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Applications of Work
Integrated Learning
Among Gen Z and Y
Students

Trevor Gerhardt
University of West London, UK

Paulette J. Annon
London School of Economics, UK

A volume in the Advances in Educational

Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID)
Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gerhardt, Trevor, 1973- editor. | Annon, Paulette J., 1964- editor.
Title: Applications of work integrated learning among Gen Z and Y students
/ Trevor Gerhardt and Paulette J. Annon, Editors.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2021] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book’s objective
is to propose Work-Based Learning (WBL) as a pedagogy in its own right
by defining the terms, concepts and practices from a global perspective
in order to make the link to the application among Gen Z and Y students
and its importance and impact on the future labor forces”-- Provided by
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Identifiers: LCCN 2020049635 (print) | LCCN 2020049636 (ebook) | ISBN
9781799864400 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799864417 (paperback) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Education, Cooperative--Cross cultural studies. |
Generation Z--Education--Cross cultural studies. | Generation
X--Education--Cross cultural studies. | Experiential learning--Cross
cultural studies. | School-to-work transition--Cross cultural studies.
Classification: LCC LB1029.C6 A67 2021 (print) | LCC LB1029.C6 (ebook) |
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 275

Chapter 13
Developing Gen Y
Competencies for the New
Work Environment:
Comparing and Contrasting Four
Work-Integrated Learning Approaches
Across National Contexts

Pierre Faller Andrea Galimberti

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4279-493X University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy
Teachers College, Columbia University, USA
Elzbieta Sanojca
Irina Lokhtina https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8289-3938
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5223-3779 University of Strasbourg, France
University of Central Lancashire, Cyprus

ABSTRACT
While higher education institutions are increasingly interested in preparing a new generation of students
to meet the demands of the workplace, there is still limited research on how work-integrated learning
(WIL) strategies can specifically benefit Gen Y’s learning, competency development, and employability.
In this chapter, the authors aim to extend the knowledge of WIL in three key respects: (1) examine the
rationale for considering WIL as part of curriculum development, (2) compare different WIL strategies
through four cases studies, and (3) analyze the impact and benefits of those WIL approaches for Gen
Y’s learning and employability. By comparing and contrasting different approaches to WIL, the chapter
contributes to shed more light on some important benefits of WIL such as Gen Y’s development of self-
identity, reflective capacity, and critical skills. Although different, the cases demonstrate the importance
of making space for reflection and integrating collective and individual practices in WIL designs.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-6440-0.ch013

Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

INTRODUCTION

Preparing a new generation of students to meet the demands of the workplace has become an increas-
ing concern for higher education faculty. But how to approach curriculum development in a way that
both appeals to Generation Y (Gen Y) students’ learning styles and equips them with the competencies
required by the new work environment? Gen Y students expect to be prepared for a complex workplace,
which challenges academics to continuously revise their curriculum (Barnett & Coate, 2005) and find
learning strategies which respond to their students’ evolving needs (Fraser & Bosanquet, 2006). In this
context, we believe WIL is a critical component for future curriculum development. Work integrated
learning (WIL) deliberately integrates theory with practice (Patrick et al., 2009). WIL embeds a broad
range of learning practices including (1) systematic training (e.g. apprenticeship), (2) structured work
experience (e.g. field experience, internships), and (3) institutional partnerships (e.g. service learning)
(Sattler, 2011; Stirling et al., 2016). All those learning practices are designed to provide students with
exposure to “real-world” work experience (Jackson, 2015). Integrating curricula with workplace experi-
ence presents several benefits such as deepening students’ knowledge of a real-world setting, gaining a
better understanding of the roles and expectations in relation to their future profession (Jackson, 2015),
enhancing students’ work-related capabilities, developing a sense of their professional identity (Cooper
et al., 2010) and developing self-awareness (Barnett et al., 2001).
The purpose of this chapter is to extend the knowledge of WIL in three areas: (1) examine the ra-
tionale for considering WIL as part of curriculum development; (2) show different WIL strategies and
perspectives through four cases studies presenting WIL-based designs in four higher education institu-
tions based in different countries and (3) analyze the impact and benefits of WIL approaches for Gen
Y’s learning, competency development and employability. The chapter will address these issues through
an exploratory multiple case study approach, allowing both a micro-level analysis and greater academic
reflection on the value of integrating project-based learning, traineeship and active learning in curricu-
lum design. Similarities and differences across cases will be examined and lead to recommendations
for practice and future research.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Defining Generation Y

The cases we present later in this chapter all feature WIL programs designed for students who can be
characterized as “Generation Y”. Howe and Strauss (2000) define the Millennials generation (also known
as Gen Y) as comprising those born between 1982 to 2004. This generation has grown up with the new
technologies and the Internet, and is digitally and globally connected (Bencsik et al., 2016). Bencsik et
al. (2016) argue that Gen Y students have a preference for working in teams as they see the advantage of
combining skills and resources offered by other team members. They also expect to have a meaningful
work environment and receive feedback in order to improve their performance.
Twenge (2017) does not see Gen Y as a homogenous group and makes the distinction between “Mil-
lennials” born between 1980 and 1994 and their successors born between 1995 and 2004. The latter,
she calls iGen or the “Internet generation”. Twenge (2017) suggests that iGens are more cautious and
pragmatic, far from the emblematic maxims adopted by the Millennials, such as: “you can be what

