioclase was used instead of the groundmass
dicate that the geothermal resources in the DVC consist of three poten- to avoid contamination of the argon heritage that may be trapped in
tial areas based on the appearance of high conductance (log of the mafic minerals. The 40Ar/39Ar dating utilized biotite, which is abun-
conductance N 2 mhos) and low residual gravity anomaly b − 4 mgal dant in the volcanic rocks from Kendil and Pakuwaja volcanoes.

Table 3
Result of 40Ar/39Ar age measurement for Pakuwaja and Kendil volcanoes

Total fusion age Isochron age Inverse isochron age Plateau age
No Location MSWD
(Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma)

1 Pakuwaja 0.34 0.29 ± 0.14 163.4 ± 126 0.16 ± 0.11 0.13 ± 0.03
2 Kendil 0.65 0.34 ± 0.15 305.1 ± 536 0.31 ± 0.31 0.27±0.12
214 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

Fig. 6. The spectra of the 40Ar/39Ar plateau age for Kendil (a) and Pakuwaja (b).

The samples were ground, followed by mineral and groundmass sep- Kendang is therefore in the same episode as Prau (1.09 ± 0.92 Ma), al-
aration. The groundmass was concentrated in a size fraction of mesh 60 to though the Prau age result has very large error. However, if our value is
80 and 80 to 100, whereas biotite and plagioclase were concentrated in a compared with the existing reported age of Prau (3.6 Ma), the resulting
size fraction of mesh 150 to 200 and 200 to 300, respectively. To isolate age from this study is significantly younger. Though the age data are not
the selected groundmass, as well as the phenocrysts of plagioclase and bi- reliable enough to confirm the actual age of Prau, the stratigraphic posi-
otite, magnetic separation, grain picking under binoculars, and acid treat- tion of Prau among other volcanoes in the DVC does not change. Age mea-
ment using hydrochloric acid were utilized. Finally, the concentrated surement of Telerejo resulted in an age of 0.13 ± 0.03 Ma. This result is
grains were washed using ultra-pure water to remove the remaining quite young, as Sukhyar et al. (1986) included Telerejo in the pre-
chlorine, which may interfere with argon measurement. caldera episode. The result of Telerejo is similar to that of Pakuwaja.
This result suggests revising the position of Telerejo from pre-caldera to
5. Geochronology the youngest episode.
The 40Ar/39Ar dating experiment resulted in plateau and total fusion
5.1. Radiometric dating result ages. The plateau age is calculated from at least three contiguous steps,
with the cumulative 39Ar gas released being more than 50%; in contrast,
The chemical characteristics of the samples and results of K–Ar and the total fusion age is calculated based on 39Ar gas released from all
40
Ar/39Ar dating are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The K– heating steps. The calculation for defining the total fusion age is compa-
Ar dating measurement resulted in a low error value of approximately rable to that used in the K–Ar dating method. Fig. 6 displays the spec-
4 to 25%, except for one sample from Prau, which was approximately trum diagram of step heating in the 40Ar/39Ar age measurements for
90%. The high error value may have resulted from the low release of ra- Pakuwaja and Kendil. The results indicate that the age of Pakuwaja
diogenic 40Ar from this sample. Therefore, the K–Ar age measurement and Kendil is 0.13 ± 0.03 Ma and 0.27 ± 0.12 Ma, respectively. In con-
resulted in a low enough error value that is reliable for defining the trast, the total fusion ages of Pakuwaja and Kendil are 0.29 ± 0.14 Ma
age of volcanism at the respective volcanoes. and 0.34 ± 0.14, respectively. The error of the ages is presented as 2σ.
Dating for the Rogojembangan sample yielded an age of 4.87 ± Comparing the plateau age with the total fusion age, the total fusion
1.21 Ma. This result is in agreement with the previously reported geolog- ages are older than the plateau ages. The spectrum diagrams of step
ical condition, as the Rogojembangan volcanic products act as the bedrock heating (Fig. 6) show that the apparent ages in the first step of the low
of the DVC. The volcanism at Kendang is dated at 1.08 ± 0.04 Ma. temperature heating step are considerably older than those of higher
temperature steps. These phenomena commonly occur due to the pres-
Table 4 ence of excess argon from fluid inclusions and/or melt inclusions (Kelley,
Compilation of radiometric age of volcanic edifices of DVC and surroundings area in the 2002). The decrepitation temperature of inclusions is a function of inclu-
frame of volcanic episode of DVC. sion size; the smaller the inclusion, the higher the decrepitation temper-
Volcanic episode Volcano Age Methods ature. The inclusions with a diameter size of less than 5 μm may
(Ma) decrepitate up to 600 °C, while the inclusions of less than 1 μm in diam-
Youngest Serojaa 0.07 K–Ar eter may remain up to the melting temperature of the mineral (Kelley,
Pakuwajaa 0.09 K–Ar 2002; Shepherd et al., 1985). These older apparent ages are included in
Pakuwajab 0.13 ± 0.03 Ar–Ar the calculation of total fusion age but are excluded from the calculation
Telerejob 0.13 ± 0.03 K–Ar
of plateau age. Consequently, the total fusion age calculation results in
Kendila 0.19 K–Ar
Kendilb 0.27 ± 0.12 Ar–Ar older ages compared with the plateau ages. This implies that the
40
Sikunir n.a. Ar/39Ar age measurement is more reliable than the K–Ar method.
Prambanan n.a.
Bucu n.a. 5.2. Timing of volcanic activity in DVC
Second Pangonan–Merdadaa 0.37 K–Ar
Pagerkandanga 0.46 K–Ar
Pre-caldera Kendangb,⁎ 1.08 ± 0.04 K–Ar The compilation of previously existing data and new results of radio-
Sidede n.a. metric ages in the DVC is presented in Table 4. Among volcanoes sur-
Bismaa 2.53 K–Ar rounding the DVC, the age dating revealed that Rogojembangan is the
Nagasaria 2.99 K–Ar
oldest volcano (4.87 ± 1.21 Ma). There is no contradiction between
Prahub 1.09 ± 0.92 K–Ar
Prahua 3.6 K–Ar this radiometric age dating and the geological evidence; thus, the results
Rogojembanganb,⁎ 4.87 ± 1.21 K–Ar are reliable. The age measurement of lava deposits from the Kendang
a
From Boedihardi et al. (1991).
volcano west of the DVC resulted in an age of 1.08 ± 0.04 Ma. The ana-
b
This study. lytical error is quite low; therefore, this result can be used to define the
⁎ Volcanic edifices outside of the DVC. age of Kendang.
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 215

