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INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS

ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA

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 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD
PAVEMENT FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA

Onyelowe, K. C.

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Engineering Technology,

Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, P.M.B. 7267, Umuahia 440109, Abia State, Nigeria.
konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng, Phone: +2348039547350/+2348176518152

ABSTRACT

Most of the road pavements in developing countries of Africa are in deplorable condition and Nigeria being one of these
countries is not an exception. The present statistical research work has discovered 51 causes of road pavement failures which
have been assessed and analyzed statistically from the perceptions of contractors and consultants in the industry through a
means of responses, severity index and ranking which lead to the development of an agreement based on the analyzed factors
by both parties through a means of null hypothesis. By the assessment and agreement fully depicted in the table and the null
hypothesis analysis carried out, the contractors and consultants collectively highlighted several factors as the intricate causes
of road pavement failures in Nigeria. From Table 1, it has been shown that Contractors ranked “poor maintenance
policy/culture”1st while consultants had ranked it 5th. Further, “poor design and construction” and “inadequate strength in
surfacing and base” were equally ranked 2nd by Contractors whilst these were ranked 3rd and 4th respectively by Consultants.
Finally, “poor highway facilities” and “inadequate compaction before opening to traffic” were ranked 3 rd by Contractors whilst
Consultants on their part ranked these 2nd and 12th respectively. However, “defects caused during construction due to poor
construction quality” and “inferior asphalt mix design” that had been ranked 1 st by Contractors were ranked 8th and 5th
respectively by Consultants thereby recommending prompt attention by road workers, highway management and maintenance
agencies and government to look into these important critical factors causing road pavement failures in Nigeria, outline and
enforce ways of tackling them. Finally, the test of null hypothesis carried out went further to indicate the degree of agreement
between contractors and consultants in their assessment of the identified causes of road pavement failure in south eastern
Nigeria.

Key words: Index study, south-eastern, contractors, consultants, perception, pavement failure.

