Chapter 14
Sensor-based Ore Sorting
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “sensor-based (ore) sorting” (SBS) is introduced
as an umbrella term for all applications where particles
are singularly detected by a sensor technique and ejected
by an amplified mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic pro-
cess (Wotruba and Harbeck, 2012). Analogous terms
include ore sorting, electronic sorting or automated sort-
ing. A variety of sensor types are available and see use in
the minerals, recycling, and food industries. SBS can be
implemented at various positions in the mineral proces-
sing flowsheet:
1. Pre-concentration
Pre-concentration is defined as a physical separa-
tion stage in mineral beneficiation, where a fraction of
high grade coarse particles can be separated from the
run-of-mine material to produce a final concentrate,
prior to downstream processing of particles below ca.
5 mm.
2. Waste rejection
Waste rejection is defined as a beneficiation stage
where coarse non-valuable waste particles are sepa-
rated from the run-of-mine ore.
3. Concentration
Concentration using SBS is the creation of a final
marketable product.
4. Ore-type diversion
Separation of one or more ore types that are fed alter-
nately as batches into the same plant or parallel into mul-
tiple plant lines for specialized treatment.
Note that SBS is almost always used in diamond pro-
cessing flowsheets where the terminology differs slightly:
waste rejection is referred to as “concentration” and con-
centration is referred to as “recovery.”
SBS refers to a concentration stage which identifies
certain physical or chemical characteristics of individual
rock particles and separates them from the process stream
via a physical mechanism (Arvidson, 1987). Ore sorting
is commonly undertaken after primary or secondary
Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
crushing, after sufficient liberation is achieved. Applica-
tions show that many mines have about 30 wt% barren
waste liberated in the size range 10 100 mm, which
allows material to be discarded without significant loss of
value. Pre-concentration by sorting is seen as a method of
improving the sustainability of mineral processing opera-
tions by reducing specific materials handling require-
ments, minimizing energy consumption and water in
grinding and concentration, and achieving more benign
tailings disposal (Cutmore and Ebehardt, 2002; Lessard
et al., 2014). The ultimate goal is to minimize specific
investment and processing costs while reducing the envi-
ronmental footprint of an operation. Sensor-based sorting
can be applied to a waste rejection stage (e.g., base and
precious metals) or concentration (i.e., the production of
an intermediate or final product, e.g., industrial minerals,
ferrous metals, and gemstones). Sorting has also been
used to upgrade previously mined/processed waste-rock
material prior to re-processing (von Ketelhodt, 2009;
Wotruba and Harbeck, 2012).
SBS is the automation of hand sorting, which is now
extended by the use of additional sensing/detection tech-
nologies (i.e., techniques are not limited to optical sen-
sors). Hand sorting is the original mineral concentration
process, having been used by the earliest workers several
thousand years ago. The practice was recorded by
Agricola (1556) (Figure 14.1).
Hand sorting involves the visual assessment of indi-
vidual ore particles and the rejection of those particles
that do not warrant further treatment. Figure 14.2 shows
hand sorting in the early days of operation at the Sullivan
Mine (Cominco), British Columbia, Canada, which began
operation in 1909 (Ednie, 2006).
Hand sorting has declined in importance due to the
need to treat large quantities of low-grade ore which can
require extremely fine grinding. Hand sorting of some
kind, however, is still practiced (e.g., the removal of large
pieces of timber or tramp iron from the run-of-mine ore).
It is also still applied in countries with low labor pay
rates.
409
410 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology
FIGURE 14.1 Early reference to hand sorting by Agricola (1556)
(Used with permission Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1950).
FIGURE 14.2 Hand sorting at Sullivan Mine ca. 1915 (Used with per-
mission Columbia Basin Image Bank).
Early workers identified ore sorting as a key variable
which affected the economics of a mine. Rickard (1905)
in the book “The Economics of Mining” stated “whether
to (hand) sort or not, is a question of vital importance to
the economics of a mine; it may mean the choice between
a small yield of high-grade material or a large output of
low-grade, which immediately affects all the operations
carried on at the surface, as well as underground. . ..”