Table 5
Major and trace elements of DVC lava determined by XRF analysis of powder pellet. The name of samples indicates the volcanoes name. SRJ: Seroja; PKW: Pakuwaja; KDL: Kendil; SKN:
Sikunir; PBN: Prambanan; BCU: Bucu; PGN: Pangonan; PGK: Pager Kandang; SDD: Sidede; BSM: Bisma; NGS: Nagasari; PRH: Prau.

Seroja Pakuwaja Kendil

Sample SRJ-01 SRJ-02 SRJ-03 SRJ-04 KDL-01 KDL-02 KDL-03 KDL-04

PKW-01

(wt.%)
SiO2 63.7 64.42 63.66 63.5 62.38 62.45 60.47 61.42 61.16
TiO2 0.61 0.57 0.6 0.61 0.66 0.69 0.76 0.67 0.76
Al2O3 15.76 15.74 15.77 16.51 16.24 15.57 15.69 16.53 16.63
FeO* 4.94 4.54 4.96 4.72 5.32 5.56 6.41 5.55 6.09
MnO 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14
MgO 2.34 2.06 2.27 2.35 2.14 2.6 2.72 2.7 2.66
CaO 5.04 5.03 5.03 5.19 5.99 5.78 6.94 6.27 6.48
Na2O 3.34 3.43 3.36 3.4 2.99 3.28 3.25 3.33 2.93
K2O 3.14 3.18 3.14 3.16 3.08 3.13 2.99 2.74 2.77
P2O5 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.18
LOI 0.73 0.66 0.81 0.53 0.75 0.33 0.31 0.38 0.09
(ppm)
V 104 98 106 106 130 128 151 130 153
Cr n.a n.a n.a n.a 11 n.a n.a n.a n.a
Ni 1 n.a 2 1 4 4 5 3 5
Rb 118 117 116 115 113 117 115 96 100
Ba 437 415 417 487 438 424 418 389 391
Nb 9 9 9 9 8 10 8 7 9
Sr 278 283 272 287 319 287 362 303 300
Zr 167 156 160 162 97 167 165 141 152
Y 21 20 21 21 24 23 25 21 21

Kendil Sikunir

Sample KDL-05 KDL-06 KDL-07 KDL-08 KDL-09 KDL-10 KDL-11 SKN-01 PBN-01

(wt.%)
SiO2 61.02 59.74 60.41 61.91 61.06 61.7 61.6 61.57 63.42
TiO2 0.73 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.68 0.7 0.68 0.71 0.56
Al2O3 16.63 16.76 16.1 16.51 16.46 16.13 16.28 16.39 16.36
FeO* 6.01 6.24 6.12 5.28 5.59 5.65 5.65 5.77 4.67
MnO 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
MgO 2.72 2.95 3.34 2.64 2.97 2.98 2.89 2.55 1.91
CaO 6.55 7.03 6.34 6.25 6.37 5.85 6.1 5.95 4.9
Na2O 3.03 3.29 3.13 3.33 3.27 3.25 3.33 3 4.01
K2O 2.69 2.63 2.64 2.83 2.71 2.85 2.77 2.86 2.69
P2O5 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.26
LOI 0.19 0.18 0.75 0.18 0.48 0.47 0.28 0.76 0.96
(ppm)
V 157 165 169 131 147 144 137 141 77
Cr n.a 3 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Ni 2 3 5 5 3 5 2 4 3
Rb 97 92 94 101 96 104 100 103 89
Ba 401 366 358 378 380 398 379 424 454
Nb 8 8 7 9 8 9 8 8 9
Sr 315 316 278 293 292 278 284 306 332
Zr 145 139 142 150 141 150 146 150 153
Y 21 21 21 22 21 20 21 22 21