1. INTRODUCTION
The rate of road pavement failures in developing countries
like Nigeria has reached a disastrous stage in recent times
that it now claims lives and properties of road users. It has
made these developing countries loose properties worth
billions of dollars through the failures and if nothing is
done, they will stand the risk of losing more. In Nigeria,
“the annual loss due to bad roads is valued at N80 billion,
while additional vehicle operating cost resulting from bad
roads is valued at N53.8 billion, bringing the total loss per
annum to N133.8 billion”. This figure does not take into
account the man-hour losses in traffic due to bad roads
and other emotional and physical trauma people go
through plying the roads and the consequent loss in
productivity (NFMW, 1970). Over the years, considerable
interest has been shown by the
Nigerian government in the construction and rehabilitation
of roads, but the issue is “to what extent has their interest
been driven to achieve desired results?”
And this is the more reason why this research work is
undertaken to investigate from the perspective of the
major players; contractors, consultants and construction
firms the root causes of the road pavement failures in
Nigerian roads. A road pavement section may be
generally defined as the structural material placed on the
natural soil(sub-grade), designed to withstand traffic
loading and the action of the climate with minimal failures
and in the most economical way (Sultan and Mohmood,
2013). In asphaltic pavement, it is typically a multi-layered
system comprising the sub-grade (support), sub-base,
base course and surfacing. The principal function of road
pavements is to receive load from the traffic and transmit
it through its layers to the sub-grade (Sultan and
Mohmood, 2013).The aim of this project work is to reveal
first hand information from the road contractors,
consultants & construction firms as the main actors in the
road constructions and maintenance process, on the root
causes of road pavement failures in Nigerian roads
through the analysis of the diverse possible factors that
may lead to road pavement failures.
 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT
FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA.
In the works carried out by previous researchers (Okigbo,
2012; 2013) on “causes of highway failures in Nigeria”,
they exposed the causes and effects of highway failures
in Nigeria. A researcher (Ette, 2010),brought to limelight
the condition of national road network as at 1999, he said
that of the National Road Network, 27% was good, 38%
fair and 35% poor which really shows a very bad report of
the overall national road network. A road that is functional
should possess the following characteristics;
1. The road should be able to give an all weather
support to vehicles. That is, it should bear and
distribute wheel loads within the bearing capacity of
the sub grade soil.
2. It should boast of adequate drainage facilities. This
means that there should be free flow of water and
flood along its drainage system so that water will not
flow back on to the pavement to cause one problem
or the other.
3. It should provide adequate skid resistance. This
implied that it should provide enough frictional
adhesion to vehicle tyres especially during
acceleration, deceleration and on curves.
4. There should be adequate highway geometrical
facilities like good geometric design of road widths,
intersections, side-slopes, sight distance etc that
make for easy movement and passing with safety at
established level of service.
In general, previous works have identified the following
causes of road pavement failure thus; Poor Design and
Construction, Heavy Traffic, Poor Maintenance Culture,
Poor Highway Facilities, Poor Laboratory and In-situ Tests
on Soil, Use of Low Quality Materials, Poor Workmanship,
Poor Supervision, Low Knowledge Based, No Local
Standard of Practice, Inadequate Sanctions for Highway
Failures, Not Co-Opting Local Professional Bodies in
Highway Design, and Construction and Maintenance
(Okigbo, 2012; Oguara, 2010; Igomu, 2011) and their
consequent effects as; Accidents, Increase in Faulty
Vehicles, Waste of Journey Time, Traffic Congestion, Aid
to Crime (Robbery), Soil Erosion, Adverse Economic
Development etc (Igomu, 2011; Obi, 2010; Bashir, 2012;
Onyelowe, 2011;Nnanna et al., 2003; Ogundipe, 2001).
2. RESEARCH METHOD
This research work focuses mainly on the factors
influencing road pavement failure in Aba, Owerri,
Umuahia and Enugu. Based on in-depth literature review
contractors and consultants on the causes of road
pavement failure identified from study.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015
Onyelowe, 2015
from previous researchers and interviews from Nigerian
road contractors and consultants, a collection of 51 factors
were identified from the different researchers and
contractors as possible factors causing road pavement
failures on Nigerian roads. A questionnaire was designed
with these 51 factors causing road pavement failures. The
questionnaire was then sent out to about 52 respondents
who were all experienced engineers and surveyors in
neighbourhood of contractors and consultants in the
Nigerian road constructions, maintenance and
rehabilitations industries. The Severity Index for all the
identified causes of pavement failure was conducted as
shown in Eq.1 (Al-Hazmi and Asaf, 1987);
∑𝑖=4
𝑆𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐼𝑠) = 𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖
(1)
∑𝑖=4
𝑖=0 𝑥𝑖
Where ai = constant expressing the weight given to the ith
responses,
ai = 0, 1, 2, 3 & 4 for i = 0, 1, 2, 3 & 4 respectively.
a0 = 0 is equivalent to “does not cause”
a1 = 1 is equivalent to “disagree”
a2 = 2 is equivalent to “slightly agree”
a3 = 3 is equivalent to “moderately agree”
a4 = 4 is equivalent to “strongly agree”
While Xi is the variable expressing percentage of degree
of importance of each factor,
X0 = Percentage of frequency of “does not cause”
X1 = Percentage of frequency of “disagree”
X2 = Percentage of frequency of “slightly agree”
X3 = Percentage of frequency of “moderately agree”
X4 = Percentage of frequency of “strongly agree”
The spearman’s correlation coefficient was then carried
out to ascertain the degree of agreement and deviation
between the two parties under consideration for the
causes of pavement failure identified with the expression
in Eq. 2 (Inyama, 1995);
6 ∑ 𝐷2
𝜆 =1−[ ] (2)
𝑛(𝑛2 −1)
Where D= the difference between the rankings of each
factor in both contractors and consultants,
n= the number of ranked factors.
Further, a t-test null hypothesis analysis was conducted to
establish the degree of agreement between
Table 1 shows the responses and the results of the survey
carried out and their perspective rankings gotten through
the severity index (Is) of the respective factors from 27
Page 2
 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT
FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA. Onyelowe, 2015

contractors and 25 consultants with the respective

deviations.

Table 1: Responses from parties and the rankings

S/N ROAD PAVEMENT FAILURE Contractors Consultants D2

FACTORS.
INDEX IS (%) RANK INDEX IS (%) RANK

1 Reflection of a shrinkage crack or joint in 17.6 34 34.0 28 36

an underlying base.

2 Construction joint or shrinkage crack in 37.9 30 57.0 21 81

the asphalt pavement.

3 Structural failure of base. 79.6 12 91.3 2 100

4 Defects caused during construction due 85.2 8 93.0 1 49

to poor construction quality.

5 Low knowledge base 82.4 11 73.0 15 16

6 Poor highway facilities 92.6 3 91.3 2 1

7 Inadequate sanctions for highway failure 82.4 11 87.0 6 25

8 Poor local standard of practice 74.1 15 79.0 11 16

9 Poor supervision 55.6 20 86.0 7 169

10 Poor laboratory and in situ tests on soil 54.6 21 90.0 3 324

11 Poor maintenance policy / culture 94.5 1 88.0 5 16

12 Poor design and construction 93.5 2 90.0 3 1

13 Large axial traffic loading 91.7 4 72.0 16 144

14 Large traffic volume using the road 75.9 14 74.0 14 0

15 Inadequate compaction in surfacing or 87.1 6 83.0 9 9

sub / base

UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015 Page 3

 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT
FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA. Onyelowe, 2015

16 Inadequate strength (stability) in 93.5 2 89.0 4 4

surfacing or base

17 Inadequate compaction, construction 84.3 9 76.0 13 16

during wet or cold weather

18 Inadequate rolling before opening to 92.6 3 78.0 12 81

traffic

19 Poor bond between pavement layers 70.4 17 62.0 20 9

20 Low binder content 43.5 26 57.0 21 25

21 Poor blinder to stone adhesion 86.1 7 72.8 16 81

22 Incorrect blending of binder 50.9 23 35.9 27 16

23 Aging or absorption of blinder 50.9 23 53.0 22 1

24 Weak seal coat, loss of adhesion to base 39.8 28 53.0 22 36

25 Weak, loose layer immediately under 57.4 19 70.0 17 4

laying seal

26 Inadequate cleaning or inadequate tack 45.4 25 86.0 7 324

coat before placement of upper layers

27 Shrinkage & fatigue of brittle base or 24.1 33 53.0 22 121

wearing Course

28 Fatigue cracking of AC wearing course 48.2 24 83.0 9 225

29 Shrinkage & binder oxidation in AC or 27.8 32 64.6 19 169

sprayed surfacing due to effect of age
and environment
30 Poor climate condition 60.2 18 45.0 23 25

31 Poor drainage design system 79.7 12 89.0 4 64

32 Seepage of water through asphalt to 52.8 22 65.0 18 16

break bond between surface and lower
layers
33 High ground water level 84.3 9 83.0 9 0

34 Stone deterioration 60.2 18 44.6 24 36

UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015 Page 4

 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT
FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA. Onyelowe, 2015

35 Low stiffness base and poor material 28.7 31 76.1 13 324

36 Poor material quality on sub / base layers 88.9 5 73.0 15 100

37 Deterioration of binder and / or stone 76.9 13 40.0 25 144

38 Hydrophilic aggregate 40.7 27 38.0 26 1

39 Inadequate resistance to polishing of 39.8 29 32.0 29 0

surface Aggregate

40 Use of naturally smooth uncrushed 37.9 30 83.0 9 441

aggregate
41 Inferior asphalt mix design 88.0 5 93.0 1 16

42 Alignment which encourages drivers to 75.0 14 84.0 8 36

travel on pavement edge
43 Poor alignment of the road 71.9 16 64.0 19 9

44 Poor geometric design of the road 48.2 24 74.0 14 100

45 Inadequate pavement thickness 88.9 5 83.0 9 16

46 Inadequate base thickness 84.3 9 81.0 10 1

47 Inadequate sub base thickness 86.1 7 70.0 17 100

48 Inadequate pavement width 75.9 14 83.0 9 25

49 Inadequate edge support 85.2 8 79.0 11 9

50 Edge drop-off 83.3 10 88.0 5 25

51 Lack of containment of pavement edge 38.9 29 57.0 21 64

∑D2 = 3651

UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015 Page 5

 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD PAVEMENT
FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA. Onyelowe, 2015

100
S
e90
v80
e
r 70
i
t 60
y Contractors
50
I
n40 Consultants
d
e30
x
20

10

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 Pavement
19 21 23 25Causes
27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51

Figure 1: Contractors’ and Consultants’ responses on the 51 causes of pavement failure

TEST OF NULL HYPOTHESIS (HO) USING T – TEST causes of road pavement failure in Nigeria based on the
The spearman’s rank correlation coefficient between the analyzed factors.
contractors and consultants is given by
6 ∑ 𝐷2
𝜆 =1−[ ]
𝑛(𝑛2 −1)
4. CONCLUSION
But ∑ 𝐷2 = 3651 (from Table 1)
Road pavement failure is apparently of incessant
𝑛 = 51
6𝑋3651
occurrence in the Nigerian road sector. And as such, it is
𝜆 =1−[ ] = 1- 0.165= 0.835 a critical situation for the Nigerian road sector because of
51(512 −1)
the high cost of construction of new roads and
The null hypothesis, HO states that CONTRACTORS and maintenance of existing roads and routes.
CONSULTANTS do not agree on the severity index CONTRACTORS and CONSULTANTS have a good
ranking of the factors causing road pavement failures. knowledge and capacity to highlight the areas of problems
The t – test was used for this hypothesis. in the sector. And going by the analysis so far, which has
Confidence limits = 95% been fully studied through the null hypothesis showing the
Degree of significance α = 0.05 agreement between the CONTRACTORS and
Decision rule: if -
𝑡∝ 𝑡
< t < ∝ (Accept HO) CONSULTANTS to the analyzed factors, the two parties
2 2
𝑡 agree on the identified factors but have the greatest
If t > ∝ (reject HO)
2 variance on factors 26, 35 and 40 as shown in Figure 1.
Using t = λ [√(n – 1)] where λ = 0.835 and n = 51
t = 0.835√ (51 – 1) = 5.90 And by this agreement from the analysis, it could be
From t – test table,
𝑡∝
= 1.8922 [14] observed that both parties in agreement are collectively
2
𝑡∝ recommending the attentions of road workers,
Thus t > (Reject HO) (Where Ho states that Contractors
2 maintenance agencies and government to look into these
& Consultants do not agree on the Severity index Ranking factors as the intricate causes of road pavement failures
of the factors). which includes
 Negligence/non-existence of highway facilities
Therefore Rejecting “Ho” Implies that both including drainage systems and manholes, channels
CONTRACTORS and CONSULTANTS agree on the and other accessories like handrails and
curbs because of the poor design and the high cost  “Poor maintenance policy for already built roads” that
of construction and maintenance as shown in Table was ranked 1st by contractors with index of 94.5% as
1 as consultants ranked it 2nd with index of 91%. shown in Table 1, lack of adequate sanction systems,

UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015 Page 6

 INDEX STUDY OF THE PERCEPTION OF CONTRACTORS AND CONSULTANTS ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD
PAVEMENT FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA.
inadequate local standards of practice, poor
supervision, operation by high traffic volume and
loads and construction in bad conditions.
 “Defects caused during construction due to poor
construction quality” that was ranked 1st by
consultants with index of 93% as shown in Table 1,
High traffic axial load and volume using
undesignated/unpermitted roads.
 Inferior asphalt mix design that was ranked 1st by
consultants with index of 93% as shown in Table 1,
Thickness of surface/pavement, base and sub-base,
width of pavement, geometry and alignment of roads
which remains the direct causes of road pavement
failures which necessitates its specification in
designs and contract documents.
 “Structural failure of base/cracks in base” that was
ranked 1st by consultants with index of 91.3% as
shown in Table 1, construction and shrinkage joints,
as embodied in the category of cracks and structural
failure group.
 “Lack of necessary laboratory and in-situ test on soil”
that was ranked 3rd by consultants with index of 90%
as shown in Table 1, Bond between layers,
construction conditions and compaction during
construction, aggregate properties.
 Poor design and construction ranked 2nd by
contractors with index of 93.5% as shown in Table 1.
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[1] Al-Hazmi and SadiAsaf (1987). “Effect of faulty design
and construction on road maintenance”. Journal of
performance of constructed facilities, Saudi Arabia. Vol. 2
Pp. 13
[2] Bashir, M. (2012). FRSC Public Lecture ‘The journey
so far’ Weekly Trust newspaper Saturday 10th March
2012.
[3] Ette, I.E. (2010). Challenges of sustainable
infrastructural development. Book of proceedings, 19th
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Engineering in Nigeria.
[4] Igomu, T. (2011). Year major highways collapsed into
death traps. Daily Sun newspaper Thursday 29th
December 2011, page 34.
[5] Inyama, S. C. and Iheagwam, H. (1995). Statistics and
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Nigeria publishers, Owerri.
UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015
Onyelowe, 2015
[6] Nigerian Federal Ministry of Works (1970). “General
specifications for roads and bridge works”. Federal
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[7] Nnanna O. J., Odoko, F. O. and Alade, S. O. (2003).
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[10] Ogundipe, O. M. (2001). Causes of Highway failures
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[11] Okigbo, N (2012). Road maintenance in Nigeria, the
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[12] Okigbo, N. (2013). Causes of Highway Failures in
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[13] Onyelowe, K. C. (2011). Index Analysis of the Causes
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[14] Sultan, T. and Mohmood, S. (2013). Causes of
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Page 7
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FAILURE IN SOUTH-EASTERN NIGERIA. Onyelowe, 2015

UJET Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2015 Page 8

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