SBS is reviewed here, but several other waste elimina-
tion methods exist, which are primarily gravity-based pro-
cesses (Chapters 10 and 11) that could be employed
underground or at the mine. The techniques are not cur-
rently employed underground due to the need for complex
water handling and retreatment systems (Hughes and
Cormack, 2008; Murphy et al., 2012). Complete SBS
installations are relatively compact (small volume to
throughput ratio), especially when operated dry. Thus,
SBS is commonly employed using a semi-mobile opera-
tion. About 30% of today’s machines being installed are
containerized systems. This being said, there is great
potential for SBS systems integration underground (near-
to-face sorting) especially where stoping and cut-and-fill
methods are used (Schindler, 2003; Dammers et al., 2013;
Robben, 2014).
SBS was first introduced in the late 1940s, and although
its application is fairly limited, it is an important technique
for the processing of certain minerals (e.g., diamonds, ura-
nium, limestone, magnesite, gemstones) (Sassos, 1985;
Salter and Wyatt, 1991; Sivamohan and Forssberg, 1991;
Collins and Bonney, 1998; Arvidson, 2002). Arvidson
(1987) stated that vein-type, layered, brecciated or pebbly
mineralizations were typically good candidate ores for sort-
ing. There is a general misconception that sorters cannot be
used in massive ores, but full liberation is not necessarily
required for successful waste elimination (Chapter 1).
Complete liberation may be required in certain instances for
concentration, such as when limestone is required for filler
purposes (Arvidson, 1987).
14.2 SENSOR-BASED SORTING PRINCIPLES
Many mineral properties have been used as the basis of
sensor-based sorting, including reflectance and color in visi-
ble light (magnesite, limestone, base metal and gold ores,
phosphates, talc, coal), ultraviolet (scheelite), natural
gamma radiation (uranium ore), magnetism (iron ore), con-
ductivity (sulfides), X-ray fluorescence (base metals), and
X-ray luminescence (diamonds). Infrared, Raman, micro-
wave attenuation, and other properties have also been
tested. Table 14.1 gives examples of the properties that can
be exploited using commercially-available sensor technolo-
gies along with example industrial applications. Reviews on
historical developments, the various sensor types, and appli-
cations are given elsewhere (Salter and Wyatt, 1991;
Wotruba, 2006; Wotruba and Harbeck, 2012).
SBS systems inspect particles to determine the value
of some property using contactless and real-time measure-
ments that obtain both location and material properties.
The data are processed and the information (e.g., visible
light reflectance) creates a basis for ejection (or retention)
of those particles which meet some criterion (e.g., light
vs. dark particles). Therefore, a distinct difference in the
required physical property must exist between the valu-
able minerals and the gangue. Either valuables or waste
may be selected for ejection. Automated sorters consist of

TABLE 14.1 Industrial Sensor Technologies and Applications
Sensor Type
Radiometric
X-ray Transmission
X-ray Fluorescence
X-ray Luminescence
Color
Photometric
Near Infrared Spectrometry
Thermal Infrared Camera Electromagnetic
Modified From Salter and Wyatt, 1991; Robben et al., 2013
four basic subsystems (Arvidson, 1987; Salter and Wyatt,
1991; von Ketelhodt, 2012; Robben et al., 2013):
1. Particle presentation
2. Sensing (particle examination/detection)
3. Electronic processing (data analysis)
4. Separation
Robben et al. (2013) include a material conditioning
stage prior to particle presentation. Most important for
successful operation is the presentation of a carefully
selected and screened particle size range that shows both
liberation and a minimum amount of fine material which
is detrimental for high availability. For photometric sort-
ing, particle surfaces sometimes must be moistened or
washed, so that blurring of the signal by a covering layer
does not occur. The upper size limit is technically
350 mm, but nonetheless liberation of barren waste is
often experienced below 100 mm. The lower size limit is
technically 0.5 mm for most detection technologies, but
as the operating costs are inversely proportional to the
average particle size (and weight), the economically fea-
sible lower size limit is often in the range of 10 20 mm.