Prambanan Bucu

Sample PBN-02 PBN-03 BCU-01 BCU-02 BCU-03 BCU-04 BCU-05 BCU-06 PGN-01

(wt.%)
SiO2 64.47 62.03 59.72 59.83 59.58 62.88 57.8 54.11 57.48
TiO2 0.55 0.69 0.72 0.72 0.66 0.62 0.8 1.14 0.95
Al2O3 16.22 15.64 17.15 17.26 18.01 17.82 18.95 18.16 17.12
FeO* 4.41 5.88 6.19 6.11 5.47 4.25 6.03 7.2 7.22
MnO 0.11 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.12 0.19 0.19
MgO 1.68 3.06 2.68 2.54 2.23 1.12 2.26 3.9 3.94
CaO 5.04 5.16 6.2 6.15 6.56 5.97 8.14 8.29 7.42
Na2O 2.94 3.21 3.05 3.05 3.1 3.8 3.61 3.17 2.53
K2O 3.26 3.03 2.67 2.66 2.68 2.28 1.67 2.07 2.19
P2O5 0.15 0.18 0.27 0.26 0.28 0.24 0.25 0.39 0.2
LOI 1.03 0.84 1.06 1.12 1.15 0.78 0.25 1.21 0.6
(ppm)
V 87 133 127 122 107 62 126 178 196
Cr n.a 6 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Ni 5 3 5 4 4 n.a n.a n.a 1
Rb 124 113 99 97 102 59 44 59 55
Ba 459 415 481 475 479 432 332 409 400
Nb 9 9 10 10 10 9 8 10 7
Sr 310 260 408 412 430 385 417 364 379

(continued on next page)

216 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

Table 5 (continued)

Zr 177 163 166 165 168 158 126 156 128

Y 23 21 21 22 21 26 24 30 22

Pangonan-Merdada Pagerkandang Sidede

Sample PGN-02 PGN-03 PGN-04 PGN-05 PGK-01 PGK-02 PGK-03 PGK-04 SDD-01

(wt.%)
SiO2 58.56 57.51 59.01 58.02 57.54 57.39 55.22 52.53 51.41
TiO2 0.9 0.81 0.87 0.84 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.94 1.18
Al2O3 16.99 17.39 16.95 17.2 17.21 17.05 18.11 18.72 20.55
FeO* 7.45 7.32 7.25 7.27 7.25 7.12 7.64 7.89 8.08
MnO 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.3 0.16
MgO 3.3 3.66 3.03 3.51 3.19 3.47 3.99 4.24 3.46
CaO 6.95 7.21 6.51 7.3 6.99 6.92 8.17 7.28 9.82
Na2O 2.87 3.08 3.19 3.2 2.66 2.9 2.82 2.41 3.43
K2O 2.22 2.07 2.26 2.13 2.29 2.27 1.53 1.64 1.17
P2O5 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.2 0.24
LOI 0.26 0.44 0.42 0.02 1.44 1.48 1.11 3.73 0.37
(ppm)
V 195 181 173 174 202 202 210 214 263
Cr n.a n.a n.a n.a 0 0 0 0 n.a
Ni n.a 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 n.a
Rb 74 67 74 69 84 82 39 37 19
Ba 344 353 342 339 369 372 318 349 289
Nb 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6
Sr 382 379 363 384 379 370 393 354 379
Zr 122 115 123 114 124 121 105 107 79
Y 22 21 22 21 25 23 25 21 21

Sidede Bisma

Sample SDD-02 SDD-03 SDD-04 SDD-05 SDD-06 SDD-07 SDD-08 SDD-09 BSM-01

(wt.%)
SiO2 52.19 51.31 51.52 51.74 51.87 51.42 50.76 51.68 50.99
TiO2 1.14 1.21 1.17 1.19 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.96 1
Al2O3 20.12 20.83 19.88 20.81 18.37 18.07 19.27 18.25 21.21
FeO* 8.11 8.09 8.49 7.98 8.22 8.31 8.19 8.22 8.01
MnO 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.17
MgO 3.34 3.29 3.89 3.26 5.9 5.85 5.38 5.92 3.2
CaO 9.56 10.07 9.41 9.31 9.11 9.24 9.6 9.07 9.03
Na2O 3.68 3.56 3.3 3.55 3.27 3.15 3.22 3.28 3.27
K2O 1.31 1.11 1.24 1.23 1.1 1.1 1.14 1.12 1.24
P2O5 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.43
LOI 0 0 0.58 0.4 0.56 1.22 0.87 0.85 1.3
(ppm)
V 234 257 264 227 237 230 261 225 229
Cr n.a n.a n.a n.a 5 10 1 4 n.a
Ni n.a n.a n.a n.a 5 8 6 5 n.a
Rb 24 12 21 22 19 20 20 19 16
Ba 293 293 281 317 241 274 251 252 277
Nb 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5
Sr 367 403 369 388 428 425 478 426 527
Zr 83 86 80 85 86 85 76 87 73
Y 22 21 22 22 21 21 18 22 17

Bisma Nagasari

Sample BSM-02 BSM-03 BSM-04 BSM-05 BSM-06 BSM-07 BSM-08 NGS-01 NGS-02

(wt.%)
SiO2 48.64 49.5 49.75 49.86 49.57 52.17 52.53 57.08 56.89
TiO2 1.12 1.09 1.11 1.19 1.2 1.06 1.02 0.86 0.89
Al2O3 20.23 18.44 18.15 19.23 19.21 20.29 20.24 18.82 18.82
FeO* 9.53 8.75 9.05 8.47 8.62 7.91 7.92 6.34 6.55
MnO 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.17 0.19 0.14 0.15
MgO 4.93 5.24 5.79 5.38 5.48 3.21 3.28 2.54 2.58
CaO 10.39 10.05 10.17 10.32 10.38 9.33 9.23 8.47 8.58
Na2O 2.83 3.05 2.84 2.84 2.75 3.61 3.8 2.9 2.82
K2O 0.83 1.1 1.13 1.32 1.29 1.55 1.1 1.81 1.84
P2O5 0.37 0.44 0.42 0.36 0.34 0.35 0.27 0.32 0.31
LOI 0.8 2.02 1.25 0.53 0.66 0.2 0.31 0.59 0.43
(ppm)
V 303 268 276 282 277 221 236 136 145
Cr n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Ni n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a 6 0
Rb 8 13 16 24 24 27 18 57 59
Ba 228 248 236 213 225 307 274 333 332
Nb 3 4 5 5 5 6 5 8 9
Sr 507 492 483 495 494 502 459 471 493
Zr 66 69 70 67 68 79 83 132 140
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 217

Table 5 (continued)

Y 19 19 19 19 21 20 20 23 27

Nagasari Prahu

Sample NGS-03 NGS-04 NGS-05 PRH-01 PRH-02 PRH-03 PRH-04 PRH-05 PRH-06

(wt.%)
SiO2 57.24 59.61 53.91 63.19 52.53 51.88 53.61 53.41 55.72
TiO2 0.9 1.15 1.01 0.89 1.47 1.5 1.47 0.88 0.78
Al2O3 18.46 15.44 18.2 16.17 18.46 18.86 17.67 18.56 18.74
FeO* 6.6 7.76 8.76 5.89 9.67 9.88 9.72 8.53 8.59
MnO 0.15 0.18 0.17 0.13 0.2 0.2 0.17 0.17 0.18
MgO 2.54 2.83 4.53 1.44 3.69 3.62 3.35 3.55 2.56
CaO 8.07 5.67 8.65 4.29 8.44 8.25 8.21 8.9 8.44
Na2O 2.89 3.26 3 3.27 3.11 2.92 2.88 2.97 3.29
K2O 1.87 2.53 1.28 3.11 1.81 1.61 1.92 1.7 1.32
P2O5 0.32 0.47 0.2 0.3 0.37 0.38 0.37 0.27 0.24
LOI 0.82 0.96 0.17 1.17 0.1 0.76 0.49 0.92 0
(ppm)
V 138 172 250 87 276 268 275 194 156
Cr n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Ni 2 0 5 1 2 1 2 2 2
Rb 57 86 34 117 42 27 57 46 30
Ba 320 462 264 538 378 398 361 338 338
Nb 9 10 6 13 11 12 11 8 7
Sr 468 412 339 301 356 358 343 438 357
Zr 136 168 99 220 161 160 159 124 117
Y 26 35 23 35 36 64 36 22 25

Prahu

Sample PRH-07 PRH-08 PRH-09 PRH-10 PRH-11 PRH-12 PRH-13 PRH-14

(wt.%)
SiO2 50.66 57.21 51.22 49.87 57.4 53.13 51.19 54.52
TiO2 1.05 0.9 1.07 1.15 0.79 1 0.97 1
Al2O3 18.71 17.73 19.88 19.32 19.99 17.9 23.43 17.62
FeO* 9.19 7.9 9.01 9.67 5.67 8.55 7.68 7.99
MnO 0.18 0.17 0.19 0.2 0.13 0.21 0.15 0.16
MgO 4.21 2.6 3.49 4.33 1.56 4.21 3.23 3.99
CaO 9.65 7.91 9.5 9.93 8.67 9.27 8.37 8.32
Na2O 2.91 3.31 3.24 3.11 3.52 2.94 2.81 3.08
K2O 1.3 1.66 1.44 1.35 1.8 1.37 1.52 1.63
P2O5 0.3 0.24 0.29 0.35 0.25 0.24 0.2 0.23
LOI 1.1 0.25 0.55 0.59 0.06 1.06 0.32 1.33
(ppm)
V 258 212 247 287 110 269 246 249
Cr n.a n.a 19 25 n.a n.a 23 11
Ni 8 n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Rb 34 45 33 28 53 31 41 51
Ba 264 n.a n.a 371 n.a n.a n.a 420
Nb 7 7 6 7 8 6 6 7
Sr 467 403 446 461 491 451 350 408
Zr 112 120 90 91 147 110 102 117
Y 22 26 35 28 27 31 24 28

There is significant difference between the results of the new K–Ar
age of Prau (1.09 ± 0.9 Ma) and the existing age data of 3.6 Ma
(Boedihardi et al., 1991). The new data exhibits a large error due to
the very low radiogenic Ar released during the experiment. Therefore,
the age of Prau could not be confidently distinguished; nevertheless,
this study proposes the age of Prau to be from 1.09 to 3.6 Ma. This
range includes the ages of Bisma and Nagasari, which are approximately
2.53 and 2.99 Ma, respectively. The Prau, Bisma and Nagasari volcanoes
are included in the same pre-caldera episode.
The ages of Pangonan and Pagerkandang are determined to be 0.37
and 0.46 Ma (Boedihardi et al., 1991), respectively. These volcanoes oc-
curred in the area between Prau–Nagasari and Bisma. Therefore, these
volcanoes are geologically younger than Prau, making the ages
consistent with the geological condition. Pangonan-Merdada and
Pagerkandang are included in the second episode.
The new 40Ar/39Ar age of Kendil is approximately 0.27 ± 0.12 Ma.
It seems a bit older compared to the existing age data of 0.19 Ma of
Boedihardi et al. (1991). However, taking into account the uncertain-
ty (2σ) of the 40Ar/39Ar data, both the new and existing data are con-
cordant. Therefore, the age of Kendil is in the range from 0.19 to
0.27 Ma. The case is similar for the result of the 40Ar/39Ar dating for
Pakuwaja (0.13 ± 0.03 Ma); although it seems slightly older than
the existing age data of 0.09 Ma (Boedihardi et al., 1991), both ages
are concordant. Thus, we confirm that both of these edifices belong
to the youngest episode of the DVC. Seroja was included in the sec-
ond episode by Sukhyar et al. (1986). However, Boedihardi et al.
(1991) reported that the radiometric age of Seroja is 0.07 Ma. This
means that Seroja is quite young and should be included in the youn-
gest episode of the DVC.
Telerejo is located just outside the DVC southeast of Prau. This volca-
no is included in the pre-caldera episode (Sukhyar et al., 1986). Howev-
er, the K–Ar age revealed that this volcano is quite young, i.e., 0.13 ±
0.03 Ma. Therefore, this study includes Telerejo as part of the youngest
episode.
Based on the new and existing radiometric data, the succession of
the volcanoes in and surrounding the DVC is reconstructed and pro-
posed. Rogojembangan, in the far west of the DVC, was formed prior
to the DVC. Kendang, as a neighbor west of the DVC, was formed prob-
ably during the formation of Prau of the DVC. Prau, Nagasari, Bisma and
Sidede, the volcanoes located within the DVC boundaries, were formed
218 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

Table 6
Trace elements concentration of lava of DVC determined by ICP-MS analysis. The sample names are the same as that of used in Table 5.

Sample BSM-02 SDD-01 NGS-02 PRH-01 PRH-10 PRH-14 BCU-05 PGK-01

V 134 163 135 153 117 125 360 152

Cr 10 10 10 20 10 10 10 10
Co 15.2 18.5 15 17.4 14.5 14.3 35.2 16.3
Ni 5 8 5 6 6 5 12 5
Cu 31 39 21 33 15 16 124 28
Zn 83 79 84 82 76 71 99 75
Ga 20.4 18.6 21.7 17.3 18 17.2 20.4 17.6
Cs 2.18 9.59 2.48 10 2.72 10.45 0.3 9.97
Rb 48 110 59.3 125 63.2 128 7.7 116
Ba 337 412 305 416 371 420 218 392
Th 6.59 17.9 9.06 19.25 8.52 20 3.01 18.75
U 1.55 3.98 1.88 4.44 2.06 4.65 0.57 4.36
Nb 7.7 7.6 6.6 8.4 5.7 8.7 2.6 8
Ta 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.6
La 20.4 24 25 23.2 18.3 23.7 13.7 24.3
Ce 41.5 50 54.8 47.1 37.1 47.7 31 49.2
Pb 17 18 12 23 28 132 57 25
Pr 5.41 5.84 6.74 5.68 4.27 5.65 4.47 5.9
Sr 452 339 503 300 312 310 563 331
Nd 21.1 21.2 26 21.4 15.9 20.9 19.7 22
Zr 129 166 135 181 139 195 57 182
Hf 3.3 4.4 3.5 5.1 3.7 5.4 1.8 5
Sm 4.72 4.45 5.44 4.52 3.49 4.42 4.97 4.7
Eu 1.47 1.17 1.6 1.05 1.06 1.11 1.59 1.15
Ti 4795 5034 4135 3656 6713 3956
Gd 4.94 4.76 5.56 4.64 3.45 4.39 4.88 4.58
Tb 0.78 0.71 0.83 0.71 0.54 0.67 0.72 0.71
Dy 4.54 4.02 4.55 4.19 3.36 4.07 3.98 4.16
Y 25.6 24.5 26 24.3 18.9 22.7 20.5 24.3
Ho 0.9 0.9 0.99 0.84 0.66 0.81 0.75 0.85
Er 2.72 2.57 2.66 2.66 2.09 2.51 2.14 2.6
Tm 0.39 0.39 0.41 0.4 0.32 0.39 0.3 0.39
Yb 2.61 2.45 2.5 2.65 2.11 2.55 1.93 2.64
Lu 0.4 0.39 0.4 0.42 0.32 0.4 0.28 0.4

Sample PGK-02 PGK-03 PGN-02 KDL-03 PKW-01 SKN-01 PBN-03 SRJ-01

V 218 66 143 158 251 171 261 167

Cr 10 10 10 10 30 10 10 10
Co 23.2 9.2 17.5 18.6 25.8 18.2 25.8 21.5
Ni 6 5 6 7 14 5 8 5
Cu 55 18 31 27 47 31 54 25
Zn 89 92 77 79 86 83 90 95
Ga 19.6 18.9 17.2 18.7 22.9 19.2 19.6 20.2
Cs 3.51 7.89 10.35 9.28 1.96 2.15 3.44 3.16
Rb 79.1 113.5 118.5 106 39.8 52.7 49.5 43.6
Ba 346 526 420 379 266 602 309 534
Th 12.75 16.25 18.9 17.45 5.8 9.46 9.46 7.04
U 3.01 3.92 4.28 3.87 1.32 2.13 2.27 1.46
Nb 5.7 11.6 7.8 7.1 4.9 5.2 5.9 4.8
Ta 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
La 20.6 33.7 24 22.7 15.9 22.1 21.9 23.3
Ce 44.5 68.3 50.4 47.8 33.1 43.6 44 48.4
Pb 13 19 20 18 12 11 39 14
Pr 5.42 8.36 5.75 5.44 4.27 5.12 5.96 5.74
Sr 411 301 301 340 343 598 442 592
Nd 21.2 30.9 20.4 19.7 17.9 19.8 24 22.3
Zr 125 229 179 160 97 102 110 115
Hf 3.7 5.8 4.7 4.3 2.7 2.7 3.1 3
Sm 4.79 6.65 4.36 4.26 4.28 4.58 5.53 4.76
Eu 1.38 1.62 1.04 1.17 1.31 1.47 1.45 1.49
Ti 5394 5334 6893 4015 5994 5514
Gd 4.85 6.84 4.6 4.52 4.38 4.73 5.61 5.17
Tb 0.77 1.05 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.75 0.88 0.76
Dy 4.4 5.97 3.91 3.98 4.16 4.53 5.07 4.37
Y 23.8 34.5 24.3 23.6 22.9 25.5 28.8 24.2
Ho 0.95 1.28 0.87 0.86 0.84 1 0.99 0.94
Er 2.61 3.59 2.44 2.45 2.53 2.82 3.04 2.56
Tm 0.39 0.54 0.38 0.38 0.36 0.44 0.45 0.42
Yb 2.47 3.52 2.44 2.4 2.33 2.77 2.88 2.55
Lu 0.4 0.55 0.38 0.39 0.34 0.44 0.43 0.42