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

you want to be”. According to Twenge (2017), while Millennials are a hopeful generation, able to see
themselves as successful leaders in the near future, iGens are less convinced that they will get what
they want. Moreover, Millennials are very demanding when it comes to work-life balance, while iGen’s
pragmatism is expressed by the idea that work life should not interfere with everything else. They are on
the lookout, seeking a path to break through in a highly competitive world while being aware that they
might have to make compromises. Recognizing that the future can be uncertain, they are more inclined
than Millennials (per se) to accept a middle position. Twenge (2017) argues that iGens will need more
encouragement than the previous generation given growing doubts about their abilities and career pros-
pects and are primarily looking for ways to feel safer in an uncertain world.
Because they tend to be at the end of their academic journey, one common concern for all Gen
Y students is their ability to transfer and apply the skills they learned to the workplace. Billet (2011)
stresses the importance of creating always more integration between workplace and on-campus learning
to enhance transfer of learning. As a result, educators need to constantly rethink their curricula so they
can meet their students’ expectations to be well prepared and equipped for what is next.

Curriculum Development

The first decade of the twenty-first century is indicative of the changes in higher education that continue
to shape the landscape (Kyvik, 2013; Saunders & Ramirez, 2016). High demands are being placed upon
faculty to become more productive and performative and create programs and curricula which better
prepare students to adapt to the workplace (Aithal, 2016). Curriculum development in higher education
is a pedagogic vehicle for effecting changes in student learning (Barnett, 2009). The notion of curriculum
development is subject of a profound debate in the literature and there are different theoretical models
that can guide academics’ conceptions of learning and teaching (Biggs, 1999, 2003; Barnett & Coate,
2005; Knight, 2001). Many models are designed to offer a structured approach to curriculum develop-
ment. Biggs (1999, 2003) is an example of those models. In Biggs’ model of “constructive alignment”,
curriculum development starts with the definition of learning outcomes and other components such as
teaching methods and assessments need to align with those outcomes.
Although such models can be useful for novice educators, their structured approach can make it dif-
ficult to account for students’ individual learning goals and expectations. Gen Y students in particular
tend to be more independent learners and less attached to social norms or rules (Dalmas & Lima, 2016)
which implies a certain level of flexibility. Another important aspect to consider is the presence of
different learning styles and learning preferences (Honey & Mumford, 2000) and the need to equally
engage students in the learning process (Mayes, 2012). In this context, more scholars are calling for
approaching curriculum development as an ongoing social activity, where learning can emerge from
continuous interactions between students, instructors and milieu (Fraser & Bosanquet, 2006, p. 282) or
be “design(ed)-in-action” (Barnett & Coate, 2005). Mutch (2003) also highlights the importance of mak-
ing space for reflection and feedback for supporting Gen Y’s development and stimulate their thinking
as they prepare to transition from university to work life.

Work Integrated Learning

At its core, WIL is a form of experiential learning in which workplace learning is recognized and valued
as a contribution towards an accredited degree (Orrell, 2011). Smith et al. (2009) see WIL as “learning

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

which is embedded in the experience of work”. This type of experience can facilitate the development
of new knowledge, skills and new ways of thinking due to multifaceted relationships between students,
employers and academics (Baker, 2014; Martin & Hughes, 2009). To support WIL, experiential learning
theories (Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984) provide critical insights about the way to use experience as a source
of learning as well as the role of reflection. Kolb, for instance, conceptualizes experiential learning by
proposing a four-stage cycle including concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualiza-
tion and active experimentation (Kolb,1984). Kolb’s model highlights the importance of the reflection
component as each stage implies a different type of reflection. Only through the reflection process can
the experience be truly transformational.
As we mentioned earlier, WIL embeds a broad range of learning practices encompassing (1) system-
atic training (e.g. apprenticeship), in which the workplace is the central place of learning, (2) structured
work experience (e.g. field experience, internships), in which students are familiarized with the world
of work, and (3) institutional partnerships (e.g. service learning). In their study of 8 000 Canadian un-
dergraduates, Kramer and Usher (2011) found that WIL opportunities benefited students in areas such
as application of school-related knowledge to workplace practice, development of workplace skills
and preparation for future work. Benefits of integrating curricula with workplace experience include
deepening students’ knowledge and understanding, developing work-related capabilities and a sense of
self and of professional identity (Barnett et al., 2001; Cooper et al., 2010; Jackson, 2015; Patrick et al.,
2008). Additionally, WIL as a way to facilitate the transition from education to employment can increase
confidence of both graduates and employers in the ability to “do the job” (Gillett-Swan & Grant-Smith,
2018) . Students feel better prepared to manage future work challenges (Jackson, 2015). Gillett-Swan and
Grant-Smith (2018) emphasize the importance of nurturing a combination of individual coping strategies,
formal policy and informal institutional support to foster students’ confidence for future employment.
Even though there is evidence that certain disciplines in higher education (e.g., nursing, education,
and engineering) can benefit from WIL (Patrick et al., 2008), the rationale for developing WIL-based
curricula stems from limited research. In particular, there is little research focusing on the benefits of
WIL to Gen Y’s learning, competency development and employability. By examining different WIL
approaches which we discuss in the next sections, we hope to bridge this gap and further understand
how WIL can best support students’ learning and development.