Separation efficiency decreases when a wide range of
particle sizes is fed to a single machine, the ratio
between maximum and minimum particle size (size
range coefficient) typically should not exceed three
(Robben et al., 2013).
Particle presentation can be achieved via two system
types: chute or belt-type systems (shown in Figure 14.3).
The chute system senses the particles as they free-fall
after being guided on a high-incline chute. For the belt
system, the sensor is mounted above or below the con-
veyor belt, which feeds a monolayer of particles. The
ore must be fed in a monolayer, as individual particles
must be displayed to the sorting device for effective
separation.
Sensor-based Ore Sorting Chapter | 14 411
Material Property Example Applications
Natural gamma radiation Uranium
Atomic density Base metals, coal
Compositional analysis Base/precious metals
Visual fluorescence Diamonds
Reflectance, brightness, transparency Base/precious metals
Monochromatic reflection/absorption Gemstones
Reflectance/absorption Industrial minerals
Differential heating Conductivity Base/precious metals Base metals
Various sensing technologies that are available and
common industrial sensors are listed in Table 14.1.
Electronic processing involves analysis of the data
acquired by the detector. A wide range of site-specific
algorithms are used, depending on the sensor type and
ore characteristics. Physical separation is typically
achieved using an array of about 200 high speed air
valves. Mechanical ejectors are installed in low through-
put units, for example, single particle XRL (X-ray lumi-
nescence) diamond or XRF (X-ray fluorescence) sorters.
Water jets have been discussed and trialed, but have not
found their way into today’s industrial scale sorters
(Fickling, 2011; Robben et al., 2013).
14.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
First patents for SBS technology originated in the 1920s
(Sweet, 1928). During the 1950s Kelly and Hunter
(K 1 H) developed the Model 6 (M6) photometric sorter,
which was subsequently installed at the Mary Kathleen
uranium mine in Australia (Salter and Wyatt, 1991;
Stewart, 1967). In 1966, Gold Fields of South Africa
undertook a joint project with Rio Tinto-Zinc (RTZ)
(through their subsidiary Ore Sorters) to develop sorting
technology for use in South African gold-mining opera-
tions (Barton and Peverett, 1980). The project culminated
with the installation of a Model 13 prototype photometric
sorter at the Doornfontein Gold Mine in 1972 (Keys
et al., 1974; Barton and Peverett, 1980). The sorters were
the first to use laser technology and are considered the
first high tonnage sorters (Salter and Wyatt, 1991). The
Gunson’s Sortex MP80 machine was probably the first
sorter to employ microprocessor technology (Anon.,
1980). The sorter handled minerals in the size range
10 150 mm at feed rates of up to 150 t h21.
412 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology
FIGURE 14.3 Schematics of (a) Belt-type, and (b) Chute-type sorting systems (NIR is near infra-red) (Courtesy Tomra Sorting Solutions).
Rocks having white or gray quartz pebbles in a darker
matrix were accepted, while quartzite ranging from light
green through olive green to black, were rejected. Most of
the gold occurred in rocks which reported to the “accept”
category. Uniform distribution of the ore entering the
sorter was achieved by the use of tandem vibrating fee-
ders and the ore was washed on a second feeder to
remove slimes which could affect light-reflecting quali-
ties. The successful implementation of the Model 13
sorter led to the development of the RTZ Ore Sorters
Model 16 photometric sorter, which has been used since
1976 on a wide range of ore types (e.g., magnesite, wol-
framite, gold) (Anon., 1981a; Barton and Peverett, 1980).
A subsequent development to the RTZ Ore Sorters
Model 16 is the Ultrasort UFS120 photometric sorter,
which is used in the processing of magnesite, feldspar,
limestone, and talc. Ore passes from a vibrating feeder to
high pressure water sprays and counterweight feeder
where water is removed and the rocks are accelerated to
form a monolayer. They drop onto a short conveyor mov-
ing at 2 m s21 where they pass via a high speed 5 m s21
“slinger” conveyor into free fall, now well separated. The
rock layer, 0.8 1.2 m wide, is scanned by a laser beam at
up to 4,000 times per second, and the reflection analyzed
in less than 0.25 μs by photomultiplier tubes and high
speed parallel processors. One or more of 120 air ejectors
are fired to divert the value or waste past a cutter and into
the accept/reject bins. As the position of the rock is accu-
rately identified, and the ejector firing duration is less
than 1 ms, the sorter can operate very selectively.
