E.

Phonological awareness is an umbrella term that includes four developmental levels:

Word awareness

Syllable awareness

Onset-rime awareness

Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness is the understanding that spoken language words can be broken into individual phonemes—the smallest unit of
spoken language.

Phonemic awareness is not the same as phonics—phonemic awareness focuses on the individual sounds in spoken language. As
students begin to transition to phonics, they learn the relationship between a phoneme (sound) and grapheme (the letter(s) that
represent the sound) in written language.

Remedial Vocabulary Instruction

1.IntroductionVocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:

✓ Incidentally, through reading and conversation

✓Through direct instruction, as when a teacher or auto-instructional program is used intentionally build vocabulary power

✓Through self-instruction, as when words are looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are sought from others in
a conscious manner.

✓ Through mental manipulation while thinking, speaking, and writing.

2. Considerations in Remedial Vocabulary Instruction- Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes of word learning.
The literature on vocabulary acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary into five phases. These are

a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind and will to engage new words.

b. Integration – establishing ties between the meaning of a new word and the student’s existing knowledge.

c. Repetition – provisions for practice distributed over time, as well as opportunities for frequent encounters with the word in
similar and differing contexts.

d. Interaction and meaningful use – social situations conducive to using new words in interactions with others and, thus, mentally
referencing new words in listening, reading, writing, and speaking.

e. Self-instruction – maintaining an awareness of new words outside the classroom

.3. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building

a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of the concept in question

b. Provide examples of the concept

c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely related concepts with which it might be compared

4. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)

a. Identify two to four words to be taught or pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading activity. If a word list is used, be sure to
include as many words as possible that impart concepts and feelings that you would wish students to learn.
b. The teacher tells the student the full meaning of a word, much as it might be found in a dictionary. It is recorded in a
Word Study Journal as the “objective” or dictionary meaning.
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this word remind you of?” or “What do you picture or think of when you hear this word?”
Explain that discussion of a personal association with a word can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying its
meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this personal search for meaning by asking further clarifying questions, and in group
situations by pointing out those images suggested that seem most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own images. Students are then
directed to write some “subjective” or personal associations for the new word under the previously written dictionary
definition in their journals. Drawings can be added.
e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as pre-reading vocabulary development. When it is being used for general
vocabulary development, students are given 5 to 10 minutes to study and rehearse the new and previously recorded
words.
f. The teacher let the student close the Word Study Journal and asks him/her the meanings of the words studied that day and a few
others from previous days. This step can be tied to seat exercises in conventional workbooks such as crossword puzzles, category
games, etc. This manipulation and reinforcement step can be made easier by selecting the words to be taught from the exercise
material.
5. Motor Imaging - It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary and concept learning have psychomotor foundations, or
equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated with certain stimuli can become interiorized as a “symbolic meaning”
(Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and Manzo1993). There are three considerable advantages to knowing this where remediation is
concerned:
a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive learning can be interiorized, they also can be self-stimulating, and as such, they are
easier to rehearse and recall with the slightest mental reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to human learning that it is common to all learners, fast and slow, and hence, ideal for
heterogeneously grouped classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a word becomes a life experience in itself with the word – a
value that Frederick Duffellmeyer(1980) in Manzo and Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he successfully taught
youngsters words via the “experiential” approach. Procedure
1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the chalkboard, pronounce it and tell what it means.
2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for the word meaning (“How could you show someone what this word means with just
your hands or a gesture?”)
3. Tell students that when you give a signal, they will do their gesture pantomimes simultaneously.
4. Select the most common pantomime observed. Demonstrate it all to the students, saying the word while doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing the class to do the pantomime while saying a brief meaning or simple synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the assigned reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually whenever the word is used for a short time thereafter.
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN LISTENING
What is LISTENING?
- It is the ability to accurately receive and comprehend messages in the communication process to gain information.
-It is one of the essential parts of communication. Poor listening skill is vulnerable to misunderstandings and communication barriers.
A. FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENTS’ LISTENING COMPREHENSION
Listening comprehension refers to the ability of a person to understand what is said holistically. Good listening
comprehension might improve and hurdle directly or indirectly by two factors. These are:

Internal Factors -Internal factors mainly centered on the listeners or learner’s physiological and psychological aspects, language
proficiency, level of familiarity, aptitude, and motivation.

