DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY

Differential transformers
 The linear variable differential transformer, generally referred as LVDT, consists
of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube (Figure 7).
 The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are identical secondary
coils which are connected in series.
 A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of the displacement
being monitored.

Figure 7: LVDT and its ouput

DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY

Differential transformers
 When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating e.m.f.
is induced in the secondary coils.
 With the magnetic core central, the amount of magnetic material in each of the
secondary coils is the same. Thus the e.m.f. induced in each coil are the same.
 Since they are so connected that their outputs oppose each other, the net result is
zero output.
= − =0

Figure 8: LVDT

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 DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY
Optical encoders
 An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as result of a linear or angular
displacement.
 Position encoders can be grouped into two categories: incremental encoders that detect
changes in rotation from some initial position and absolute encoders which give the
actual angular position.
 Figure 9 shows the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement.
 A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable light sensor.
 When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the number of
pulses being proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates.
 Thus, the angular position of the disc, and hence the shaft rotating it, can be determined
by the number of pulses produced since some datum position.

Figure 9: Incremental encoder

DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY

Pneumatic sensors
 Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an
object being transformed into a change in air pressure.
 Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor.
 This escaping air, in the absence of any close-by object, escapes and in doing so also
reduces the pressure in the nearby sensor output port.
 However, if there is a close-by object, the air cannot so readily escape and the result is
that the pressure increases in the sensor output port.
 The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of objects.
 Such sensors are used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of millimeters in
ranges which typically are about 3 to 12mm. datum position.

Figure 10: Pneumatic proximity sensor

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 DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY
Proximity switches
 There are a number of forms of switch which can be activated by the presence of an
object in order to give a proximity sensor with an output which is either on or off.
 The microswitch is a small electrical switch which requires physical contact and a small
operating force to close the contacts.
 For example, in the case of determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt.
 Figure shows examples of ways such switches can be actuated.

Figure 11: (a) Lever-operated, (b) roller-operated, (c) cam-operated

VELOCITY & MOTION

Tachogenerator
 The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity.
 One form, the variable reluctance tachogenerator, consists of a toothed wheel of
ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating shaft (Figure 12).
 A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet.
 As the wheel rotates, so the teeth move past the coil and the air gap between the coil and
the ferromagnetic material changes.

Figure 12: Variable reluctance tachogenerator

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 VELOCITY & MOTION
Tachogenerator
 We have a magnetic circuit with an air gap which periodically changes.
 Thus the flux linked by a pick-up coil changes.
 The resulting cyclic change in the flux linked produce an alternating e.m.f. in the coil.
 If the wheel contains n teeth and rotates with an angular velocity , then the flux change
with time for the coil can be considered to be of the form.

Φ = Φ + Φ cos

where Φ is the mean value of the flux and Φ the amplitude of the flux variation.

VELOCITY & MOTION

Strain gauge load cell
 A very commonly used form of force-measuring transducer is based on the use of
electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the strain produced in some member when
stretched, compressed or bent by the application of the force.
 The arrangement is generally referred to as a load cell (Figure 13).
 This is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have been attached.
 When forces are applied to the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauges give a
resistance change which is a measure of the strain and hence the applied forces.
 Since temperature also produces a resistance change, the signal conditioning circuit used
has to be able to eliminate the effects due to temperature.

Figure 13: Strain gauge load cell

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 FLUID PRESSURE
Many of the devices uses to monitor fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the
monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.
Diaphragms
 For a diaphragm figure 14, when there is a difference in pressure between the two sides
then the center of the diaphragm becomes displaced.
 Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity.
 This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor, e.g. a strain
gauge as shown in figure 15.

Figure 14: Diaphragms (a) flat, (b) corrugated Figure 15: Diaphragms presure gauge

FLUID PRESSURE
Capsules and Bellows:
 Capsules figure 16a can be considered to be just two corrugated diapharams combined and
give greater sensitivity. A stack of capsules is just a bellows (figure 16b) and even more
sensitive.
 Figure 17 shows how a bellows can be combined with a LVDT to give a pressure sensor
with an electrical output.
 A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an elliptical cross section
figure 18.
 Increasing the pressure in such a tube causes it to tend to a more circular cross-section, this
is being generally known as a Bourdon tube.

Figure 16: (a) capsule (b) bellows Figure 17: LVDT with bellows Figure 18: Bourdon tube

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 FLUID PRESSURE
Tactile sensor
 A tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor.
 Such a sensor is used on the ‘fingertips’ of robotic ‘hands’ to determine when a ‘hand’ has
come into contact with an object.
 They are also used for ‘ touch display’ screens where a physical contact has to be sensed.
 One form of tactile sensor uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film.

Figure 19: PVDF tactile sensor

LIQUID FLOW
Orifice plate
 The orifice plate (figure 20) is simply a disc, with a central hole which is placed
in the tube through which the fluid is flowing.
 The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of the
tube upstream and a point equal to half the diameter downstream.
 The orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no moving parts, and is widely used. It
however, does not work well with slurries.

Figure 20: Orifice plate

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 LIQUID FLOW
Turbine meter
 The turbine flow meter (figure 21) consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported
centrally in the pipe along which the flow occurs.
 The fluid flow results in rotation of the rotor, the angular velocity being approximately
proportional to the flow rate.
 The rate of revolution of the rotor can be determined using a magnetic pick-up. The
pulses are counted and so the number of revolutions of the rotor can be determined.
 These meters are expensive as they have higher accuracy.

Figure 21: Turbine flowmeter

LIQUID LEVEL
 The level of liquid in a vessel can be measured directly by monitoring the position of the
liquid surface or indirectly by measuring some variable to the height.
 Direct methods can involve floats.
 Indirect methods include the monitoring of the weight of the vessel by, perhaps, load
cells.
Floats
 A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid in a vessel is by monitoring the
movement of a float (figure 22)
 The displacement of the float causes a lever arm to rotate and so move a slider across a
potentiometer.
 The result is an output of a voltage related to the height of liquid.

Figure 22: Float system

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 SELECTION OF SENSORS
In selecting a sensor for a particular application there are a number of factors that need to be
considered:
1. The nature of the measurement required, e.g. the variable to be measured, its nominal
value, the range of values, the accuracy required, the required speed of measurement, the
reliability required, the environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be
made.
2. The nature of the output required from the sensor, this determining the signal
conditioning requirements in order to give suitable output signals from the measurement.
3. Possible sensors can be identified, taking into account such factors as their range,
accuracy, linearity, speed of response, reliability, maintainability, life, power supply
requirements, cost.