SBS has been employed in diamond recovery since
the 1960s, initially using simple optical sorters and more
recently machines based on the fact that diamonds lumi-
nesce when irradiated by X-rays (Anon, 1971; Rylatt and
Popplewell, 1999a,b; Damjanović and Goode, 2000). X-
ray luminescence sorters are used in almost all diamond
operations for the final stages of recovery after the ore
has been concentrated by DMS (Chapter 11). They replace
grease separation (Taggart, 1945), which exploits the
natural hydrophobicity (oleophilicity) of diamonds and is
now used only in rare cases where the diamonds luminesce
weakly or to audit the X-ray sorter tailings. Luminescence
is a more consistent diamond property than oleophilicity,
and sorters are more secure than grease belts or tables.
Figure 14.4 shows an early dry X-ray sorter, in which
the DMS concentrates are exposed to a beam of X-rays in

FIGURE 14.4 Early diamond sorter. A: X-Ray generator; B:
Photomultiplier tubes; C: Air ejectors; D: Feed belt (Courtesy JKMRC
and JKTech Pty Ltd).
free fall from a conveyor belt, the luminescence detected
by photomultiplier tubes and the diamonds ejected by air
ejectors. Both dry and wet X-ray machines are now
available, and the process is usually multistage to ensure
efficient rejection of waste with very high diamond
recoveries.
The “Lapointe picker” was probably the earliest radio-
metric sorter, developed in Canada and used in the 1940s
(Lapointe and Wilmot, 1952; Bettens and Lapointe, 1955;
Salter and Wyatt, 1991). Radiometric sorting has since
been used to pre-concentrate uranium ore in South Africa
(Anon., 1981b), Namibia, Australia (Bibby, 1982), and
Canada (IAEA, 1967, 1980, 1993). A sorter installed at
the Rössing Mine in Namibia (Gordon and Heuer, 2000)
detected gamma radiation from the higher grade ore
pieces using scintillation counters comprising NaI crystals
and photomultiplier tubes mounted under the belt. Lead
shielding was used to achieve improved resolution of
detection. A laser-based optical system similar to that
used in photometric sorters was used to determine rock
position and size for ejection, and could be adapted to
determine additional optical characteristics of the rocks.
Some uranium operations undertake selective mining
practices, which could be considered ore sorting (IAEA,
1980, 1993). Radiometric readings are taken on truck-
loads of ore. Based on the readings, ore is placed in
high-grade, low-grade, or waste stockpiles. The ore can
then be appropriately blended or processed separately
based on grade.
Several other physical properties of ores and minerals
have been exploited in a range of sorting machines.
Neutron absorption (or activation) separation has been
used for the sorting of boron minerals (Mokrousov et al.,
1975). The ore is delivered by a conveyor belt between a
slow neutron source and a scintillation neutron detector.
The neutron flux attenuation by the ore particles is
Sensor-based Ore Sorting Chapter | 14 413
detected and used as the means of sorting. The method is
most applicable in the size range 25 150 mm. Boron
minerals are easy to sort by neutron absorption since
the neutron capture cross section of the boron atom is
very large compared with those of common associated
elements and thus the neutron absorption is almost pro-
portional to the boron content of the particles. The tech-
nique has also been tested on gold ores (Uken et al.,
1966, 1968).
Near infra-red (NIR), which has seen wide use in recy-
cling applications, has recently been investigated for use
in the mining industry. It has been successfully imple-
mented for waste elimination from boron minerals (cole-
manite, ulexite) (Dehler et al., 2012). Development work
has shown promise in separating talc from carbonate and
quartz (von Ketelhodt and Bartram, 2009), processing
porphyry copper samples (Dalm et al., 2014), and for
waste rock removal in the diamond industry (von
Ketelhodt and Bartram, 2014).