External Factors - External factors are primarily associated with the type of language intake and activities and the situation and
setting in which listening happens.
B. INTERNAL FACTORS
There are various factors affecting the listening comprehension of the listeners. Some essential matters are listed below
.1. Psychological aspect that includes the personal barriers, emotions or moods, motivation, aptitude, attitude, and memory span of
the learners.
2. Physiological factors such as hunger, tiredness, sleepiness.
3. Problems in language proficiency. It includes phonetic discrimination and varieties, grammar issues, lexicological problems.
4. Vocabulary5. Level of familiarity
6. Other factors such as age, attention span, memory span, reaction and sensitivity.
C. EXTERNAL FACTORS External factors also affect the students' comprehension in listening to particular sounds, words,
languages.
1. Accents, pronunciation, and language rhythm.
2. Speaking pace and speaking techniques and styles.
3. Environmental factors
4. Material factors
5. Language and content recognition
6. Context refers to the utterance's spatial-temporal location. Physical situation or the setting
7. Co-text - restricts our interpretation of the response
D. HOW TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ LISTENING COMPREHENSION
According to Veraflor (2016), the following are the ways to improve listening comprehension.
1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of the critical sounds of English
2. Practice sound discrimination, liasions, and incomplete plosives
3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words
4. Enrich vocabulary
5. Teach grammar
6. Practice inferring information not directly stated
7. Improve skills in predicting
8. Teach note-taking skill
In addition by FluentUp (2017):
1. Listening consistency.
2. Listening with text.
3. “Write what you hear” practice.
4. Listening repetition.
5. Speak with native speakers.
REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION IN SPEAKING
Speaking is one of the most crucial skills to cultivate and improve in order to communicate effectively.
WHAT MAKES SPEAKING DIFFICULT?
Speaking skills is one of the macro skills that must be given attention. Studies show that language learners
experience difficulties when it comes to mastering it. As cited in the book of Brown (2001), Teaching by Principles: An Interactive
Approach to Language Pedagogy (Second Edition), Dunkel 1991; Richards 1983; Ur 1984 eight characteristics of spoken
language can make either oral performance easy or difficult.
1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction
On the study of Heriansyah (2017), Speaking Problems Faced by the English Department Students of Syiah Kuala University, reveals
that problems experienced by the students in speaking are lack of vocabulary, not confident
to speak, not used to talking in the class, difficult to express words and sentences. Zooming in, Heriansyah divided the difficulties into
two kinds, linguistic and non-linguistic problems.
1. Linguistic problems
a. lack of vocabulary
b. lack of grammar knowledge
c. poor pronunciation
2. Non-linguistic problems
a. not being brave to speak
b. not being confident to speak
c. being afraid of speaking
d. being afraid of making errors
e. being afraid of being mocked by friends
f. being nervous to speak
g. not used to taking in class
h. difficult to express words or sentences
i. confused how to used appropriate words
B. TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
Over the final half of the twentieth century, attitudes toward teaching pronunciation shifted considerably. In 1970, proponents of
various non-directive approaches to language training attacked explicit pedagogical concentration on anything that smacked linguistic
nuts and bolts. With a greater emphasis on grammatical structures as essential elements in discourse, a balance between fluency and
accuracy, and the explicit specification of pedagogical tasks that a learner should accomplish, it became clear that pronunciation was a
key to gaining complete communicative competence in the mid-1980s.Brown (2001) also added the beginning and advanced levels
goals. For beginning levels, we want students to go beyond the stage where their ability to communicate is hampered due to poor
pronunciation. At the advanced level goals can focus on intonation features, voice quality, phonetic distinctions between
registers, and other improvements. He also cited Kenworthy (1987) the variables that should be considered in teaching pronunciation.
1. Native language. If the teacher is familiar with the sound system of the learner's native language, the teacher will be able to assess
student issues more effectively.
2. Age. Early exposure to actual context used of language can result in good native speaker sounds. On the other hand, adults can do
the same because age confers no benefit.
3. Exposure. The quality and intensity of exposure are more essential than the quantity of time. If the time spent in class
focusing on pronunciation requires your students' full attention and interest, they have a higher chance of succeeding.
4. Innate phonetic ability. Some people have a phoneti coding skills that others do not. This is sometimes referred to as having an
"ear" for language. However, strategies-based training has demonstrated that some aspects of learning need a knowledge of one's own
limitations, as well as a conscious emphasis on doing something to compensate for those constraints. As a result, if some learners'
pronunciation appears to be inherently tough, they should not despair. They can enhance their skills with some work and
concentration.
5. Identity and language ego. Learners must be aware of the significance of having favorable attitudes toward those who speak the
language, but more importantly, students must become conscious of - and not fearful of - the second identity that may be developing
within them.
6. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation. Intrinsic motivation when combined with concern, that primarily strives for
improvement, has the greatest influence of all factors because it may result in an achievement of goals. Teachers can encourage
students by demonstrating the importance of clarity of speech in molding their self-image and the image of others.
C. THE USE OF ACCURACY-BASED ACTIVITIES
Accuracy comes before fluency. Formal exercises help pupils prepare for communication tasks. These activities are highly controlled
and focus on specific linguistic components. Pasco, J. cited Hedge (2000) in Remedial Instruction in English, which outlines how to
find a balance by making accuracy-based tasks valuable.
1. Contextualized practice. This aims to establish the link between form and function. The activity should highlight the situation
where the form is commonly used.
2. Personalizing language. Personalized practice encourages learners to express their ideas, feelings, and opinions. These activities
help learners to use language in interpersonal interactions. A variety of gambits or useful expressions should be provided.
3. Building awareness of the social use of language. This involves understanding social conventions in interaction.
Communication
strategies are directly taught and practiced through contextualized activities.
4. Building confidence. The key is to create a positive climate in classroom where learners are encouraged to take risks and engage
in activities.
D. TALKING TO SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN THE BEGINNING LEVEL
Pasco, J. cited Cary (1997) in Remedial Instruction in English, suggests that teachers need to make speech modifications as a form of
instructional support when teaching with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means providing more and slightly longer pauses to give students more time to
make sense of the utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial expressions. These provide emphasis on words and give learners extra clues as they
search for meaning.
3. Be careful with fused forms. Language compressions or reduces forms ca be difficult for learners. Use these forms without
overusing or eliminating them altogether.
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns