Sustainability 14 13564

sustainability
Article
Research on Subjective-Cultural Ecological Design System of
Vernacular Architecture
Meng Zhang, Lingzhi Wang and Qingwen Zhang *
College of Civil Engineering, Southwest Forestry University, Panlong District, Kunming 650224, China
* Correspondence: 99tmzqw@swfu.edu.cn
Abstract: With the impact of urbanization and other factors, the vernacular architectural heritage
faces the problem of how to carry on and innovate for sustainable development with originality
and authenticity in the process of redesigning and planning. Therefore, this study uses the visu-
alization method of quantitative analysis to analyze the research trends and hot spots of domestic
vernacular architecture and explore new ways of coexistence between vernacular architecture, subject
perception and cultural ecology. The critical challenge of this study is to analyze the theoretical
coupling action rule between the socio-cultural structure of emotions and the cultural ecosystem
of vernacular architecture, drawing on the concept of cultural ecology and the reasoning method
of transmission relations in logical deduction. The main contribution of this study is to propose
the concept of a subjective-cultural ecological design system for the sustainable development of
vernacular architecture, to establish a three-dimensional structural analysis design paradigm and
an evaluation analysis matrix, and to make vernacular architecture present the self-renewal ability
of continuous exchange and revision in the dynamic cycle of this design system. This study aims
to provide a standardized and flexible design research framework for contemporary vernacular
architecture’s innovation and sustainable development.
Keywords: vernacular architecture; the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture; socio-cultural

Citation: Zhang, M.; Wang, L.; Zhang,
structure of emotions; design paradigm for three-dimensional structural analysis; evaluation
Q. Research on Subjective-Cultural analysis matrix
Ecological Design System of Vernacular
Architecture. Sustainability 2022, 14,
13564. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su142013564 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Peter J. Larkham Vernacular architecture is the inheritance carrier and expression of Chinese traditional
culture, and vernacular architectural heritage with national and regional colors is an indis-
Received: 22 August 2022
pensable part of traditional culture. As a critical research object, the architectural heritage
Accepted: 14 October 2022
of vernacular residential buildings should not only have the characteristics of ethnicity and
Published: 20 October 2022
folklore in the redesign planning, but also pay attention to the study of human-centered
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral settlement and environmental issues [1]. However, most vernacular architecture renovation
with regard to jurisdictional claims in lacks the rigorous refinement and inheritance of traditional cultural spirit [2]. For example,
published maps and institutional affil- there are two common types of residential renovation: one takes the form of batching and
iations. replicating new construction, and the other takes the form of micro-renovation, such as
surface painting and mural decoration. This simple transformation of surface texture fails
to achieve the role of the cultural heritage of vernacular architecture. It destroys the rule
of self-renewal of sustainable development of vernacular architecture. External factors
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
cannot solve the problem of preserving and transmitting vernacular architectural heritage.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Vernacular architectures are only the carriers of conventional culture transmission. The
This article is an open access article
people in them are the intrinsic determinants of the sustainable development of architec-
distributed under the terms and
tural culture. Therefore, we can let the modern architectural concepts and methods and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
the residents’ subjects contribute equal communication and collision at the cultural spirit
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
and wisdom level. By condensing and internalizing traditional architectural techniques
4.0/).
and modern concepts and technologies, we allow the residents to make trade-offs in their
Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013564 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564 2 of 21
original knowledge system, form a new architectural concept system and spontaneously
update the vernacular architecture. Only in this way can the cultural spirit in vernacular
architecture be perpetuated. This study will focus on stimulating local subjects to perceive
and value the cultural heritage of vernacular architecture in the design process. By guiding
the local subjects to recognize the relationship between vernacular architecture culture
and the human living environment, the study will promote the continuous self-renewal
mechanism of vernacular architecture from inside to outside [3]. How, then, is it possible
to fully stimulate the vitality of residents in the process of redevelopment of vernacular
architecture? How do we evaluate the design factors of spatial scale, spatial form, spatial
quality, and spatial relationship that need to be satisfied in vernacular architecture? More-
over, how do we support designers and residents in making the right design decisions for
vernacular architecture in the redevelopment process, which emphasizes cultural unique-
ness and pleasant space? Research on emotional patterns may be the key to answering
these questions. In order to better understand the role of residents’ subjects in vernacular
architecture’s culture and living environment, designers need rational thinking research
methods and empathetic interpretation [4].
An excellent emotional model can help designers better understand the archetypal
theory and the spiritual value of the generation of traditional vernacular architectural forms
in the interactive relationship between the inhabitants’ subjective perception and social
culture. For example, Kengo Kuma used the “Architecture of the Five Senses” exhibition to
convey the core concept that the greatest joy of architecture lies in its ability to resonate with
the five senses. The exhibition allows people to experience emotions at the level of spiritual
liberation and deeply explains the direction and thoughts of future architectural design
in the post-epidemic era. Modern architecture scholars or those from other disciplines
have performed much research on traditional and vernacular architecture in terms of
settlement form, spatial form, human settlement environment, ecology, cultural inheritance,
and preservation. Polish scholars present methods for documenting and evaluating the
style of a historic wooden resort complex called “Swidermajer” on the outskirts of Warsaw,
Poland, confirming its cultural value and strong connection to the Alpine architectural
style [5]. Turkish scholars present a case study of Heritage Building Information Modeling
(H-BIM) application in a historic village in Bursa, Turkey, proposing a feasible, practical
and replicable H-BIM implementation method for vernacular conservation applications [6].
Italian scholars believe that modern architecture is replacing the Italian countryside and
is even being abandoned by the locals. They did not realize the intrinsic value and role
of vernacular architecture as a carrier of traditional vernacular culture. Therefore, they
proposed the “rural landscape” concept and chose ISOLA SERAFINI in the Po Valley
as an example to determine its value as a rural landscape. They also proposed three
potential projects corresponding to the initial goal of revitalizing the rural landscape [7].
The deciphering of the interior spatial layout of the new house “DiarCharpenti” by scholars
from the African country of Algeria proves that its spatiality is an innovation based on the
most original places and reveals unique design preferences which can help to better design
and plan homes in rural Algeria [8]. Chinese scholars have used Ladybug and Honeybee
tools to analyze the thermal performance and regional adaptability of different courtyard
layouts and propose an ecologically optimized design. This not only has a positive effect
on preserving the local architectural culture but also plays a crucial role in improving the
comfort and standard of living of the residents [9]. At the same time, as the boundaries
between disciplines become increasingly blurred, domestic and international architecture
scholars are increasingly interested in cross-border design. The conservation and renewal
of vernacular architecture is no exception, and scholars are integrating multidisciplinary
concepts, methods, and techniques to discuss it intensely. In the second edition of Cognitive
Architecture, Sussman and Hollander review new findings in psychology and neuroscience
to help architects and planners to better understand their clients. The book discusses vital
biometric tools that help designers “see” subconscious human behavior and presents new
methods for analyzing design prior to construction as the latest scientific tools relevant
to assessing architecture and the human experience of the built environment [10]. The
architectural design concept of “Suffused Space” proposed by Wei Na is an abstract and
perceptible space, which is the soul of architecture. Compared with the traditional “closed
space”, “Suffused Space” is a kind of human space that no longer takes the physical
interface of closed space as the main load. However, it breaks up the material to form an
interactive and symbiotic relationship with people [11]. Qu Yan promotes establishing a
rural emotional community in Xu and Qingtian villages through the warmth of art and
rejuvenating the villages through artistic means [12].
In conclusion, different solutions for sustainable development of rural vernacular
architecture are given at home and abroad according to different development needs.
Especially with the advent of the post-epidemic era, foreign scholars have paid much
attention to architectural research from the perspectives of psychology and neuroscience.
In contrast, domestic scholars are also trying to start from the perspectives of the human
living environment and social and ecological benefits. Although many measures for the
protection and renewal of vernacular architecture have promoted the development of the
rural tourism industry and rural public buildings, there is no proper guidance for residents.
The lack of systematic theoretical basic knowledge to follow the trend of self-built buildings
has the undesirable consequence of the idea that “thousands of villages are the same”.