METHODOLOGY

Purpose

This research emerged from the discussions among four convenors of the ESREA “Workplace Life and
Learning” (WLL) network. The WLL network is led by six faculty (also called convenors) from six
different countries and institutions and aims to advance knowledge through research on issues such as
work integrated learning, human resource training and development, vocational dimensions of workplace
learning, social, economic and political dimensions of professional lives. Our overall process was very
similar to the process educators use when conducting a collaborative inquiry (Donohoo, 2013). In collab-
orative inquiry, educators come together to examine their educational practices and are open to different
techniques of research. The main intent is to generate learning that can support their own development
and lead to new insights which can impact their practice. During this project, we had several meetings

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

corresponding to the four stages of collaborative inquiry as described by Donohoo (2013): framing the
problem, collecting evidence, examining evidence, and documenting and sharing.
To guide our research, we collaboratively agreed to explore the two following questions:

1) What are the ways four university professors from different institutions and countries are approach-
ing and integrating WIL in their curricula?
2) How are different WIL approaches benefiting Gen Y’s learning, competency development and
employability?

To explore those questions, we opted for an exploratory multiple case study design. Each of the
convenors shared a case about a program incorporating WIL in its design (which we present in the next
section) and those different WIL approaches served as our main unit of analysis when comparing each
case and searching for patterns (Merriam,1998; Yin, 1998, 2003). Case studies are a very common
methodological approach used in WIL research because of the highly contextualized nature of such
programs (Coll & Chapman, 2000). In multiple case studies, research data can be treated cumulatively
and multiple cases are considered as multiple experiments where researchers look inductively at patterns
and differences across cases (Yin, 1998, 2003). However, because of important differences across cases
(different country, university, program, design), we approached our research with an exploratory lens
(Marshall & Rossman, 2006). In exploratory studies, the goal is to better understand “what is going”
and generate insights for further research rather than aim to draw conclusions and generalize findings
to a larger population.

Case Descriptions

In table 1, we present an overview of the four cases used for exploring our research questions.

Case #1: Project-Based Learning in a Hospitality and

Tourism Management Program in Cyprus

The first case focuses on a project with real-world relevance (Bransford et al., 1990) conducted by nine
Hospitality and Tourism Management final-year undergraduate students in a private university in the
Republic of Cyprus. The final module of the program was designed to help students further develop
skills considered as essential by most employers in the Hospitality and Tourism industry. During the
module, students were asked to plan, organize and deliver a real-world event, which required them to
apply a number of management development skills. In this case which took place during the 2016/2017
academic year, students worked in two teams (four and five people) for 13 weeks and carried out activi-
ties for a fundraising event supporting a local non-profit organization.

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

Table 1. Overview of the Cases

Case #1 Case #2 Case #3 Case #4

Cyprus Italy France United States
Audience: Nine final-
year undergraduate Audience:
students 64 Master’s students
Audience: Audience: 16 Master’s
(six females and three including 23 Gen Y
Six Master’s students students (twelve females and
males) students (20 females and
Six females four males)
Academic Year: 2016- three males)
Academic Year: 2019-2020 Academic Year: 2019-2020
2017 Academic Year: 2017-
Context and Program of study: Human Program of study: Adult
Program of study: 2020
Sample Resource Development Learning and Leadership
Hospitality and Program of study:
Institution: public Institution: private university,
Tourism Management Sciences of Education
university, Italy United States
Institution: Private Institution: public
Language of instruction: Language of instruction:
university, the university, France
Italian English
Republic of Cyprus. Language of instruction:
Language of French
instruction: English
Project-based Traineeship
learning: plan and Use exploration of HRD
organize a fundraising websites dedicated to
event to develop online assessment of soft Action Learning
professional identity skills to develop critical Work with a real-world client
Apprenticeship
and critical skills thinking and reflexivity on using an action learning
Use apprenticeship
Process: assumptions process
experience to develop
Pre-project stage: Process: Process:
the ability to question
1. Create and organize Online group meetings and - Meeting with a real-world
one’s competencies and
two teams individual work client
approach to work
2. Deliver a series of 1.explore and identify - Form teams to investigate
Process:
four team dialogues to interesting websites a question posed by client
Three phases:
reflect on performance (individual) during the semester
- Development of
3. Peer-assessment 2. Deconstruct and analyze - Teams meet every week
questions based on cases
4.Find sponsors, websites language, method, assisted by an action learning
WIL intervention/ studies
media support declared opportunities etc. coach
Process - Learning groups co-led
Project stage: (group) - Reflection led by an action
by faculty to share
Promote the event, 3. Choose three websites, learning coach at the end of
experience, examine
host Christmas subscribe them, experiment each meeting
assumptions, and
market in order to with the assessment - Client presentations at the
reframe questions during
raise funds on behalf process (test, game, end of the semester followed
apprenticeship
of a local non- problem-based experiences by the production of a client
- Final report capturing
profit organization etc) (individual) report sent to a client
reflections and learning
Post-project 4. A debate about - Individual journal kept
presented at end of
stage: Summative individual explorations and during semester and
the year in front of an
assessment: findings (group) submitted at the end of class
academic committee
critically reflect on 5. Reflexive writing to capture the individual
performance, drawing (individual) learning
on a range of skills, 6.Final dialogue based on
which were developed students’ reflexive writing
during the project. (group)
Experiential learning, Vocational didactic
Transformative learning, Action Learning
Underlying Identity formation in Ergological approach to
Reflective practice, Social Transformative learning
Theories practice, the analysis of activity
constructionism Reflective Practice
Reflective Practice Reflective Practice

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

To support students’ learning, components such as reflective dialogue, peer-assessment and reflec-
tive writing were included. Through interactions and reflective team dialogues, students had the op-
portunity to learn by sharing with one another the situations in which they found themselves outside the
classroom (Barnett, 2009). They also used peer-assessments to provide feedback on the contribution of
each member. Collegial and individual reflective spaces (Biggs & Tang, 2007) helped them to reflect
on the importance of working together for finding a solution to a problem and listening to each other.
They also monitored their own progress so they could have a “greater ownership and understanding
about the nature and purpose of their learning experience” (Morgan & Houghton, 2011, p. 2). Students’
project-based learning experience combined with tutor’s ongoing formative feedback encouraged them to
engage in practices in which they could construct their own voice (Barnett, et al, 2001) and practice their
independent learning (Sadler, 2010) which could, in turn, contribute to the formation of their identities.

Case #2: Human Resource Development Traineeship in Italy

The second case focuses on a traineeship experience designed and realized during the Covid 2020 crisis
in Italy which involved a small group of Human Resource Development (HRD) Master’s students in their
final year. Typically, students complete 150 hours of training experience during their curriculum. The goal
is help them become more familiar with and explore HRD practices in public and private organizations.
They intern in organizations and are being followed by a supervisor. However, when the Covid pandemic
expanded in Spring 2020, most organizations were not ready to have the students conduct their intern-
ship virtually and the program had to imagine new alternatives to help them gain practical experience.
One of the alternative traineeship experiences proposed an analysis of an online platform dedicated
to soft skills assessment. Students were firstly asked to explore the web in order to select international
websites dedicated to online assessment of transversal competences; the outcomes of their selection were
debated in group meetings managed by the tutor and aimed at refine a collective deconstruction process
in order to outline website core assumptions. Students were then asked to choose three websites and
experiment in first person the assessment processes documenting their impressions through a reflective
journal. Finally, their reflections were shared in group meetings and in a final individual document.
To support their learning, a reflexive design (Gray, 2007; Mezirow, 1990) encourages students’
cooperation and engages them as “co-researchers” on their assigned topic. They are also encouraged to
draw some practical implications for future work and in particular the rapid development of technology
in HRD (online assessments, games…). The possibility to reflect about these news systems (all based
on algorithms) represents an opportunity for the students to become more critically reflective about the
digital world - which they often take as granted - and detect underlying assumptions. The traineeship
experience, in this sense, combines the opportunity for the students to become more knowledgeable
about “state of the art” technology for HRD assessments while developing a critical point of view on
this technology.

Case # 3: Apprenticeship for Masters’ Students in France

The third case takes place in a one-year “Sciences of Education” Master’s program offered by a French
University to students already working in the field of human resources and professional development. The
program is designed as an apprenticeship where students divide their time between paid work provided
by a sponsor (3 days a week) and class time (2 days a week).

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

Throughout the program, different learning activities help students reflect and generate new insights
about the work they are doing at the sponsor’s site. Those activities are divided into three phases. In the
first phase, students are exposed to various case studies which help them to develop a curious stance
toward their apprenticeship and look at it as a question (rather than a problem). In the second phase, the
question becomes an area of research guiding the student during the whole experience of apprentice-
ship. The final phase is a research report presented to a faculty committee which captures how students
framed their question and the insights and learning generated by the process of researching on their
question during their apprenticeship.
To support learning through this process, students are placed in small learning groups of 4 or 5
students. The learning group - a key feature of the program - provides students with a reflexive space
where they can share experiences about their apprenticeship as well as the process of researching their
question. Meeting during or after class, learning groups are formed to include diverse profiles of age,
experience, professional interest and prior background. In addition to supporting the emergence of new
insights, learning groups provide a safe space to discuss all kinds of challenges such as work-life bal-
ance or stress due to their busy schedules. Faculty regularly participate in learning groups to support
students’ questioning, help surface assumptions and contradictions, critically reflect on new ideas, make
connections with theories, and look at different ways to frame their questions.

Case # 4: Action Learning Workshop in the United States

The fourth case focuses on an Action Learning (AL) workshop offered every year as an elective in an
Adult Learning and Leadership program. Over the last 20 years, AL has emerged as a key WIL approach
for strategic leadership development, organizational development, and team dynamics (Faller et. al, 2020;
Marquardt, 1999; O’Neil & Marsick, 2007). O’Neil and Marsick (2007) define AL as an approach to
working with and developing people that uses work on an actual project or problem as the way to learn.
Participants work in small groups to take action to solve their problem and learn from that action. Often,
teams are assigned a coach to help them balance their work with the learning from that work.
The case describes the students’ experience and perception of growth based on data from the 2020
class. Around 16 Masters or Doctoral students attend the workshop every Spring. Students meet in
person over three weekends and have virtual meetings. They work in small teams on a complex ques-
tion presented by a real-world client and follow an AL process which includes 6 different steps. Every
team is assigned an experienced AL coach (the class includes three instructors who all have experience
in AL coaching). Drawing on Mezirow’s (1991), the workshop uses a critical reflection perspective
encouraging the students to surface and challenge assumptions about the problem they are working on
(O’Neil and Marsick, 1994). The workshop is designed to develop student’s capacity to challenge their
assumptions about collaborative teamwork, increase complexity for problem-solving and open to others’
perspectives. To stimulate reflection, students are also required to hold a reflective journal which they
submit at the end of the course.