Photoneutron separation (gamma activation) is
recommended for the sorting of beryllium ores. When a
beryllium isotope in the mineral is exposed to gamma
radiation of a certain energy, a photoneutron is released
and this may be detected by scintillation or by a gas
counter.
The RTZ Ore Sorters Model 19 sorter measured con-
ductivity and magnetic properties and had application to a
wide variety of ores including sulfides, oxides, and native
metals (Anon., 1981a). The machine treated 25 150 mm
rocks at up to 120 t h21. Such systems employ a tuned
coil under the belt which is influenced by the conductivity
and/or magnetic susceptibility of the rocks in its proxim-
ity. Phase shift and amplitude are used to decide on
acceptance or rejection.
Outokumpu developed the “Precon” sorter which
was installed at the Hammaslahti copper mine (now
closed) (Kennedy, 1985). The Precon sorter used
gamma scattering analysis to evaluate the total metal
content, and had a capacity of 7 t h21 for 35 mm lumps
rising to 40 t h21 for 150 mm lumps. Primary crushed
ore was pre-concentrated, rejecting about 25% as waste
grading 0.2% copper, compared with an average feed
grade of 1.2%.
RADOS XRF sorting technology has been used (pri-
marily in Russia) over the past two decades at 49 opera-
tional sites for over 20 commodities (Fickling, 2011;
RADOS, 2014). The sensor directly identifies ore elemen-
tal composition using X-ray fluorescence technology
(able to detect elements with an atomic number .20) and
sorts accordingly. Figure 14.5 shows the internal arrange-
ment of the RADOS XRF chute-type sorter and a row of
units operating at a copper/zinc mine in Russia. Particles
free-fall from the chute past an X-ray source and detector.
Particles are separated via a mechanical ejector into
414 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology
FIGURE 14.5 Left: Internals of a RADOS XRF sorter (modified from Fickling, 2011), Right: Rados XRF sorter installation at Ural Mountains
Mining Company’s Svyatogor Cu/Zn Mine (Courtesy RADOS International Technologies).
concentrate and discard streams. Typically, feed grade
must exceed 0.1 wt% for effective detection, although the
system can also use a matrix of elements as the criteria
for separation in low grade ore systems (e.g., gold, ura-
nium or PGM) (RADOS, 2014).
Microwave attenuation has been used to sort diamond-
bearing kimberlite from waste rock (Salter et al., 1989).
The development was notable for the first use of high
speed pulsed water ejectors. Equipment to sort asbestos
ore has also been developed (Collier, 1972). The detection
technique was based on the low thermal conductivity of
asbestos fibers and used sequential heating and infrared
scanning to detect the asbestos seams. The use of micro-
wave heating coupled with infrared-thermography has
been tested on a wide range of minerals (e.g., cop-
per molybdenum ore, iron ore) for sorting purposes
(Sivamohan and Forssberg, 1991; van Weert et al., 2009;
Ghosh et al., 2013).
A machine was installed at King Island Scheelite
in Tasmania, where the scheelite was sensed by its
fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation. XRT (X-ray
transmission) has proven to be superior to UV fluores-
cence. Mittersill Mine currently operates XRT sorters
for waste elimination where ca. 25% of the 130 t h21
run-of-mine stream grading 0.03% WO3 is rejected
before milling and sold as aggregate (Mosser and
Gruber, 2010).
Rapid developments in sensing and computing tech-
nology have increased the capabilities of today’s SBS
machines significantly. In addition, industrial food proces-
sing and recycling industries have openly adopted the
technology and tens of thousands of sorters are installed
for numerous separation tasks. The mining industry is
now benefiting from those developments, with proven
detection and data processing being available for applica-
tion on mining proof machines.
14.4 EXAMPLE FLOWSHEET AND
ECONOMIC DRIVERS
SBS installations typically consist of: crusher, screen,
sorter, and compressor. Because of the often large parti-
cle sizes and low concentrations of valuables, it is
advised to install mechanical sampling, size reduction
and splitting equipment to enable determination of plant
performance.
Figure 14.6 shows an example flowsheet for a multi-
stage, multi-machine stage operation. Machines are com-
monly operated in parallel for high throughput opera-
tions. Cascading circuit arrangements enhance
separation efficiency and allow for redundancy and the
potential for multiple detection technologies to be
combined.
Capital and operating costs are typically roughly half
the costs of dense-media systems. Since SBS is a single
particle technology, the throughput is inversely propor-
tional to the average particle size fed to the machine.
Both types of specific costs are thus inversely dependent
upon the average particle size. The upper particle size is
determined by the liberation characteristics of the ore and
the lower particle size limit by the economically viable
specific costs per ton of product.
Typically, the highest economic benefit is obtained
when eliminating deleterious waste that hinders down-
stream processes. In such cases, the overall recovery

FIGURE 14.6 Example rougher-scavenger flowsheet for waste elimi-
nation from base and precious metals run-of-mine ore.
FIGURE 14.7 Estimation of throughput and operating costs depending
on the average particle feed size. (Courtesy C. Robben).
(and potentially product quality) increases while reducing
the specific costs per ton processed, and reducing the
comminution and processing of waste material.
Eliminating waste from the ROM stream also allows for
higher dilution in the mine, which may allow for proces-
sing of marginal waste dumps or mining blocks (i.e.,
allowing for decreased cut-off grades and extended mine
life) (Bamber et al., 2004; Pretz et al., 2011; Robben,
2013) (Figure 14.7).
In summary, SBS is a relatively low cost and versatile
technology that has the potential for wide applicability in
the minerals industry, if liberation of either waste or prod-
uct is sufficient in coarse particle sizes. The currently
available suite of detection technologies allows for dis-
crimination of single particles based on a pre-determined
separation criteria (e.g., NIR spectrum, color,
Sensor-based Ore Sorting Chapter | 14 415
conductivity, atomic density). Today’s mining machines
integrate state of the art technology into mechanical
designs. Increased pressure to decrease processing costs
and environmental impact will undoubtedly further the
use of SBS in the mining industry.
REFERENCES
Agricola, G., 1556 De Re Metallica Libri XII. Wiebaden, Fourier Verlag
GmbH 2003.
Anon, 1971. New generation of diamond recovery machines developed
in South Africa. S. Afr. Min. Eng. J.(May), 17 18.
Anon, 1980. Micro-processor speeds optical sorting of industrial miner-
als. Mine and Quarry. 9 (Mar), 48 49.
Anon, 1981a. Photometric ore sorting. World Mining. 34 (4), 42 47.
Anon, 1981b. New ore sorting system. Mining J. 296-297 (Dec.),
446 447.
Arvidson, B., 2002. Photometric ore sorting. In: Mular, A.L., et al.,
(Eds.), Mineral Processing Plant Design, Practice and Control, vol.
2. SME, Littleton, CO, USA, pp. 1033 1048.
Arvidson, B., 1987. Economics and Technical Features of
Preconcentration Using Sorting. Proc. SME Annual Meeting. SME,
Denver, CO, USA, Preprinter: 87-125: 1-22.
Bamber, A., et al., 2004. Reducing selectivity in narrow-vein mining
through the integration of underground pre-concentration. Proc. 15th
International Symposium on Narrow Vein Mining Techniques,
CANMET, Canada, pp. 1 12.
Barton, P.J., Peverett, N.F., 1980. Automated sorting on a South
African gold mine. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall. 80 (3),
103 111.
Bettens, A.H., Lapointe, C.M., 1955. Electronic concentration of low
grade ores with the Lapointe picker. Department of Mines Branch
Technical Surveys (No. NP-5508; TR-123/54), Queen’s Printer,
Ottawa, ON, Canada.
Bibby, P.A., 1982. Preconcentration by radiometric ore sorting. Proc. 1st
Mill Operators’ Conf., AusIMM, Melbourne, North West
Queensland, Australia, pp. 193 201.
Collier, D., 1972. Ore sorters for asbestos and scheelite. Proc.
International Conference on Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 19, No. 72,
London, UK, pp. 1007 1022.
Collins, D.N., Bonney, C.F., 1998. Separation of coarse particles
( . 1 mm). Int. Min. Miner., (IM&M). 1-2 (Apr.), 104 112.
Cutmore, N.G., Ebehardt, J.E., 2002. The future of ore sorting in sustain-
able processing. Proc. Green Process. AusIMM, Cairns, Australia,
pp. 287 289.
Dalm, M., et al., 2014. Application of near-infrared spectroscopy to
sensor based sorting of a porphyry copper ore. Miner. Eng. 58,
7 16.
Damjanović, B., Goode, J.R. (Eds.), 2000. Canadian Milling Practice.
Special, vol. 49. CIM, Montreal, QC, Canada.
Dammers, M., et al., 2013. Synergies and potentials of near-to-face
processing An integrated study on the effects of mining processes
and primary resource efficiency. Proc. Aachen International Mining
Symposia (AIMS), Aachen, Germany, pp. 283 297.
Dehler, M., et al., 2012. NIR versus color sorting of industrial minerals.
Proc. Sensor-Based Sorting Conf., Aachen, Germany.
Ednie, H., 2006. Celebrating a century of excellence: Teck Cominco’s
trail operations. CIM Mag. 1 (3), 35 43.
416 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology
Fickling, R.S., 2011. An introduction to the RADOS XRF ore sorter.
Proc. 6th South Africa Base Metals Conf., SAIMM, Phalaborwa,
South Africa, pp. 99 110.
Ghosh, A., et al., 2013. A non-invasive technique for sorting alumina-
rich iron ores. Miner. Eng. 45, 55 58.
Gordon, H.P., Heuer, T., 2000. New age radiometric sorting-the elegant
solution. In: Ozberk, E., Oliver, A.J. (Eds.), Proc. Uranium 2000:
Int. Symposium on the Process Metallurgy of Uranium. CIM,
Saskatoon, SK, Canada. 35(43): 323 338.
Hughes, T., Cormack, G., 2008. Potential benefits of underground pro-
cessing for the gold sector-conceptual process design and cost bene-
fits. Proc. 1st International Future Mining Conf., Sydney, Australia,
pp. 135 142.
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)., 1967. Processing of Low-
Grade Uranium Ores: Proceedings of a Panel Held in Vienna,
Austria.
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)., 1980. Significance of
Mineralogy in the Development of Flowsheets for Processing
Uranium Ores: Technical report. Series No. 196, Vienna,
Austria.
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency)., 1993. Uranium Extraction
Technology: Technical report Series No. 359, Vienna, Austria.
Kennedy, A., 1985. Mineral processing developments at Hammaslahti,
Finland. Mining Mag. 152 (2), 122 125.
Keys, N.J., et al., 1974. Photometric sorting of ore on a South African
gold mine. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall. 75 (2), 13 21.
Lapointe, C.M., Wilmot, R.D., 1952. Electronic concentration of ores
with the Lapointe belt picker. Department of Mines and Technical
Surveys, Memo No. 123 (No. NP-4384). Canada.
Lessard, J., et al., 2014. Developments of ore sorting and its impact on
mineral processing economics. Miner. Eng. 65, 88 97.
Mokrousov, V.A., et al., 1975. Neutron-radiometric processes for ore
beneficiation. Proc. 11th International Mineral Processing Congr.,
Cagliari, Italy.
Mosser, A., Gruber, H., 2010. Operational experience with a sensor
based sorting system. Proc. Sensor-Based Sorting Conf., Aachen,
Gesellschaft für Bergbau, metallurgie, Rostoff- und
Umweltechnik.
Murphy, B., et al., 2012. Underground preconcentration by ore sorting
and coarse gravity separation. Proc. Narrow Vein Mining Conf.,
Perth, West Australia, Australia, pp. 237 244.
Pretz, T., et al., 2011. Applications of Sensor-based Sorting in
Raw Material Industry. Shaker Verlag GmbH (Publisher),
Germany.
Rados, 2014. RADOS XRF Sorters. ,http://www.radosxrf.com/index.
htm.. Retrieved Feb. 2014.