Therefore, this study uses emotional patterns as an entry point to examine the impact of
the interaction between the resident subjects and the society and culture on the role of
vernacular architectural heritage inheritance and innovation. This study aims to refine
the design process steps from the basic theory to form a standardized and flexible design
system of theory, method, and evaluation. The specific research ideas are as follows.
• Through literature review and generalization, this study finds that domestic scholars’
research on the basic theory of vernacular architecture is weaker than the research
on technical aspects. At the same time, the visualization method of literature cross-
referencing network analysis through the China Knowledge Network presents the
academic research hotspots of vernacular architecture. It clarifies the mutual rela-
tionship between vernacular architecture, social culture, and residents’ subjective
perceptions.
• This study analyzes the theoretical coupling role of the socio-cultural structure of
emotion and the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture with the help of the
concept of cultural ecology and the method of transferring relational reasoning in
logical deduction. In this way, it is clear that the interaction between the resident
subject and the social culture has an inherently determining role in the inheritance
and innovation of vernacular architecture, so the concept of the subjective–cultural–
ecological design system of vernacular architecture is proposed.
• Based on the proposed concept, the subjective–cultural–ecological design system of
vernacular architecture is constructed, which contains a three-dimensional structural
analysis design paradigm and evaluation analysis matrix composed of subject, spatial,
and cultural dimensions. This study aims to form a standardized and flexible design
research framework system.
• The case demonstrates the operation of this design research framework, presenting the
self-renewal ability of vernacular architecture to continuously exchange and revise in
the dynamic cycle of this design system. The results show that the subjective-cultural
ecological design system not only meets the needs of unified and diverse residents
and sustainable development, but also continues the cultural value of vernacular
architecture.
2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design
This study analyzes domestic vernacular architecture’s research trends and hotspots
through quantitative and visual methods and clarifies the close relationship between ver-
nacular architecture, culture and residents’ perceptions, continuing through the reasoning
method of transferring relations in logical deduction. The theoretical coupling action rule of
the socio-cultural structure of emotion and the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture
is analyzed, and the concept of the emotion-cultural ecological design system is proposed.
Through this concept, this study aims to construct a complete design research framework
system of the dynamic cycle of autonomous regulation, integrating internal determinants
and external influences to encourage vernacular architectures to generate the ability of
continuous self-renewal internally.
2.2. Search Strategy

First, this study summarizes domestic vernacular architecture research trends through
the bibliometric method of the China Knowledge Network. Secondly, this study analyzed
the research hotspots of vernacular architecture using the visualization method of cross-
citation network analysis of literature on the China Knowledge Network. Finally, this
study deduces the theoretical coupling action rule between the socio-cultural structure of
emotion and the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture through the positive transfer
of relational proposition in the form of relational reasoning in logical deduction. It proposes
the concept of the subjective-cultural ecological design system of vernacular architecture.
2.3. Data analysis and Conceptual Reasoning

2.3.1. Research Trend Analysis
This study used the Chinese full-text journal database of the China Knowledge Net-
work (CNKI) as the data source. In the search, “vernacular architecture” was used as the
search term, and the journals of “SCI source journals, EI source journals, Peking University
core journals, CSSCI, CSCD” were selected to improve the academic type of the data sample.
The 11th Five-Year Plan adopted in October 2005 proposed to promote the construction
of a new socialist countryside by the requirements of “productive development, prosper-
ous living, civilized countryside, clean village appearance, and democratic management”.
Therefore, the period of the literature search was limited to 2005–2022, and 819 documents
were retrieved. Figure 1 shows that domestic scholars’ research on vernacular architecture
has steadily increased. In particular, Figure 1 reveals that the number of publications at the
“technical research” level and the “applied basic research” level of vernacular architecture
peaked in three periods: 2010–2011, 2016–2017, and 2020–2021. Most surprisingly, the
number of articles issued in the first half of 2022 is already approaching its maximum peak,
and it is foreseeable that it may reach another record high in the future. As Tiejun Wen, a
scholar, said, rural vernacular architecture may become the following development trend in
the real estate industry. However, when comparing the “technical research” level and the
“applied basic research” level in the total number of papers published in recent years, we
find that more academic achievements of domestic scholars are focused on the “technical
research” level. The chart reveals that the number of publications at the “technical research”
level is consistently higher than the number of publications at the “applied basic research”
level. Figure 2 reveals that there has been a sharp increase in the number of publications
at the level of “technical studies” for vernacular architecture since 2019. In contrast to
the “technical research” level, the number of publications at the level of “applied basic
research” has been in the doldrums. What can be clearly seen in this chart is the steady
decline in the number of publications at the “applied basic research” level for vernacular
architecture since 2019. This data set reflects that although domestic scholars are highly
concerned about developing rural vernacular architecture, the study of its basic theory
has not received sufficient attention. As a result, starting from the basic theory, this study
expects to provide a new way of thinking to improve the design research framework system
of inheritance and innovation of vernacular architecture in China.
architecture, the study of its basic theory has not received sufficient attention. As a result,
starting fromthe
architecture, thestudy
basicof
theory, thistheory
its basic studyhas
expects to provide
not received a new way
sufficient of thinking
attention. to
As a result,
improvefrom
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this study of inheritance
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vernac- to
ular architecture in China.
improve the design research framework system of inheritance and innovation of vernac-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564 ular architecture in China. 5 of 21
Figure 1. Trends in the total published literature on vernacular architecture in 2005–2022.

Figure 2. A comparative analysis of the levels of study of vernacular architecture in 2015–2022.
Figure
2.3.2. 2.Research
A comparative analysis
Hotspot of the levels of study of vernacular architecture in 2015–2022.
Analysis
The literature search method in this phase is the same as described above, which
2.3.2.
helpsResearch
to improve Hotspot Analysis
the analysis of the current status of academic research on vernacular
Figure 2. A comparative analysis of the levels of study of vernacular architecture in 2015–2022.
The literature
architecture in China.search method
Figure 3 showsin this phase is the data
the visualization sameofasthedescribed
literatureabove,
with morewhich
than 900
helps citations selected
to improve according
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the circular area.ofThe
status most striking
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ontovernacular
emerge
2.3.2.
fromResearch
the data
architecture inisHotspot
China. Analysis
that theFigure
research hotspots
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domestic vernacular
data ofarchitecture
the literaturemainly
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search comfort
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isthe
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as environment,
described above,the to
creation
helps
emerge to fromof vernacular
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research
vernacular residents.
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It reflects
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ronment,
than the creation
900 citations of vernacular
selected according architecture, and thearea.
to the circular cultural
Theand most spiritual
strikingneeds of to
result
we cannot ignore the relationship between the three. Consequently, this study aims to
the
emergeresidents. It reflects the relationship between vernacular architecture,
from the data is that the research hotspots of domestic vernacular architecture residents’ per-
analyze and summarize the interaction between vernacular architecture and residents’
ceptions,
mainly and social culture. Ifenvironmental
we want to study the sustainable development of vernacu-
perceptions on
focus andthe thermal
social culture comfort
and explore a systematic, experience
normative, ofand
the flexible
human living envi-
design
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ronment,
research the we cannot
creationsystem
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of vernacular the relationship
architecture,
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and theofcultural
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andarchitecture. this of
spiritual needs
study aims to analyze and summarize the interaction between vernacular
the residents. It reflects the relationship between vernacular architecture, residents’ per- architecture and
residents’and
ceptions, perceptions and social
social culture. If weculture
want and explore
to study theasustainable
systematic, normative,
development andofflexible
vernacu-
design research framework system for the sustainable development
lar architecture, we cannot ignore the relationship between the three. Consequently, of vernacular archi-this
tecture.
study aims to analyze and summarize the interaction between vernacular architecture and
residents’ perceptions and social culture and explore a systematic, normative, and flexible
design research framework system for the sustainable development of vernacular archi-
tecture.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21
Figure
Figure3.3. Network analysis
analysisof of literature
literature cross-referencing
cross-referencing in 2015–2022.
in 2015–2022. Image
Image from from
China China
Knowledge
Knowledge
Network’sNetwork’s
Literature Literature Cross-citation
Cross-citation NetworkModule.