Data Collection and Analysis

Our dataset was composed primarily of class archival data such as reflective papers, journals and evalu-
ations. The archival data was consulted months after class was completed with students’ permissions. In
the French case, 12 semi-structured interviews were also conducted. Data was managed to ensure strict

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

confidentiality and privacy. No name or specific information appeared when researchers met to discuss
and compare their cases and develop their findings.
Table 2 presents a summary of data collection strategies used for each case. To identify patterns
and themes, each researcher first conducted a “within” case analysis. Regular team meetings occurred
to enable a common understanding of the themes emerging in each case. Development of themes and
categories was facilitated by a series of summative analysis meetings of the research team.

Table 2. Data collection

Case # 1 Case # 2 Case # 3 Case #4

Cyprus Italy France United States
● 12 semi-structured
● Reflective Reports
● Reflective Reports interviews
(summative assessment) ● Evaluation / Course Survey
Data (summative assessment) ● Reflective Paper
● Dialogues ● Individual Journals
reviewed ● Focus Groups (summative assessment)
● Module Feedback ● Reflective Paper
(dialogues) ● Apprentice visits to
Questionnaire
workplace

FINDINGS

Overall, three main themes emerged from our cross-case exploration and research meetings: 1) through
WIL, students developed a clearer and more meaningful sense of identity 2) they developed a greater
capacity for reflection and learned to use reflection to surface and question assumptions present in their
work and 3) they gained in their ability to transfer skills and competencies critical in today’s workplace.

Identity Development

Many scholars (Cooper et al., 2010; Jarvis, 2009) stress the importance of developing students’ identity
in order to help them better connect with different ideas about learning and be prepared for lifelong and
life wide learning (Field, 2006). Identity development also helps develop a sense of authorship over their
own biographies and take responsibility for their life choice (Côté, 2005).

Self-Confidence and the Importance of the Group

One aspect related to identity development came from the roles perceived by the students inside their
group. Working in small groups helped students gain insights into their own contribution, which in
turn developed their confidence and engagement with the team. As they engaged with their team, they
also reflected on the meaning of belonging and the value of mutual engagement for their personal de-
velopment. The possibility to try on new roles, learn, engage in collaborative tasks generated mutually
beneficial processes. For example, in the Cyprus case, a student explained that the participation in the
project helped her to develop a strong sense of self-efficacy: “my sense of responsibility has grown when
I felt how important I am for the team and the project in general”. In the French case the development of
“self-confidence” gained through work with a learning group was the most frequent competence men-
tioned by the students. In the US case, action learning projects and teamwork served as an opportunity

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Developing Gen Y Competencies for the New Work Environment

for many students to revisit one’s identity and reconfigure self-perceptions about their capacity to voice
their views and opinions. One of the students shared: “I am an introverted person; I am usually not com-
fortable talking and expressing my opinion. But then, having the opportunity to work on the project….
it helped me to express my opinion and needs. Before the project, I would keep my opinion to myself.
However, I learned that it is fine to share and ask...It increased my self-confidence about participating
and decision-making”. In the Italian case, students shared that working in groups helped them to become
more reflective and develop new insights about their future professional trajectory. One student said: “I
realized how this group work allowed me in gaining a more complex attitude in developing my way of
reflecting and I think this is a part I would maintain in my future professional identity”.

Self-Efficacy, Openness and Proactive Attitudes: Toward a Professional Identity

WIL experiences also helped students gain a perception of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977), and a more
proactive mindset. In the French case, the faculty team noticed “accelerated” learning and a change in
attitude. One faculty member said: “they are much more modest and much more intentional”. In the
Cyprus case, students started taking responsibility for their own development and tried on new tasks
and roles. One of the students shared: ‘‘Usually, I cannot organize myself [..] to have enough time for
everything. However, I tried to meet all the deadlines and finish my tasks on time, because I felt much
responsibility”.
In the US case, students reported being impacted in their capacity to collaborate and appreciate other
students’ perspectives during their project. A student described a “shift in communication style...par-
ticularly their choice of words and phrasing on their team”. Another stressed “the ability to work more
cohesively and being more comfortable chatting about certain challenges.” At the end of the program,
many students reported a new sense of openness and appreciation for diverse people and styles. Action
learning also provided many opportunities to learn through feedback (Faller et al., 2020). A student
shared, “I’m finding that now that I am aware of these different styles, I have come to expect it and be
more patient”.
In the Italian case, students reflected on their future professional identity. Experimenting, analyzing
and deconstructing soft skills online assessment led by algorithms made them rethink about their role as
future recruiters and how to develop a meaningful relationship with candidates. Many students realized
the online assessment process could be “alienating”. One student said: “In social networks, I create a
profile that really represents me, with my pictures, my passions, my little idiosyncratic things...here all is
standardized: the websites promise a uniqueness’ they don’t maintain”. This clash between expectations
and experience represented a trigger for reflection on themselves. Another student said: “I don’t want to
be a professional that treats people as standardized goods...I want to use technology but to create a real
dialogue with candidates, with rich feedback... a real learning opportunity”.

Reflective Capacity

Overall, Gen Y students acknowledged the value of engaging into reflective practice as an integral part of
their learning. As we analyzed more carefully the learning outcomes described by the students, we found
that many of those outcomes were linked to the opportunity to think critically and reflect during their
real-world experience. This confirms the importance of “working to learn” in order to “learn to work”

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(Cooper et al., 2010). As we went deeper into the cases, we found that both reflection-on-action (after
the event) and reflection-in-action (during the event) (Schön, 1991) had an impact on their development.