Rickard, T.A. (Ed.), 1905. The Economics of Mining. 1st Edn., Eng.
Min. J., New York, NY, USA, pp. 8 10.
Robben, C., et al., 2013. Potential of sensor-based sorting for the gold
mining industry. CIM J. 4 (3), 191 200.
Robben, C., 2014. Characteristics of Sensor-based Sorting Technology
and Implementation in Mining. Shaker verlag GmbH (Publisher),
Aachen, Germany.
Rylatt, M.G., Popplewell, G.M., 1999a. Ekati diamond mine-background
and development. Mining Eng. 51 (1), 37 43.
Rylatt, M.G., Popplewell, G.M., 1999b. Diamond processing at Ekati in
Canada. Mining Eng. 51 (2), 19 25.
Salter, J.D., Wyatt, N.P.G., 1991. Sorting in the minerals industry: Past,
present and future. Miner. Eng. 4 (7-11), 779 796.
Salter, J.D., et al., 1989. Kimberlite-gabbro sorting by use of microwave
attenuation: Development from the laboratory to a 100t/h pilot plant.
Proc. Today’s Technology for the Mining and Metallurgical
Industries. Kyoto, Japan, pp. 347 358.
Sassos, M.P., 1985. Mineral sorters: How these machines can improve
efficiency and financial return in minerals processing. Eng. Min. J.
186 (6), 68 72.
Schindler, I., 2003. Simulation Based Comparison of Cut and Fill
Mining with and without Underground Pre-concentration. Diplom
Thesis, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
Sivamohan, R., Forssberg, E., 1991. Electronic sorting and other precon-
centration methods. Miner. Eng. 4 (7-11), 797 814.
Stewart, J.R., 1967. Status report from Australia. Processing of Low-
Grade Uranium Ores: Proceedings of a Panel. (Panel Proceedings
Series), International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria,
pp. 3 8.
Sweet, A.T., 1928. Metallurgical Separator. Patent No. 1678884 A.
United State Patent Office.
Taggart, A.F., 1945. Handbook of Mineral Dressing: Ores and Industrial
Minerals. Wiley Handbook Series, New York, NY, USA,
pp. 12 50.
Uken, E.A., et al., 1966. The application of neutron activation analysis
to sorting Witwatersrand gold-bearing ores. J. S. Afr. Inst. Min.
Metall. 67 (3), 99 114.
Uken, E.A., et al., 1968. The determination of gold in ores and solutions
by activation analysis with a neutron generator. Int. J. Appl. Radiat.
Isot. 19 (8), 615 623.
Van Weert, G., et al., 2009. Upgrading molybdenite ores between mine
and mill using microwave/infrared (MW/IR) sorting technology.
Proc. 41st Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors
Conf., CIM, Ottawa, ON, Canada, pp. 509 521.
von Ketelhodt, L.G.V.F., 2009. Viability of optical sorting of gold waste
rock dumps. Proc. World Gold Conference 2009. SAIMM, Cradle of
Humankind, Gauteng, South Africa, pp. 271 278.
von Ketelhodt, L.G.V.F., 2012. Beneficiation of Witwatersrand Type
Gold Ores by Means of Optical Sorting. M.Sc. Thesis, University of
Witwatersrand, South Africa.
von Ketelhodt, L., Bartram, K., 2009. New Developments in Sensor-
based Sorting. In: Malhotra, D., et al., (Eds.), Recent Advances in
Mineral Processing Plant Design. SME, Littleton, CO, USA,
pp. 476 489.
von Ketelhodt, L., Bartram, K., 2014. Diamond processing using sensor
based sorting. GSSA Kimberley Diamond Symposium & Trade
Show, Kimberley, South Africa, pp. 1 5.
Wotruba, H., 2006. Sensor sorting technology-is the minerals industry
missing a chance. (Plenary Lecture). Proc. 23rd International Mineral
Processing Congr., Istanbul, Turkey, pp. 21 30.
Wotruba, H., Harbeck, H., 2012. Sensor-based sorting. Ullmann’s
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH &
Co. KgaA, Weinheim, Germany.