Network Analysis Analysis Module.
2.3.3.The
2.3.3. TheConcept
Conceptofofthe theSubjective-Cultural
Subjective-CulturalEcological
EcologicalDesign
DesignSystem
Systemfor forVernacular
Architecture
The above data show that the relationship between vernacular architecture and social
The above data show that the relationship between vernacular architecture and social
culture and the perception of the inhabitants’ subjects is closely related. Therefore, applying
culture and the perception of the inhabitants’ subjects is closely related. Therefore, apply-
the concept of integration to examine the three as a whole may answer the question of
ing the concept of integration to examine the three as a whole may answer the question of
how vernacular architecture can maintain the characteristics of originality, authenticity, and
how vernacular architecture can maintain the characteristics of originality, authenticity,
sustainability in the re-planning. The inhabitants of villages are influenced by social culture,
and sustainability in the re-planning. The inhabitants of villages are influenced by social
religious beliefs, and the natural environment, forming unique cultural and ecological
culture, religious beliefs, and the natural environment, forming unique cultural and eco-
values that profoundly affect the way of thinking and building of the inhabitants. House
logical values that profoundly affect the way of thinking and building of the inhabitants.
owners, neighbors or friends, and relatives will participate in each stage of the life cycle of
House owners, neighbors or friends, and relatives will participate in each stage of the life
vernacular architecture in multiple overlapping capacities. The finalized spatial structure
cycle of vernacular
reflects the survival architecture
wisdom ofinthe multiple overlapping
residents’ capacities.
living practices andThe finalizedmaps
intuitively spatialthe
structure reflects the survival wisdom of the residents’ living practices
residents’ material and spiritual needs [13]. Because of this, in order to thoroughly analyze and intuitively
maps the residents’
the deep structure and material and spiritual
architectural language needs [13]. Because
of vernacular of this, in we
architecture, order
cantodraw
thor-on
oughly analyze
the concept the deepecology
of cultural structureandand architectural
place vernacularlanguage
architecture of vernacular
in a culturalarchitecture,
ecosystem to
we can draw on the concept of cultural ecology and place
observe the relationship between the perceptions of residents, social culture vernacular architecture in a
and vernacular
cultural ecosystem to observe the relationship between the perceptions
architecture. Cultural ecology is the concept of perceiving and interpreting a cultural of residents, social
culture and vernacular
phenomenon architecture.
in the context Cultural
of the entire ecology
natural andishuman
the concept of perceiving
environment. and in-
Applying the
terpreting a cultural phenomenon in the context of the entire natural
system integration concept clarifies each relevant factor’s role, status, and relationship inand human environ-
ment. Applying
cultural the system
development [14].integration
Scholars suchconcept
as Dai clarifies
Zhizhong eachdivided
relevantthefactor’s role,
cultural status,
ecosystem
and
of relationship in cultural development
vernacular architecture into three parts,[14]. the
Scholars
output such as Dai
layer, Zhizhong
input divided
layer, and the
feedback
cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture into three parts,
mechanism, and gave the definitions of the input layer and output layer. On the one hand,the output layer, input
layer, and feedback
the input layer impliesmechanism,
viewingand gave the architecture
vernacular definitions of the input
within layer and output
a macroscopic cultural
layer. On the one hand, the input layer implies viewing vernacular
context and integrated network of relationships, such as natural and socio-cultural architecture within a
factors.
macroscopic
On the other cultural
hand, the context
outputandlayer
integrated
impliesnetwork
studying of the
relationships, such as natural
rules of vernacular and
architecture
socio-cultural
itself, such asfactors.
the form Onofthe theother
designhand, the output
language layer implies
that shapes studying
the interplay the rules
between of
surface
vernacular
form and architecture
deep structure itself,
[15].such as the form
However, there ofis the design
a lack language
of clear that shapes
explanation the in-
and definition
terplay between surface
of the feedback mechanism formofandthisdeep
system.structure [15]. However, there is a lack of clear
explanation and definition of the feedback
Vernacular architecture is one of the figurative mechanism of thispresented
carriers system. by the behavior and
thoughts of residents. The interaction between social culture and the residents’ subjects
shapes the spiritual temperament of vernacular architecture. In this spiritual dimension,

studying emotional patterns is a crucial kernel. The study of affective patterns is a social
phenomenon shaped by the cultural environment and influenced by the particular culture in
a given society [16]. Affective patterns play an important role in reconstructing vernacular
architecture that cannot be ignored. On the one hand, it helps to decipher the connection
between vernacular architecture and its occupants and social culture. On the other hand, it
helps to examine the influence of residents’ perceptions and social and cultural interactions
on vernacular architecture. Therefore, this study considers whether the residents’ emotional
patterns can serve as a feedback mechanism for the cultural ecosystem of vernacular
architecture. Through a literature review, this study draws on the circular process of an
emotional, sociocultural structure conceived by Swaro scholars and tries to deduce the
theoretical coupling rule of the emotional, sociocultural structure and the cultural ecosystem
of vernacular architecture. As shown in Figure 4, this study utilizes a positive transfer
relation proposition in the form of transfer relation reasoning in the logical deduction for
the theoretical deduction. In the sociocultural structure of emotions, culture (C) nurtures
the affective model (E), which, in turn, influences social and political events (S) and,
at the same time, the culture of society (C) [17]. However, vernacular architecture is
a product of residents’ needs and social culture. It belongs to a subset of social and
political events in the social and cultural structure, and the two belong to the relationship
of inclusion and exclusion. Therefore, the sociocultural structure of emotion and the
cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture form a positive transmission relationship.
Social culture (C) cultivates human values and emotional patterns (E), which in turn
affects the morphological construction of the social system (S) composed of people. The
vernacular architecture’s cultural and ecological values are finally presented by translating
and decoding the system’s emotional patterns (A). In turn, vernacular architecture is
dynamically and continuously involved in constructing the renewal of social culture (C).
In the whole process, the interaction between the residents’ subjects and social culture
forms the inner energy that drives the vernacular architecture to continuously absorb
and evolve through the translation of emotional patterns and burst out with profound,
rich, and introspective cultural values from the inside out. These results show that the
interaction between social culture and residents’ perceptions intrinsically influences the
construction of vernacular architecture. The dynamic cycle process forms a complete
operational system that integrates internal and external factors. In summary, this study
argues that the emotional pattern can be used as an internal feedback mechanism to enrich
and improve the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture. Therefore, this study
proposes the concept of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system, which provides
a theoretical basis for systematically establishing a research framework for vernacular
architecture’s subjective–cultural–ecological design system.
Sustainability
Sustainability2022,
2022,14,
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8 of2121
Theoreticalrelationship
Figure4.4.Theoretical
Figure relationship reasoning
reasoning forfor
thethe subjective-cultural
subjective-cultural ecological
ecological design
design system
system of
of vernacular architecture. "A"—Vernacular Architecture, "C"—Culture, "E"—Pattern of
vernacular architecture. "A"—Vernacular Architecture, "C"—Culture, "E"—Pattern of Emotions, Emotions,
"S”—System.
"S”—System.
3.3.Results
Results
Byanalyzing
By analyzingandand summarizing
summarizing the the research
research trends,
trends, research
researchhotspots,
hotspots,and
andtheoretical
theoreti-
coupling,
cal thethe
coupling, results show
results that that
show the subjective-cultural ecological
the subjective-cultural designdesign
ecological systemsystem
concept can
con-
perfectly integrate the particular emotional and psychological model between vernacular
cept can perfectly integrate the particular emotional and psychological model between
architecture, residents’ perceptions, and social culture. This particular psychological pattern
vernacular architecture, residents’ perceptions, and social culture. This particular psycho-
includes internal factors formed by the inhabitants’ culture and daily residential practices
logical pattern includes internal factors formed by the inhabitants’ culture and daily resi-
and external factors formed by the natural and social environment. The two factors are
dential practices and external factors formed by the natural and social environment. The
expressed and rationalized through vernacular architecture, reflecting that vernacular archi-
two factors are expressed and rationalized through vernacular architecture, reflecting that
tecture’s internal determinants and external influences complement each other. Therefore,
vernacular architecture’s internal determinants and external influences complement each
to better sort out the basic theory of sustainable development of vernacular architecture and
other. Therefore, to better sort out the basic theory of sustainable development of vernac-
to form a standardized and flexible design model, this study attempts to build a complete
ular architecture and to form a standardized and flexible design model, this study at-
set of dynamically cyclical and self-regulating design systems to encourage vernacular
tempts to build a complete set of dynamically cyclical and self-regulating design systems
architecture to generate continuous self-renewal from inside and outside. Through this
to encourage
system, vernacular
vernacular architecture
architecture will to generate
find continuous
an excellent self-renewal
sustainable growthfrom inside
method andand
an
outside. Through this system, vernacular
ideal and pleasant spatial relationship. architecture will find an excellent sustainable
growth method and an ideal and pleasant spatial relationship.
3.1. A Design Research Framework for the Subjective-Cultural Ecological Design System of
3.1. A Design
Vernacular Research Framework for the Subjective-Cultural Ecological Design System of
Architecture
3.1.1. Three-Dimensional Structural Analysis Design Paradigm
3.1.1. Based
Three-Dimensional
on the operationStructural Analysis
mechanism of theDesign Paradigm ecological design system
subjective-cultural
of vernacular architecture, the feedback mechanism of the emotional
Based on the operation mechanism of the subjective-cultural model connects
ecological design sys-the
subject and cultural and spatial dimensions in series. It constructs a three-dimensional
tem of vernacular architecture, the feedback mechanism of the emotional model connects
structural
the analysis
subject and paradigm
cultural of the
and spatial subjective–cultural–ecological
dimensions in series. It constructs design system. This
a three-dimensional
framework decomposes the system’s external input and internal output
structural analysis paradigm of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system. factors in terms
This
framework decomposes the system’s external input and internal output factors inthe
of subject, cultural and spatial dimensions. The subject dimension then serves as core
terms
processing
of layer ofand
subject, cultural thisspatial
system,dimensions.
evaluating and
The weighing each sublevel
subject dimension then of the cultural
serves and
as the core
spatial dimensions. As in Figure 5, each factor axis in each dimension consists
processing layer of this system, evaluating and weighing each sublevel of the cultural and of many
squares,
spatial representing
dimensions. Asthe
in connection between
Figure 5, each factoreach
axiscultural
in each factor, each consists
dimension spatial factor,
of manyand
the subject’s perception. In the right-angle spatial coordinates, the intertwined factor axes
squares, representing the connection between each cultural factor, each spatial factor, and
form a three-dimensional, organic, and visualized design analysis research framework,
the subject’s perception. In the right-angle spatial coordinates, the intertwined factor axes
which makes the theory, design methods, and evaluation methods in the subjective-cultural
form a three-dimensional, organic, and visualized design analysis research framework,
ecological design system clear at a glance. It provides a clear and complete design research
which makes the theory, design methods, and evaluation methods in the subjective-
cultural ecological design system clear at a glance. It provides a clear and complete design
framework
research for redesigning
framework vernacular
for redesigning architecture
vernacular and aand
architecture morea systematic and scientific
more systematic and
research idea and method for conserving and sustainable development of contemporary
scientific research idea and method for conserving and sustainable development of con-
vernacular architecture.
temporary vernacular architecture.
Figure 5. A 5.
Figure three-dimensional structural
A three-dimensional analysis
structural design design
analysis paradigm for the subjective-cultural
paradigm eco-
for the subjective-cultural
design systems.
eco-design systems.
(1) Subject
(1) Subjectdimensions
dimensions
TheThepost-epidemic
post-epidemic era era
willwill
soonsoon usher in an
usher in era of “five-sense
an era of “five-sense architecture,”
architecture”, wherewhere
integrating
integrating elements thatthat
elements stimulate
stimulatethe thefivefive
senses in architecture
senses in architecture can can
freefree
the the
mindmindandand
body. Therefore,
body. Therefore, thisthis
study suggests
study suggests thatthatthe the
five-senses
five-sensesexperience
experience is closely
is closelyrelated to to
related
the the
design of vernacular architecture. Some scholars believe that the origin
design of vernacular architecture. Some scholars believe that the origin of architecture of architecture
is not the the
is not typetypeof form but but
of form the the
eternal necessity
eternal of “desire
necessity of “desirefor the expression
for the expression [18].” In the
[18]”. In the
theoretical
theoreticalframework
framework of the subjective–cultural–ecological
of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system,
design system,the the
fivefive
sensessenses
of residents
of residents play thethe
play rolerole
of “desire
of “desire forforthetheexpression.”
expression”. Influenced
Influenced bybythethecultural
culturalvalues
values of
of religion
religionand andprimitive
primitive beliefs,
beliefs, the
the inhabitants usually create an an architectural
architecturalenvironment
environ-
mentthat
thatsatisfies
satisfiesbothbothmaterial
material and andspiritual
spiritual needs
needsby by
expressing
expressing intuitive
intuitive experiences
experiences based
on on
based their instincts.
their instincts.TheThevisual
visualfield is only
field a flat
is only perception,
a flat perception, butbutwhenwhen thethe
senses
sensesof touch,
of
smell,
touch, hearing,
smell, hearing,and and
tastetaste
are involved
are involved in theinprocess of perception,
the process it deepens
of perception, the dimension
it deepens the
and depth
dimension andofdepth
our memory [19]. Wuli
of our memory [19]. Village in Pinzhongluo
Wuli Village County,County,
in Pinzhongluo NujiangNujiang
Prefecture,
Yunnan Yunnan
Prefecture, Province,Province,
is a typicalis avillage
typicalinvillage
Nujiang in where
Nujiang thewhere
architectural forms andforms
the architectural styles of
andthe Nu of
styles ethnic
the Nu dwellings are relatively
ethnic dwellings are well preserved.
relatively The village’s
well preserved. The inhabitants are mainly
village’s inhabit-
antsofare
the Nu ethnic
mainly of thegroup
Nu ethnicand group
worship andnature.
worship From Figure
nature. From 6a,b, we 6a,b,
Figure can seewethecannatural
see
harmony of the mountain, water, people, and dwelling pattern
the natural harmony of the mountain, water, people, and dwelling pattern in Wuli Village, in Wuli Village, which
shows the wisdom of the Nu people living by the mountain
which shows the wisdom of the Nu people living by the mountain and water. Figure 6c and water. Figure 6c shows
thatthat
shows every flower,
every plant,
flower, and tree
plant, and in treetheinliving spacespace
the living around the residential
around buildings
the residential seems
build-
ings seems to have a spiritual nature. This picture leads us to imagine the warmth of the we
to have a spiritual nature. This picture leads us to imagine the warmth of the wood
woodcanwe touch, the fragrance
can touch, of the flowers
the fragrance we can smell,
of the flowers we canand the and
smell, chirping of the cicadas
the chirping of theand
cicadas and birds we can hear, creating a scene of the natural and simple rural life residents.
birds we can hear, creating a scene of the natural and simple rural life of the of the
The stimulation
residents. of the five
The stimulation of thesenses brings brings
five senses a creative energy energy
a creative that awakens the emotional
that awakens the
resonance
emotional of our interaction
resonance with vernacular
of our interaction with architecture. As a result, the
vernacular architecture. Assubject
a result,dimension
the
subject dimension introduces the five senses theory to evaluate and analyze vernacular
architecture’s
introduces thecultural and theory
five senses spatialto
environment
evaluate andwith rational
analyze thinking
vernacular based on sensibil-
architecture’s cultural
ity.
and spatial environment with rational thinking based on sensibility.