Reflection-on-Action

In the Cyprus case, reflection helped students become more aware of their team performance and their
process for sharing and testing assumptions about their own effectiveness and their progress. They found
it rewarding to look back at their performance at different stages of team development and develop a
greater capacity for self-awareness. One student, for example, explained: “this project required being
proactive in organizing and planning for the event and prioritizing activities […]. This is an important skill
that I need to keep practicing”. Students also shared developing a more independent point of view about
what they should do in order to achieve more effectiveness. A student explained that “certain problems
[which team members experienced] also taught me that a simple apology means a lot in teamwork and
allows the team to move forward”.
In the Italian case, the traineeship was designed to develop students’ critical reflection and help them
revisit assumptions about human resources online assessments. As future recruiters, students reflected on
how their experience with current platforms could help them structure online assessments able to create
a meaningful relationship and value the uniqueness of candidates. After subscribing to three websites,
students were invited to reflect on questions such as: how did they feel about their experience? Did they
learn anything about themselves? Their participation in this WIL activity contributed to the develop-
ment of their capacities to test assumptions. Those questions developed their critical thinking and helped
them rethink some of their assumptions. One student said, “I think that this was a great opportunity,
usually we are informed about tests’ effectiveness and scientific reliability but we didn’t experiment,
so far, the effects on us, the ways in which we experiment these situations...it’s a whole new space for
future reflections…”
In the French case, at the end of the program, 64% of the class recognized that reflection was one
of the core competencies that they developed. As one of the students shared, “I learned how to reflect
on my work…. give meaning to what I do and understand that I need to take into account different im-
portant perspectives in my daily work and not just look at it from a mechanical perspective”. In the US
case, many students realized how crucial it is to understand the interplay between learning, reflection
and action and the importance of striking the right balance between action and learning and from that
action. At the end of the class, many students developed a new appreciation for reflection while working
on the project. A student for instance reported using reflection to “shift my focus from not performing
well to seeking for standards in order to have a better analysis of the problem”.

Reflection-in-Action

Students also had the opportunity to conduct reflective conversations while working on their WIL proj-
ects. The ability to pause and step back while working together helped them better surface and challenge
their assumptions and find solutions to complex problems. In the Cyprus case, reflection-in-action was
designed as an important learning experience. In their conversations, students were invited to develop
and strengthen their own levels of critical consciousness and deepen their knowledge which in turn,
enhanced their self-efficacy. One student for example said: “I always thought that my strong character-
istic was teamwork but […], I realized that there are aspects that I need to improve and work on”. In the

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Italian case, students revisited the assumption that candidates are always “authentic” when completing
an online assessment and discussed the possibility that candidates could not be entirely honest in their
answers. One student said: “This website seemed to have the algorithmic ability to design an objective
profile...but when I was answering the questions, I started thinking that I was able to strategically cheat
in order to create a more appealing profile...is that an objective process? I don’t think so!”.
In the French case, students were involved in a number of reflective practices at the beginning and
during the semester. For example, they were invited to question case study exercises, then use their in-
sights to structure their research question. Students acknowledged the importance of reflection during
the different phases of the process. Although at the beginning students felt challenged by the notion of
reflecting on their question and that their question could be framed in a different way, they progressively
come to appreciate the value of looking at their question from different perspectives. In the US case,
students working in teams were supported by action learning coaches who helped them “in real time”
to generate new insights about the client’s problem, the team, and themselves through a deeper level of
questioning (O’Neil & Marsick, 2014). By adding reflective pauses in their work, students developed the
capacity to become more aware of their assumptions and challenge automatic thinking. One of the students
said: “One of the greatest challenges was not only continuing to ask questions instead of jumping to find
answers, but also refraining from offering solutions to the client. It was helpful to have reflections led by
our coach. We are reminded throughout our conversations that we are not focused on giving solutions”.

Transfer of Learning and Employability

Students graduating from the programs presented in this research usually have a high rate of employability.
For instance, in France, 77% of the students on average report being employed one year after the program
ends. Yet it is our view that employability is not only a quantitative measure and should be linked to the
development of a comprehensive skill set attractive to potential employers (Coll et al., 2009). Yorke and
Knight (2006), for example, define employability as a “set of achievements - skills, understandings and
personal attributes - that make individuals more likely to gain employment and be successful in their
chosen occupations” (p. 5). Another important aspect related to employability is the capacity to transfer
learning, apply new skills to real workplace demands, and feel a sense of confidence about it.

Self-Perception of Growing Competency and Skills

In the Cyprus case, students evolved in their self-perception of being prepared for future employment.
Some started the program with a lot of questions regarding their own abilities and their future career
options. Taking on the challenge to organize a fundraising event helped many students to alleviate a
lot of insecurity and anxiety regarding their future employability. One student, for instance, explained
that this project helped [him] to consider many factors/ aspects that may affect his future career such
as “take initiatives and always strive for [his] professional development, not to be afraid to explore in
order to acquire different skills”.
In the French case, there was also evidence of a shift in the way students looked at their professional
competencies. In their self-evaluation reports, many of them reported having developed in several areas
such as “understand workplace culture”, “learn from my experiences”, “feeling of professionalism”. In
the US case, students saw many connections in the ways they could apply action learning. A student said:
“In general I find the principles and objectives of Action Learning highly applicable to my industry. The

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American labor movement is, unfortunately, rife with examples of out-of-touch leadership”. Another one
shared having “gained new insights into working with teams that I would like to implement into practice.
Some of these concepts include developing conditions of learning as a cultural norm, enhancing team
process and performance through reflection and inquiry”.