before the formation of the caldera structure. Among these volcanoes, eruption, the resurgent volcanoes of Bucu, Pagerkandang, and
Prau had the biggest eruption, which formed collapse structures follow- Pangonan–Merdada were formed in the area between Prau and Bisma.
ing NW-trending zones of weakness from strike slip faults. After the Finally, the volcanoes of the latest episode were formed at the extension
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 219

Fig. 7. Photomicrograph of selected lava samples of DVC. Olivine bearing basalt lava group is represented by (a) Prau and (b) Sidede. Pyroxene andesite lava group of (c) Pangonan–
Merdada and (d) Pagerkandang. Biotite andesite–dacite lava group of (e) Seroja, (f) Prambanan, (g) Kendil, and (h) Pakuwaja.

of the central area to the southeastern part between Prau and Bisma.
The youngest episode volcanoes located inside the DVC are Kendil,
Pakuwaja, Prambanan, Sikunir and Seroja, whereas Telerejo is located
outside the DVC.
6. Petrology
6.1. Mineral assemblages
Thin sections of the coherent lava deposits collected from the DVC
were examined. The results indicate that the lava in the DVC consists
of phenocrysts and very fine groundmass typical of arc magmatism
(Fig. 7). The phenocrysts include olivine, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene,
plagioclase, biotite and opaque minerals. Solely based on phenocryst
content, lava samples can be categorized into three groups: olivine-
bearing basalt–basaltic andesite, pyroxene basaltic andesite–andesite,
and biotite andesite–dacite. This grouping corresponds to volcanism
stages in the DVC as follows: pre-caldera, second episode, and youngest
episode, respectively.
The olivine-bearing basalt–basaltic andesite group shows hyalopilitic
texture. Phenocryst consists of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine and
opaque minerals. These phenocrysts are set in a groundmass of micro-
crystalline crystals of similar mineralogy, with minor volcanic glass
present. Plagioclase phenocrysts are mostly euhedral to subhedral, with
a minor resorption surface. Plagioclase is also present as inclusions within
pyroxene crystals. Olivine exists with iddingsite present along its
220 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224

cleavage. Olivine only occurs in this group and characterizes volcanism of

the pre-caldera episode (see Fig. 7(a–b)).
The pyroxene basaltic andesite–andesite group shows hyalopilitic
texture. Phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, with some zoned,
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and opaque crystals. The phenocrysts
are surrounded by a groundmass consisting of similar constituents,
along with volcanic glass. Phenocrysts are mostly euhedral to subhedral.
Both clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are also present as inclusions in
the plagioclase alongside opaque minerals (see Fig. 7(c–d)).
The biotite andesite–dacite group shows hyalopilitic, pilotaxitic
and/or glomerophyritic texture. Phenocrysts of plagioclase, biotite,
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and opaque minerals are set in a
groundmass of similar mineralogy, with notable volcanic glass
present. Plagioclase, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene are also
present as inclusions in biotite. Biotite crystals have a wide range of
size, with opaque minerals occurring along the boundary. Some of
the biotite contains a small amount of melt inclusion. Xenoliths,
pilotaxitic in texture, consist of plagioclase and pyroxene and were
observed in most of the lava samples of the youngest episode
(see Fig. 7(e–h)).

6.2. Petrogeochemistry

The data used to discus the petrogeochemistry are major elements

(see Table 5) and trace elements (see Table 6). Chemical data revealed
that magma in the DVC is typical of island arc magmatism, having a
wide spectrum of composition from basalt to dacite, as shown in the
total alkali against silica (TAS) diagram of Le Bas et al. (1986) (Fig. 8a).
The lavas in the DVC range in SiO2 concentration from 49 to 65 wt.%.
The pre-caldera episode rocks range from basalt to basaltic andesite
and rarely to andesite. The second episode rocks range from basaltic an-
desite to andesite. In contrast, the youngest episode rocks range from
andesite to dacite. The plots (Fig. 8a and b) show coherent and narrow
trends, indicating that the magma composition evolved primarily by
fractional crystallization and became more silicic with time.
The K2O against SiO2 diagram shows a coherent trend and positive
correlation, in which the K2O concentration increases with increasing
SiO2. The rocks with less than 57 wt.% SiO2 have a wider variation of
K2O than the rocks with N57 wt.% SiO2 (Fig. 8b). K2O is an incompatible
element; thus, it will be concentrated in the silicic rocks. Basaltic rocks
in the DVC are classified as medium-K affinity, typical of calc-alkaline
subduction zone magmatism. The trend indicates that the high-K an-
desite to dacite is a result of differentiation.
The MgO concentrations of the DVC rocks are less than 6 wt.%, indi-
cating that no primitive magma erupted in the DVC. MgO is one of the
most common indicators of differentiation processes, together with
SiO2 and FeO*/MgO. The SiO2 is correlated negatively with MgO and
mostly scattered against FeO*/MgO ratios. Grouping based on the volca-
nic episode of the latter plot shows that at any FeO*/MgO ratio, the
younger rocks have higher SiO2 concentration and that each of them
shows positive correlation of SiO2 against the FeO*/MgO ratio.
Harker trends are more obvious if we utilize MgO and FeO*/MgO
as indices of the differentiation of DVC samples. Variation diagrams
of the MgO and FeO*/MgO ratio against CaO, MgO, and Al 2 O 3
(Fig. 9c, d, f and g) show negative correlation, whereas those against
K2O show positive correlation. All these plots clearly show each vol-
canic episode at any given number of MgO and/or FeO*/MgO ratios.
The pre-caldera episode is the highest in the plot of CaO, MgO and
Al2O3, whereas the youngest episode is the lowest. The reverse was
observed in the plot of K2O.
The trace elements Rb and Sr are used in this study as differenti-
ation indicators because of their substitution behavior. More basaltic
rocks are enriched with Sr, whereas more silicic rocks are enriched
with Rb. The plot of the Rb/Sr ratio against the FeO*/MgO ratio
shows three different patterns. The pre-caldera volcanoes have the
lowest Rb/Sr ratios, whereas those of the second episode rocks
Fig. 8. Plot of SiO2 against alkalis. (a) Total alkali silika diagram. (b) K2O–SiO2 diagram.
These figures indicate that the magmas of the DVC volcanoes are cogenesis and are the
result of differentiation.
have moderate values and the youngest episode samples have the
highest values (Fig. 9g).
Specifically, within the pre-caldera episode, the geochemical trend
of Bisma and Sidede can be distinguished from Prau and Nagasari. The
latter two have slightly lower MgO and higher FeO*/MgO ratios than
those of Bisma and Sidede. In general, magma of Prau and Nagasari is
more evolved than that of Bisma and Sidede.
The normal mid-ocean ridge basalt (NMORB)-normalized multi-
element diagram (Fig. 10a) shows signatures typical of island arc volca-
noes, with enrichment of the more mobile LILE accompanied by nega-
tive anomalies of niobium and titanium. Distinct lead positive trends
in the DVC samples probably correspond to the addition of slab-
derived fluid to the mantle before melting, which generated primitive
magma (John et al., 2004; Miller et al., 1994; Chauvel et al., 1995).
This pattern is also observed in the Sunda arc Quaternary volcanoes,
i.e., Ijen, (Handley et al., 2007), Merapi (Gertisser and Keller, 2003),
and Gede (Handley et al., 2010), with less enrichment in western Java,
as indicated by Ciremai, Tangkuban Parahu, Tampomas, Guntur,
Galunggung, Papandayan, and Cikuray (Sendjaja et al., 2009). The
Chondrite-normalized REE diagram shows signatures typical of island
arc volcanoes, with enrichment of LREE and relatively flat HREE
(Fig. 10b). Europium shows a slightly negative anomaly, implying the
fractionation of plagioclase in the samples. The ratio of LREE/HREE is
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224 221

Fig. 9. Variation diagram of major elements of DVC. The plots using MgO and the FeO*/MgO ratio as abscissa show that each volcanic episode in DVC has distinctive differentiation,
indicating that each episode has their own magma reservoir and path.