Vernaculararchitecture
Figure6.6.Vernacular
Figure architecture of the Nu ethnic
ethnic group
groupininNujiang
NujiangLisu
LisuAutonomous
AutonomousPrefecture:
Prefecture:(a)
(a) Wuli
Wuli Village,
Village, Bingzhongluo,
Bingzhongluo, Nujiang,
Nujiang, Yunnan
Yunnan Province;
Province; (b)Village,
(b) Wuli Wuli Village, Bingzhongluo,
Bingzhongluo, Nujiang,
Nujiang,
Yunnan Yunnan
Province;Province; (c) Nu
(c) Nu ethnic ethnic Jinggan-style
Jinggan-style dwelling.dwelling. Source:from
Source: Images Images
P24,from
and P24, and
P25 in P25
Images
inofImages
VisitingofTraditional
Visiting Traditional
SettlementsSettlements in Yunnan,
in Yunnan, edited editedZhang
by Yanling by Yanling ZhangZhang.
and Zhenyu and Zhenyu
Zhang.
(2) Cultural dimension
(2)
AsCultural dimension building or a social, communal building, architectural forms
an art appreciation
As an art appreciation
are inseparable building
from a particular or a social,
society’s communal
historical building,
and cultural architectural
background [20]. forms
We see
are
notinseparable from a residential
just an ordinary particular society’s
building,historical and cultural
but the cultural background
phenomenon of [20].
ethnic Wesettle-
see
not justBased
ment. an ordinary residential
on the research andbuilding,
data review,but the cultural dimension
phenomenon of ethnic
is broken downsettle-
into
ment. Based onfactors:
five essential the research andgeography,
physical data review,religious
the cultural dimension
beliefs, culturalisinteractions,
broken down into
artistic
five essentialand
aesthetics, factors: physical
lifestyle. geography,
Natural geography, religious beliefs,
religious cultural
beliefs, and interactions, artistic
cultural interactions
aesthetics,
determineand lifestyle.architecture’s
vernacular Natural geography, cultural religious
value andbeliefs,
styleand cultural
[21]. As shown interactions
in Figure de-7a,
the hollow
termine bottom architecture’s
vernacular of traditional Dai vernacular
cultural value and architecture
style [21].perfectly
As shown fitsin
the complex
Figure 7a, theand
changing
hollow mountainous
bottom terrainDai
of traditional andvernacular
hot and humid environment
architecture of Dehong
perfectly fits the Prefecture.
complex and The
three-story
changing gable greenterrain
mountainous tile roofandof the
hotMangxuan
and humidZang room shows
environment the characteristics
of Dehong Prefecture.of
thethree-story
The roof form of Southern
gable green Theravada
tile roof of theBuddhist
Mangxuan monastery architecture.
Zang room shows the Atcharacteristics
the same time,
of the roof form of Southern Theravada Buddhist monastery architecture. At the sameas
cultural interactions have also produced the phenomenon of cultural intermingling,
in Figure
time, 7b,interactions
cultural where the layout
have alsostructure
producedof the thepublic security of
phenomenon department of the ancient
cultural intermingling,
asDehong
in Figure Prefecture
7b, where was
themodeled after theofform
layout structure of Chinese
the public Handepartment
security Dynasty architecture.
of the ancient On
the other
Dehong hand, artistic
Prefecture aestheticsafter
was modeled and the
lifestyle
form determine
of ChinesetheHan construction techniques On
Dynasty architecture. and
texture
the otherexpression
hand, artistic of vernacular
aesthetics and architecture. For example,
lifestyle determine in Figure 7c,techniques
the construction under the influ-and
texture expression of vernacular architecture. For example, in Figure 7c, under features
ence of Buddhist culture, traditional Zang houses embody the construction the influ-of
multi-story
ence of Buddhisteavesculture,
and tile traditional
roofs. The doors, windows,
Zang houses and eaves
embody are carved with
the construction exquisite
features of
flower and bird patterns. The overall exquisite decoration and
multi-story eaves and tile roofs. The doors, windows, and eaves are carved with exquisitearchitectural forms reflect
the aesthetic
flower and birdconcepts
patterns.ofTheBuddhist
overallculture
exquisite and meet the and
decoration emotional pattern
architectural atmosphere
forms reflect
required for religious activities. The Hani people have developed
the aesthetic concepts of Buddhist culture and meet the emotional pattern atmosphere a unique land use system
based on the mountain’s terrain, forming a natural ecological cycle
required for religious activities. The Hani people have developed a unique land use sys- system of four elements,
forest,
tem basedvillage,
on the terraced fields, terrain,
mountain’s and water system,
forming as shown
a natural in Figurecycle
ecological 7d. At the same
system time,
of four
the Hani people have cultivated the belief in worshiping nature and
elements, forest, village, terraced fields, and water system, as shown in Figure 7d. At the gods by worshipping
water,
same fields,
time, theandHaniforests.
people The mushroom
have cultivated house
the in the village
belief of Azheke
in worshiping fully and
nature demonstrates
gods by
the wisdom of Hani’s life practices, as shown in Figure 7e,f. The mushroom houses in the
worshipping water, fields, and forests. The mushroom house in the village of Azheke fully
village of Azheke are warm in winter and cool in summer, and the building materials are
demonstrates the wisdom of Hani’s life practices, as shown in Figures 7e,f. The mushroom
mainly earthen-based walls, bamboo and wood frames, and thatched roofs. The bottom
houses in the village of Azheke are warm in winter and cool in summer, and the building
floor of the house is for raising livestock and storing farming tools; the middle floor is a
materials are mainly earthen-based walls, bamboo and wood frames, and thatched roofs.
living room with a fire pit in the center, and the top floor is used for stacking miscellaneous
The bottom floor of the house is for raising livestock and storing farming tools; the middle
things. The middle floor also has a terrace, an important place for people’s production
floor is a living room with a fire pit in the center, and the top floor is used for stacking
work, daily life, and leisure activities.
miscellaneous things. The middle floor also has a terrace, an important place for people’s
production work, daily life, and leisure activities.
Vernacular architecture: (a) Traditional

Figure 7. Vernacular Traditional Dai Buddhist house in Dehong Prefecture—Mang
Xuan Zang Room; (b) TheThe traditional
traditional architectural
architectural pattern of the
the ancient
ancient public
public security
security department
department
of Dehong Prefecture; (c) The traditional Dai Buddhist house in Dehong Prefecture—Jie Mao Zang
house;
house; (d)
(d) Azheke
Azheke Village,
Village, Yuanyang,
Yuanyang, Honghe;
Honghe; (e) Mushroom house
(e) Mushroom house in
in Azheke
Azheke village;
village; (f)
(f) Actual
Actual
view
view of mushroom house in Azheke village. Source: Images from P79, P80, P83, P159 and P160
of mushroom house in Azheke village. Source: Images from P79, P80, P83, P159 and P160 in
in
Images of Visiting Traditional Settlements in Yunnan, edited by Yanling Zhang and Zhenyu Zhang.
Images of Visiting Traditional Settlements in Yunnan, edited by Yanling Zhang and Zhenyu Zhang.
(3)
(3) Spatial
Spatial dimension
dimension
This
This dimension
dimension draws draws on on the
the division
division of of spatial
spatial elements
elements in in the
the concept
concept of of multi-
multi-
meaning
meaning space space proposed
proposedby byscholars
scholarssuch suchasas DaiDai Zhizhong.
Zhizhong. Therefore,
Therefore, thisthis
studystudy sepa-
separates
rates the spatial
the spatial dimension
dimension intofactors,
into four four factors,
scale, scale,
form,form,
quality,quality, and relationship
and relationship of space, of space,
as the
as
mainthedesign
main design
elements elements of the spatial
of the spatial structure structure of vernacular
of vernacular architecture
architecture [22]. The[22]. scaleTheof
scale of space then represents the scale-proportional relationship
space then represents the scale-proportional relationship of space. As shown in Figure 8a, of space. As shown in
Figure 8a, the vernacular
the vernacular architecture architecture
of Wolong ofAncient
Wolong Fishing
Ancient Village
Fishingin Village
Kunming in Kunming
utilizes uti-the
lizes
earththe andearth
wood and wood structure,
structure, and the material
and the material of the earth of the
baseearth
wallbase
makes wall themakes the ar-
architecture
chitecture
present a thick,present
safe,a and
thick, safe,
solid and solid
volume volume characteristic
characteristic in visualThe
in visual perception. perception.
form of space The
form
includesof space includes
the external the external
form of space andformthe of space
internal and the of
form internal
space. form of space.