Transferable Learning

Successful transfer of learning requires that knowledge or skill gains in a classroom be applicable and
relevant to future work situations. Across cases, there was a shared perception that many of the skills
developed in WIL projects would be immediately transferable in a work context. In the Cyprus case,
students described their participation in the project as an important “theory to practice” experience that
would benefit them in the future in several areas such as “ability to work on a project with complex
details”, “ability to expand network” or “make useful connections”. They commented on the importance
of the practical aspects of the project. A student said: “I learned that plenty of details should be seriously
considered and analyzed while organizing the event with sponsorship” and the project provided “an op-
portunity to implement the theories that I learned at the university”. Work-related situations also gave
them a sense of the challenges they are likely to face. Another student shared: “this experience showed
me a gist of the difficulty. But this experience gave me a practical experience of customer service skills,
but also it made me visualize how it felt for fundraisers who do [such events]”.
In the Italian case, all the participants made connections in their final report between their experience
and their future roles and expressed the commitment to design more meaningful and relationship-based
online assessments. In the US case, at the end of the Action Learning workshop, many students per-
ceived an immediate impact on their jobs. One participant shared: “I’ve tried to implement these steps
and tools into major challenges that I face. Instead of being overwhelmed, I’ve been working on a more
strategic and objective approach.” Another one stated: “I’ve definitely created a bit more structure around
resolving challenges.” A student also reported using AL processes and tools for a major organizational
project and said: I’m currently applying the AL process and method to my workplace. We have recently
undergone a major merger and three large businesses have come together. I’ve split it up into four phases:
data collection; data analysis; findings and recommendations; execution”.

Complex Thinking

Today, organizations put problem solving and creative thinking at a premium. Critical thinking is be-
coming increasingly important due to accelerating change, intensifying complexity, escalating interde-
pendence, and increasing risk (Paul & Elder, 2007). In a world charged with complexity and insecurity,
students need to take charge of their own minds, recognize their own deepest values, and take action.
In our analysis we found evidence that students would be better equipped to think critically about their
work and tackle complex problems. In the French case, students reported increasing confidence in their
capacity to take responsibility for their work and develop their own point of view. One student shared,
“I increased confidence in sharing my own point of view without fear of criticism”. They also increased
their ability to look at problems from different perspectives. This student for instance said, “I learned
how to take a broader perspective on my work...I now value the opportunity to gather more information
and hear from others’ perspectives”.

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In the context of the US case, there was multiple evidence suggesting a development in the capacity
to broaden one’s perspective and challenge taken-for-granted assumptions (Mezirow, 1991). A student,
for instance, shared a changing perspective on how to approach work going forward and said “my per-
spective changed. I learned that in order to be actively adapting, I have to question what I do and be
clear about the assumptions related to my performance. Before I would just accept and go with flow,
but then I learned that I can have a more critical mindset in order to be more productive”. In the Italian
case, there was evidence that students saw immediate applicability from the practice of examining as-
sumptions and recognized that critical thinking would be a key competency for their future success. One
student said: “I think that this work we performed together...made me feel as a more critical student and
I think this is a good thing to have also in my future professional place...I mean I don’t think organiza-
tions want anymore “yes men and yes women” and this attitude in questioning assumptions could be a
real treasure for me...I will not accept anymore the basic idea of “good test” and “real competence” I
would really go further into it”.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

WIL for Supporting Gen Y’s Learning and Growth

Our four cases demonstrate that there is not one way to approach WIL to support Gen Y students. Inte-
grating work and using it as a source of learning can take many forms. Those forms will vary depending
on the local contexts e.g., culture of academic institutions, programs, approaches to curriculum develop-
ment. Yet, as we reflected on our WIL cases, we developed a better understanding of common success
factors for supporting Gen Y’s learning needs and growth. One factor which became clear to all of us is
that WIL cannot be approached without recognizing that Gen Y students are part of a generation which
has spent its entire life in the age of smartphones, social media and texting. In our WIL cases, we were
all struck by the digital savvy of our students and the ways they would quickly set up their own digital
communication tools or include images, photos, screenshots, animation as part of their collaborative
work. As Floridi (2014) notes, Gen Y are citizens of the “infosphere”. They naturally feel part of the
digital sphere and are comfortable journeying through it. For all of us, it was clear that all WIL ap-
proaches should acknowledge and leverage their digital literacy. At the same, we also recognized that
there is a risk if Gen Y students take the digital world for granted and do not question its functioning.
In the Italian case for instance, when students explored online assessment websites and their effects on
standardizations, their first instinct was to look at the website from a functional and instrumental stand-
point, instead of taking a critically reflective stance.
Another aspect that struck all of us was how our Gen Y students were ready to start activities right
away and exhibited “over enthusiastic” attitudes towards making progress and getting to the final result.
They felt very confident about themselves and this sense of confidence would determine their behavior
and their “readiness” to undertake new tasks and roles without doubting their capacity to succeed. How-
ever, we noticed that this “get it done” mindset would often come at the expense of taking the time to
challenge important assumptions, share different perspectives, and paying attention to other important
aspects of their project. In this context, the fact that each of us included in our WIL approaches many
opportunities for reflection appears as a crucial component when supporting Gen Y’s learning. Across
cases, it was through intentional “by design “reflective activities that students were able to generate their

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biggest insights and slow down their urge to jump to conclusions and move too quickly in their projects.
Yet we also observed that the process of reflection could be uncomfortable and that the process is greatly
enhanced when they receive either guidance or support from the faculty.
Finally, we observed an interesting tension between the need of Gen Y students to become clearer
about their identity while keeping a strong sense for belonging. This tension is important to be recognized
especially in the context of WIL where students interact with each other. For instance, in the Italian
case, there was a need for students to elaborate their own ideas while being acknowledged by the group
at the same time. Perhaps this phenomenon is due to the idea of being recognized as “talent” (Michaels
et al., 2001) - developed in the 90’s - while admitting that the era is different and requires some type of
compromise due to unemployment risks (Field, 2006).