useful for inferring characteristics of the magma source. Fig. 11 shows fractional crystallization processes. However, in general, there are no
that the ratios of Ce/Yb of all DVC lavas are within the same range. Slight significant differences between each episode in the trace element
negative trends of the Second and Youngest episode might be caused by diagrams.
222 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224
7. Discussion
7.1. Spatial and temporal evolution of magma of DVC
Petrographic analysis identified three types of magma that are spa-
tially and temporally distributed in the DVC. This peculiar distribution
indicates that there is a change in magma composition from more
mafic to felsic and from older to younger episodes. It seems that each
episode has typical magma compositions. Magma differentiation is
strongly supported by the behavior of major elements. At any given
amount of MgO and ratios of FeO*/MgO, against other major elements
and ratios of incompatible elements, each episode has a unique differen-
tiation path. Thus, aside from the obvious evolving trend of increased
felsic magma as the stages become younger, trends of the Harker plots
lead to the possibility of the existence of multiple shallow magma
chambers beneath the DVC, which correlate to each volcanic episode.
Correlation of the multiple shallow magma chambers to the volcanic
edifices is as follows. The Bucu, Pagerkandang and Pangonan–Merdada
volcanoes included in the second episode have the same shallow pyrox-
ene basaltic andesitic–andesitic magma chamber. The youngest episode
(Kendil, Pakuwaja, Sikunir, Prambanan and Seroja) volcanoes are fed by
the same biotite andesitic–dacitic magma chamber. The pre-caldera ep-
isode has two olivine bearing basaltic–basaltic andesitic shallow magma
chambers, which feed Bisma–Sidede and Prau–Nagasari. Bisma–Sidede
magma is less evolved than that of Prau–Nagasari. More silicic magma
may be located at shallower levels due to shallower levels of neutral
buoyancy. The non-scale sketch of the geological model of the subsur-
face magma plumbing system is presented in Fig. 12.
The multi-element diagrams of trace elements and REE of the DVC
rocks show patterns of typical calc-alkaline affinity. Moreover, there
Fig. 10. Spider diagram of NMORB-normalized (a) and chondrite-normalized (b) trace
elements. These diagrams show that the REE and trace elements composition of magma
of all volcanoes in the DVC are indiscernible. This means that all those magmas are
cogenesis. NMORB and Chondrite values are from Sun and McDonough (1989). The
symbols are the same as those used in Fig. 9.
Fig. 11. Plot of Ce/Yb vs. MgO. All DVC lavas have similar range of ratios of Ce/Yb, indicating
similarity of their magma sources. Slight negative trend in the second and youngest
episode might be due to differentiation processes. The symbols are the same as those
used in Fig. 9.
are no essential differences in the trace elements and REE patterns be-
tween the three episodes. The ratios of LREE/HREE (Fig. 11) of each ep-
isode were also plotted within the same range. Specifically, slight
enrichment of LREE in the second and youngest episodes is likely due
to different differentiation levels. This denotes that the magma type in
the DVC comes from the same source of primitive magma.
7.2. Magma evolution and geothermal system
Spatially, pre-caldera episode volcanoes are distributed along the
rim of the DVC, whereas the middle and youngest episode volcanoes
are distributed in the central portion (Fig. 4). Inside the caldera, erup-
tion centers of the second and youngest episode shift from the central
part to the southeast part of the DVC (as described in Section 5.2).
This makes the distribution of the last two stages elongated in a NW
trend. This trend coincides with the volcanic line of the Sumbing–
Sindoro–DVC, which suggests that the NW trend is permeable and
probably controlled by deep faulting.
Shifting of the eruption centers of the second and youngest episodes
is likely related to two different magma chambers feeding the activities
of each episode. The locations of the magma chambers of both episodes
were inferred by compiling the spatial relationship of the respected
volcanic edifices with the geophysical data of Boedihardi et al. (1991),
including magneto telluric, gravity and subsurface temperature
(Fig. 5). It is revealed that continuous high temperature zones are locat-
ed beneath the Second episode volcanoes (esp. Pagerkandang and
Pangonan–Merdada) and youngest episode (esp. Pakuwaja). The high
conductivity zone at a depth of 1000 m is overlapped, suggesting that
the heat source of the geothermal system in the DVC is related to shal-
low magma chambers of the second and youngest episodes (Fig. 5).
The drilling proved that the potential zones beneath the second ep-
isode volcanoes (Sileri and Sikidang potential zones) are the production
zones, though the production wells beneath the Sikidang crater were
attacked by acid fluid and are now mostly abandoned. The potential
zone beneath the youngest episode volcanoes (Pakuwaja sector) was
tested by using two drill holes, which indicate high temperatures of ap-
proximately 320 °C (Boedihardi et al., 1991); however, until now, it has
not yet been proven to be a production zone. The geothermal potential
of the Pakuwaja sector is probably hampered by low permeability of the
rocks, as the volcanic rocks are still young and are therefore less dissect-
ed by geological structures.
In general, the geothermal system in the DVC resembles the close re-
lationship between high temperature geothermal systems and volca-
noes, as stated by Wohletz and Heiken (1992): “Geothermal system
may develop surrounding the mature andesitic to dacitic composite vol-
cano. The occurrence of geothermal systems in a volcanic complex is in-
fluenced by the age and composition of the volcanic cone in addition to
the fractures and faults that provide a path for water to circulate”.
 A. Harijoko et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 310 (2016) 209–224
Fig. 12. Non-scale sketch of geological model of shallow magma reservoir in relation to the high temperature geothermal system in DVC. Dashed line represents subsurface temperature.
8. Conclusions
Geological observations supported by radiometric age data classified
the volcanoes in the DVC into three episodes: pre-caldera, second, and
youngest episodes. The volcanism began before 1 Ma. After the large
eruption of the Prau volcano, the second episode volcanoes were
formed in the central area from 0.46 to 0.37 Ma. Finally, the youngest
episode volcanoes formed in the southeastern area from 0.27 to
0.07 Ma.
The mineralogy and chemical composition of major and trace ele-
ments indicate that the magma in the DVC is typical arc magma, ranging
from basalt to dacite in composition. Moreover, variation diagrams of
CaO, Al2O3, K2O, and Rb/Sr against MgO and FeO*/MgO revealed that
the magma from each episode has different evolutionary trends, indi-
cating that each episode has independent shallow magma chambers.
The chondrite-normalized multi-element diagram shows similar pat-
terns of DVC magma, indicating that the magma from the three episodes
resulted from the differentiation of similar primitive magma.
The geothermal system in the DVC is manifested by fumarolic areas
on the surface surrounding the Pagerkandang, Pangonan and Pakuwaja
volcanoes. The potential of a high temperature reservoir was indicated
by a geophysical survey beneath the volcanoes. Production drilling
demonstrated that the geophysical anomalies are high temperature
zones. This close spatial relationship suggests that the independent
shallow magma chambers of the second and youngest episodes play im-
portant roles as the heat sources of the geothermal system in the DVC.
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