As shown As shown
in Figure 8b,c,
in
theFigures
exterior8b,c,formthe of exterior form of the ancient
the buildings buildings of thevillage
fishing ancientand fishing village and
the planning formthe of
planning
the courtyard formreflects
of the courtyard
the principle reflects the principle
of balance of balance
and symmetry. Theand symmetry.
quality of the Thespace quality
refers
to the impact
of indicators
space refers to theofimpact
the physical
indicators and ofartificial environment
the physical of the space,
and artificial including
environment of
physical
the space, environment,
including such environment,
the physical as air quality,such light,asventilation, noise,ventilation,
air quality, light, and the artificialnoise,
environment,
and the artificial such as lighting, decoration,
environment, such as lighting, furniture, and facilities.
decoration, furniture,Figure
and 8d,e showFig-
facilities. the
building’s
ures 8d,e show warm theand simple physical
building’s warm and and artificial
simple environment.
physical and artificial Figure 8f,g showFig-
environment. the
decorative
ures 8f,g showdetails
theofdecorative
the buildings, where
details of thethebuildings,
inhabitantswhere wouldthe carve the building
inhabitants would elements
carve
with auspicious symbolic patterns, both for aesthetic purposes
the building elements with auspicious symbolic patterns, both for aesthetic purposes and to represent good wishes
and
forrepresent
to the family. Thewishes
good spatial forrelationship
the family. refers
The to the connection
spatial relationship between
refers tospatial functional
the connection
areas; thespatial
between relationship between
functional areas;eachthespace can be changed
relationship betweentoeach meetspace
different
can functional
be changedand to
spiritual
meet needs.functional
different For example, the spaceneeds.
and spiritual adopts Fortheexample,
concept theof juxtaposition
space adopts to thegather
concept its
functions,
of juxtapositionstrengthening
to gather the concentration
its functions, of space that
strengthening thehighlights
concentration the characteristics
of space that high- and
focus. As in Figure 8h,i, the staircase is the main passage connecting
lights the characteristics and focus. As in Figure 8h,i, the staircase is the main passage the second floor of the
main house, the second floor of the side room, and the open
connecting the second floor of the main house, the second floor of the side room, and the space on the first floor. The
tread space
open at theon main
the house’s
first floor.entrance
The tread in Figure 8h can
at the main also beentrance
house’s used asin a Figure
staircase 8hhandrail,
can also
reflecting
be used asone thing’s multi-purpose
a staircase function.
handrail, reflecting oneFigure
thing’s 8i multi-purpose
shows that the entrance
function.ofFigure the side 8i
room is slightly lower than the main house’s entrance. Usually,
shows that the entrance of the side room is slightly lower than the main house’s entrance. the main house is occupied
by the parents,
Usually, the main andhouse
the side house is by
is occupied occupied by theand
the parents, children,
the side which
house reflects the influence
is occupied by the
of the family ritual system on the architectural pattern and spatial
children, which reflects the influence of the family ritual system on the architectural pat- relationship.
tern and spatial relationship.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1
Figure 8. Vernacular architecture

Figure of the
8. Vernacular ancient fishing
architecture of thevillage of fishing
ancient Wolongvillage
in Kunming: (a) Vernacular
of Wolong in Kunming: (a) Ve
lar architecture
architecture of Wolong of Wolong
Ancient Fishing Ancient
Village, Fishing
Kunming; (b)Village,
The formKunming; (b) The
of courtyard form
of the of courtyard of t
vernacular
nacular architecture of Wolong ancient fishing village; (c) The interior of the vernacular archi
architecture of Wolong ancient fishing village; (c) The interior of the vernacular architecture of Wolong
ancient fishing village; (d) Interior of the main house of the vernacular architecture; (e) Interior of the architectu
of Wolong ancient fishing village; (d) Interior of the main house of the vernacular
Interior of the side room of the vernacular architecture; (f) Decoration of vernacular architect
side room of the vernacular architecture; (f) Decoration of vernacular architectures 1; (g) Decoration of
(g) Decoration of vernacular architectures 2; (h) Stairs of vernacular architectures; (i) Spatia
vernacular architectures 2; (h) Stairs of vernacular architectures; (i) Spatial relationship of vernacular
tionship of vernacular architecture. Source: Authors’ photographs.
architecture. Source: Authors’ photographs.
3.1.2.
3.1.2. Evaluation Evaluation
Analysis MatrixAnalysis Matrix
In the design In the design
paradigm paradigm of three-dimensional
of three-dimensional structural
structural analysis analysis of vernacular
of vernacular ar-
tecture’s subjective–cultural–ecological
chitecture’s subjective–cultural–ecological design system,designan system,
evaluation an evaluation
matrix exists matrix
for exists f
analyzing the alyzing
weight of thespatial
weightdesign
of spatial design
factors. Forfactors.
example,For V15
example, V151inreflects
in Table Table 1thereflects the
uation and weighting analysis of the visual experience
evaluation and weighting analysis of the visual experience of the subject dimension on theof the subject dimension o
combination of cultural and spatial factors. As shown in
combination of cultural and spatial factors. As shown in Table 1, the matrix uses the fiveTable 1, the matrix uses th
sensory factorssensory factorsdimension
of the subject of the subject
as thedimension as the primary
primary evaluation factors.evaluation
It representsfactors.
the It repr
the of
multiple patterns multiple patterns
the mutual of the mutual
combination combination
of cultural of cultural
and spatial and spatial
dimensions underdimensions
the
perspective of the perspective
visual factors. Eachof visual factors.
pattern will Each
set uppattern
relevant will set up relevant
questions based on questions
visual based o
ual and
perception factors perception
score and factors
rankand
themscore
withand rank them
satisfaction andwith
caresatisfaction
measurement and care measur
scales.
scales. The evaluation matrix provides a transparent and standardized,
The evaluation matrix provides a transparent and standardized, reliable basis for the design reliable ba
requirements ofthethedesign
relevantrequirements
spatial scaleofrelationships
the relevantand spatial
the scale relationships
weighting and scale
ratio of each the weighting
factor. Table 2 of each the
shows scale factor. Table
residents’ 2 showsfor
preferences theselecting
residents’each preferences
functional forspace
selecting
scaleeach func
under visual factors. Based
space scale on the
under analysis
visual of the
factors. Basedtable, it isanalysis
on the possibleoftothederive
table,different
it is possible to d
functional space volumes
different and significant
functional spatialand
space volumes demand influencing
significant factors that
spatial demand meet facto
influencing
the residents’ minds.
meet theAtresidents’
the same minds.
time, through further
At the same refinement
time, of each refinement
through further model by this of each mo
evaluation matrix, key evaluation factors corresponding to crucial elements of vernacular

building space design can be analyzed to form a set database of design evaluation factors
for vernacular buildings.
Table 1. Evaluation matrix of the combination of factors in the cultural and spatial dimensions under
the visual factor.
Cultural Dimensions Physical Religious Cultural Com- Art and Way of life
Spatial Dimensions Geography Beliefs munication Aesthetics
Scale V11 V12 V13 V14 V15
Form V21 V22 V23 V24 V25
Quality V31 V32 V33 V34 V35
Contact V41 V42 V43 V44 V45
“V15” represents the analysis of the combination of factors in the “V” model of Figure 5.
Table 2. Evaluation analysis of the V15 model factor combinations under visual factors.
Space Satisfaction Importance

V15 Way of Life
Requirements Measurement Ranking
1.Separate kitchen space for 1–2 people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
2.Open kitchen activity space 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
Public Space
3. Sufficient storage space 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
4. Compact and flexible bathroom/multipurpose room 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
Scale 5. Compact bedroom space 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
Private Space
6. Spacious bedroom space (with private bathroom) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
7.High and open living room/terrace 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
Functional space 8.Vegetable Garden/Flower Garden 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
9. Reasonable drainage system 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3
“V15” represents the analysis of the combination of factors in the “V” model of Figure 5.
Take the “one seal” architectural form of the Wolong Ancient Fishing Village in
Kunming. The “one seal” architectural form is typical of the traditional courtyard in
Kunming. Because the layout and overall appearance of the building are similar to a
square, the building is named “one seal”. The ancient fishing village of Wolong is near the
sea, with a significant temperature difference between day and night. The architectural
form of “one seal” is perfectly adapted to the local natural environment and lifestyle,
forming a unique architectural form of the ancient fishing village, as shown in Figure 9a.
In addition, the plan layout of the “One Seal” building adopts the principle of central
symmetry, reflecting the traditional Chinese cultural order of respect and inferiority. As
shown in Figure 9b, the main house faces south on the top of the longitudinal axis, while the
side houses are located on the left and right sides, and the main door is opposite to the main
house, forming a quadrangle with a courtyard in the middle. In this study, we conducted
field surveys of 43 residential buildings in the ancient fishing village, as well as in-depth
interviews and questionnaires with 135 residents. We learned that the current vernacular
architectural form in the town has changed from the initial “one seal” architectural form
to the “one seal” architectural form that changes with the needs of life. The fundamental
spatial elements of the original “one seal” architecture include the main house, side houses,
gates, courtyard, corridors, and stairwells. The new spatial layout corresponds to the new
living needs of the inhabitants. The change in the architectural form of “one seal” implies
that the interaction between residents’ perceptions and social culture has an inherent role
in determining the form of vernacular architecture. Therefore, in this study, we analyze
and study the fundamental relationship of the “one seal” building with 135 samples
of data, taking the spatial demand of residents in the V15 model as an example. The
results show that when the target group is the middle-aged and elderly (45 or above), the
proportion of spatial scale of residents’ lifestyles under visual factors is ranked as follows:
Sustainability 2022, Sustainability
14, x FOR PEER 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 14 of 21 14

The results show The results
that whenshow that when
the target groupthe is target group is the
the middle-aged andmiddle-aged
elderly (45 and elderly (45 or ab
or above),
the proportion of spatial scale of residents’ lifestyles under visual factors is ranked as fol-is ranked
the proportion of spatial scale of residents’ lifestyles under visual factors
lows: functional lows: functional space >> public space > When
privatethe space. When theistarget group is y
functional spacespace > public
> public spacespace
> private private
space.space.
When the target target
group group
is young young
people
people
(below(below people
45), the45), the (below
proportion of45),
proportion the proportion
of residents’
residents’ of residents’
spatialspatial
scale scale forspatial scale
lifestyle
for lifestyle under underfor lifestyle
visualvisual under
fac-
factors is visu
tors is functionaltors is
space functional
> private space
space >> private
public space
space, >aspublic
shown space,
in
functional space > private space > public space, as shown in Figure 10. This comparison as
Figure shown
10. in
This Figure
com- 10. This
parison parison
clearly that
clearly shows shows clearly
the that shows
the residents’
residents’ that the
demand demand residents’ demand
for functional
for functional space is the for
spacefunctional space
is the dominant
dominant reason foris the dom
reason
changingfor the reason
changing
essential for changing
thespatial
essential the essential
spatialofelements
elements spatial
the originalof the elements
original
“one of
seal” “one the original
seal”The
building. “one
building.
pie chartseal”
Thein building
pie chart11inshows
Figure piethat
Figure chart in Figure
11 shows
among that 11 shows
theamong thethat
functional among
functional
space needs, the
space functional space needs, bathrooms/mul
needs, bathrooms/multipur-
bathrooms/multipurpose rooms
pose rooms and
and kitchens pose
are therooms
kitchens
mainare andthekitchens
focus ofmain are In
focus
residents. the main focus
ofaddition,
residents. Inofaddition,
residents.
middle-aged In addition,
middle-aged
and older middle-age
adultsand
are
more concerned with arranging small vegetable/flower gardens and drainage systems in garden
older adults older
are more adults are
concerned morewithconcerned
arranging with
small arranging small
vegetable/flower vegetable/flower
gardens and
drainage
public spaces. drainage
systems in public
In contrast, systems
spaces.
young inpeople
public
In spaces.
contrast,
are more In
young contrast,
peoplewith
concerned young
are more people
planning are more
concerned
bedrooms with concerned
in
planning planning bedrooms
bedrooms in private rooms.
private rooms. in private rooms.
Figure The“One
Figure9.9.The “One Seal”
Figure
Seal” architectural
9.architectural
The form.
“One Seal” (a)Vernacular
Vernacular
architectural
form. (a) form. architecture ofofWolong
(a) Vernacular
architecture Wolong Ancient
architecture Fishing Ancient F
of Wolong
Ancient Fish-
Village, Kunming;
ing(b) Plan
Village, of the "One
Kunming; Seal"
(b) architectural
Plan of the "Oneform.
Seal" Source: Authors’
architectural photographs.
form. Source:
ing Village, Kunming; (b) Plan of the "One Seal" architectural form. Source: Authors’ photographs. Authors’ photog
Figure10.
Figure 10.V15 Figure
V15space
space 10. V15
demand
demand space demand
satisfaction
satisfaction satisfaction ranking.
ranking.
ranking.
Figure11.
Figure V15model
11.V15 modelelderly
elderlyand
andyoung
youngpeople
peoplespace
spacedemand
demandratio.
ratio.
This study designed and planned the building layout based on the above analysis. As
This study designed and planned the building layout based on the above analysis.
shown in Figure 12, by comparing with the original building layout, it can be found that the
As shown in Figure 12, by comparing with the original building layout, it can be found
first-floor plan layout of the partial rooms on both sides of the building has been adjusted
that the first-floor plan layout of the partial rooms on both sides of the building has been
with functional areas. The layout of the first floor of the left side room is divided into a
adjusted with functional areas. The layout of the first floor of the left side room is divided
wet and dry bathroom and a storage room. The bathroom is close to the main bedroom. It
into a wet andby
is separated dry bathroomwhich
a staircase, and anot storage
only room.
meets The bathroom is
the conditions ofclose to the main
convenient use for bed-
the
room. It is separated by a staircase, which not only meets
elderly in the main bedroom but also avoids the problem of moisture return. At the same the conditions of convenient use
for thethe
time, elderly
spaceinunderthe main bedroom
the stairs can be butusedalsoasavoids
a shelftheforproblem of moisture
the entertainment return. At
room/dining
the same time, the space under the stairs can be used
room, making full use of the corner space, as shown in Figure 13. The right side of the as a shelf for the entertainment
room/dining
first floor includes room, makingthe open full use of the corner space,
dining/entertainment areaasandshownthe in Figure The
kitchen. 13. The rightis
kitchen
side
close oftothe thefirst
frontfloordoor,includes
which the open
solves dining/entertainment
grease and ventilation problems area and and the kitchen.
facilitatesThe the
kitchen
laying of sewer lines. In addition, the planning of the drainage system on theand
is close to the front door, which solves grease and ventilation problems firstfacil-
floor
itates
reflects thethe laying of sewer
traditional idealines. In addition,
that “flowing waterthegathers
planning of theAs
wealth”. drainage
shown in system
Figureon 14,thethe
first floor reflects the traditional idea that “flowing water
ground in the courtyard is provided with a drainage ditch based on the dripping of water gathers wealth.” As shown in
Figure 14, the ground in the courtyard is provided with
from the corridor. The drainage system on the ground collects rainwater into the water a drainage ditch based on the
dripping
purification of water
system from inthe
thecorridor.
basement The ofdrainage
the storage system
room onon thethe
ground collects
left, where it rainwater
is purified
into
withthe water purification
domestic sewage andsystem used asinorganic
the basement
fertilizeroffor
thevegetables/gardens.
storage room on theThe left,space
where on
itthe
is purified
second floor with of domestic sewage
the building and used
mainly as organic
addresses fertilizer
the space needs forofvegetables/gardens.
young people. The
The spacefloor
second on the second
of the mainfloorroomof was
the building
originally mainly addresses
an oversized the space
room. In orderneeds to of young
make full
people. The second floor of the main room was originally
use of space resources, we divided the second floor of the main room into three rooms, an oversized room. In order to
make
as shown full use of space15.