Implications for Practice and Research

The WIL cases we presented had in common to demonstrate many reflective interventions designed to
enhance reflection and produce learning, some designed to support peer learning and some support in-
dividual learning. We believe that those interventions can be useful for educators interested in enhancing
learning and growth through WIL approaches in table 3, we summarize those interventions.

Table 3. WIL interventions for learning and growth

WIL Reflective Practices for Collaborative Learning WIL Reflective Practices for Individual Learning
● Reflective conversations
● Personal learning goals
● Reflection-in-action
● Journaling/reflective journal
● Reflection-on-action
● Giving and receiving feedback
● Reflective dialogue
● Formative assessment
● Assumptions (surface, examine, challenge)

WIL is enhanced when teams make space for reflective conversations (Faller et. al, 2020; Gray, 2007).
Those can help team members learn from their conversations and actions. Reflective conversations are
a form of reflection-in-action (Schön, 1983) particularly valuable when in presence of uncertain and
unique situations. Reflective conversations require the practitioner to “act as an agent and through his or
her transactions with the situations, help to shape it” (Gray, 2007, p. 505). Reflection-on-action (Schön,
1983) which we mentioned in our findings is also a process that came across our WIL cases. Learning
is enhanced when we help teams and students step back and re-examine the work accomplished as well
as the processes employed by the team. Reflection is enhanced when faculty members act as learning
coaches and facilitate the reflective process through reflective and interpretive questions.
Depending on the team’s interactions, different types of questions can be used to generate learning.
Reflective dialogue (Gray, 2007) provides team members the opportunity to share thoughts and feelings
on a particular subject as well as a way to self-reflect on reactions to the dialogue taking place.To support
individual learning, we recommend WIL practitioners to use several strategies. In the cases presented
in this research, journaling and feedback were some of those strategies used. Journaling (Gray, 2007)
can help increase self-awareness about values, ideas, and norms. A reflective journal is a powerful tool
to help students reflect and write about themselves, leadership, or insights (O’Neil & Marsick, 2007, p.

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93). Formative assessment that is, assessment designed to provide rich feedback can be great support
for learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998).
When it comes to future research, we recommend future researchers to take into account the current
Covid-19 situation and further investigate how WIL can be developed and implemented in hybrid or
blended formats combining asynchronous and synchronous learning. The pandemic would probably also
affect employability dynamics, so it would be important to gain more insights into the impact of WIL on
building conditions (e.g., networking, personal development, identity formation) building self-confidence
and resilience in difficult times. It would also be useful to have more longitudinal studies exploring the
effects of WIL on work transition as well as more long-term career benefits.
In this research, we are aware that we have focused our attention on how WIL “benefits” the students
and the development of important competencies. We have therefore not looked at any particular com-
ponents across WIL cases that could have slowed down students’ learning. As we continue our research
collaboration, we would like to further investigate this aspect.

CONCLUSION

WIL has emerged as an important form of instruction for supporting the development of important
workplace competencies. While higher education institutions are increasingly interested in preparing
a new generation of students to meet the demands of the workplace, there is still limited research on
how WIL strategies can specifically benefit Gen Y’s learning, competency development and employ-
ability. With this chapter exploring four different WIL approaches across different national contexts, we
attempted to shed more light on this question. Our research study is the first step into looking at WIL
from a broad perspective across different national and educational contexts. By presenting multiple case
studies, allowing both a micro-level analysis and greater academic reflection, we established how WIL
while taking many forms can benefit Gen Y’s development of self-identity, increase their reflective
capacity, and support their ability to transfer critical skills. Although different, our cases also demon-
strate the importance of making space for reflection and integrating collective and individual practices
in WIL designs as it greatly benefits students’ learning and growth. Presenting our findings, we would
like to encourage researchers to look further into WIL strategies by further exploring both the benefits
and possible shortcomings associated with WIL in an international perspective. WIL is not a “one size
fits all”. We hope that this chapter through the variety of examples presented and the lessons learned
will inspire practitioners and scholars to research and implement new WIL strategies that will make an
impact on Gen Y’s future.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Action Learning: The process that allows individuals to work in small groups solving real problems,
taking actions, and reflecting upon the results.
Apprenticeship: The process of learning a trade/occupation/profession by working directly under
the supervision of an expert.
Employability: The set of skills, knowledge, attitudes, and personal attributes that may help individu-
als to become successful in a chosen professional field.
Generation Y: The generation born from 1982 to 2004.
Higher Education: Education that is beyond the secondary level of education and mostly provided
by colleges and universities.
Project-Based Learning: Involves varied learning practices and complex tasks, based on challeng-
ing problems that support students in developing their understandings of what a real-world setting may
look like; gives students the opportunity to work relatively autonomously over a specific period of time.
Reflective Practice: Conscious consideration and analysis of past experience and performance for
the purpose of learning.
Traineeship: A type of vocational training that allows participants to learn about the industry and
the job.
Work-Integrated Learning: A form of experiential learning in which workplace learning is rec-
ognized and valued as a contribution towards the development of work-related skills and competences.
Workplace Learning: Learning that occurs in the workplace.

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