in Figure resources,
The second we divided the second
floor directly abovefloor of thehouse
the main main roomis stillinto
used three
as a
rooms,
space for as shown
ancestor in Figure
worship, 15. and
The second
a smallfloor storagedirectly
roomaboveis settheup main
on the house
rightisside
still of
usedthe
asspace
a space for ancestor
connected to it, worship,
enrichingand the afunctional
small storage room of
attributes is set
theup on the
space. Onright sideside
the left of the
is a
space
separate connected
bedroom to space.
it, enriching
On thethe functional
second floor on attributes of the
the left are space. On thebathroom
an independent left side isand a
separate bedroom space.
a small bedroom. On the second
The second-floor floor on thebathroom
independent left are ancorresponds
independent tobathroom
the location andof
athe
smallfirst-floor
bedroom. bathroom, which is conducive
The second-floor independent to drainage
bathroom system management.
corresponds to the At the same
location of
time,
the the bathroom
first-floor bathroom, on the second
which floor is located
is conducive between
to drainage system the management.
two bedrooms, Atconnecting
the same
the relationship
time, the bathroom between
on thethe two separate
second spaces while
floor is located between meeting
the two thebedrooms,
needs of young people
connecting
who
the want to have
relationship their bathroom.
between the two separateOn thespacesright side,
while onmeeting
the second the floor
needsofofthe side room,
young peo-
is awho
ple separatewant multi-purpose room. This
to have their bathroom. On room is DIYside,
the right in nature,
on the withsecond thefloor
residents
of thegiving
side
the space functional attributes and scale proportions,
room, is a separate multi-purpose room. This room is DIY in nature, with the residents reflecting the normative and flexible
characteristics
giving the spaceoffunctional
the subjective–cultural–ecological
attributes and scale proportions, design system.
reflecting the normative and
flexible characteristics of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system.
Sustainability 2022,
Sustainability 2022, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
Figure12.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. First
First floor
floor
First
plan.plan.
floor plan.
Figure
Figure13. Section
13. of staircase.
Section of staircase.
staircase.
Figure 13. Section of
Figure 13. Section of staircase.

Figure 14. Reuse of water source.
Figure 14. Reuse of water source.
Figure 15. Second floor plan.

Figure 15. Second floor plan.
It is worth pointing
It is worth out that
pointing outthe
thatabove case shows
the above onlyonly
case shows one axis of perceptual
one axis factors
of perceptual factors of
of thethesubjective
subjectivedimension
dimension of of
the
theevaluation
evaluationanalysis
analysismatrix.
matrix.The
The single
single most striking
striking obser-
observation
vation to to emerge
emerge from
from the
the data
data comparison
comparison is that each of the perceptual
perceptual dimensions of the
of the subject
subjectdimension
dimensionisisaasystem
systemofofmethods
methodsthat
thatincludes,
includes, from
from large
large to to small,
small, a col-
a collection of
lectionsteps
of steps
suchsuch as design
as design purpose,
purpose, design
design factors,
factors, designdesign solutions,
solutions, and design
and design eval- The
evaluation.
uation.formation,
The formation, generation,
generation, and development
and development of theseofspecific
these specific
methods methods will pro-
will provide more sys-
tematic
vide more and scientific
systematic theoretical
and scientific support for
theoretical the conservation
support and sustainable
for the conservation development
and sustaina-
of vernacular
ble development of architecture.
vernacular architecture.
3.2.
3.2. The The Continuous
Continuous Self-Renewal
Self-Renewal Characteristics
Characteristics of the Subjective-Cultural
of the Subjective-Cultural Ecological
Ecological DesignDesign
System of Vernacular Architecture
System of Vernacular Architecture
The most surprising aspect of the data is that the subjective–cultural–ecological design
The most surprising aspect of the data is that the subjective–cultural–ecological de-
system leads to the innovative conclusion that vernacular architecture continues to renew
sign system leads to the innovative conclusion that vernacular architecture continues to
itself. In the subjective–cultural–ecological design system, culture, as an abstract term,
renew itself. In the subjective–cultural–ecological design system, culture, as an abstract
contains many complex factors such as regional characteristics, ideal beliefs, cultural
term, contains many complex factors such as regional characteristics, ideal beliefs, cultural
interactions, and artistic aesthetics. Culture is translated into figurative perceptual factors
interactions, and artistic aesthetics. Culture is translated into figurative perceptual factors
by cultivating people’s emotions. After inputting into the system, architectural language
with cultural symbolic meaning is output to complete the construction of the physical
building. At the same time, vernacular architecture continuously exchanges energy with
the social and cultural environment outside the system, which induces the imbalance of
by cultivating people’s emotions. After inputting into the system, architectural language
with cultural symbolic meaning is output to complete the construction of the physical
building. At the same time, vernacular architecture continuously exchanges energy with
the social and cultural environment outside the system, which induces the imbalance of the
internal factors of the vernacular architecture to produce qualitative changes. Then, through
the emotional assimilation path of the residents, the system is reactive to the renewal of
the architectural language, which in turn affects the renewal and revision of the original
cultural pattern. Finally, the whole system completes the internalization process of old and
new cultures in the path of the dynamic cycle of emotional patterns. As shown in Figure 16,
the vernacular architecture shows the dynamic characteristics of frequent participation in
the identity and continuity of settlement culture, subject identity, and family emotion
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of in
21
the emotional cycle of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system.
Figure 16.
Figure 16. The
The operation
operationpath
pathofofsubjective–cultural–ecological
subjective–cultural–ecologicaldesign system.
design "A"—Vernacular
system. Ar-
“A”—Vernacular
chitecture, "C"—Culture, "E"—Pattern of Emotions, "S"—System.
Architecture, “C”—Culture, “E”—Pattern of Emotions, “S”—System.
(1) Promote
(1) Promote the the recognition
recognitionand andrevitalization
revitalizationof ofthe
thecultural
culturalvalue
valueofofthethesettlement
settlement
The operating mechanism of the system deepens the connection
The operating mechanism of the system deepens the connection of emotional patterns of emotional pat-
terns between
between designers
designers and residents,
and residents, vernacularvernacular architecture,
architecture, and social
and social and cultural
and cultural envi-
environment
ronment on theonone
the hand.
one hand. It stimulates
It stimulates residents’
residents’ sensesense of responsibility
of responsibility for for revitaliz-
revitalizing
ing rural
rural culture.
culture. OnOn thethe other
other hand,
hand, it encouragesresidents
it encourages residentsand anddesigners
designersto tojointly
jointly and
and
scientifically grasp the differences in rural culture and the differentiated
scientifically grasp the differences in rural culture and the differentiated characteristics of characteristics of
development trends and reinterpret and record the value of
development trends and reinterpret and record the value of homeland cultural resources homeland cultural resources
in the
in the new
new eraera with
with contemporary
contemporary architectural
architectural language.
language. This This study
study guides
guides residents
residents to to
recognize their
recognize their home
home culture
culture byby integrating
integrating emotional
emotional patterns,
patterns, ultimately
ultimately presenting
presenting the the
cultural and
cultural andemotional
emotionalpatternpattern value
value of contemporary
of contemporary vernacular
vernacular architecture
architecture beyond beyond
that
that inspired
inspired by practical
by practical tasks tasks and revitalizing
and revitalizing the traditional
the traditional texturetexture of vernacular
of vernacular archi-
architecture.
tecture.
(2) Promoting the reshaping of the identity of rural social subjects
(2) Promoting
From the feedback the reshaping
mechanism of oftheemotional
identity of rural social
patterns, subjects the tightness and
we maintain
From of
activeness thethe
feedback
emotional mechanism of emotional
pattern connection patterns,
between we maintain
designers, the tightness
residents, and vernac-and
ular buildings.
activeness of theThrough
emotional thepattern
dynamic regulationbetween
connection processdesigners,
of translating, assimilating,
residents, and vernac-and
conforming
ular buildings. to emotional
Through the patterns,
dynamicthe power
regulationof social
processculture and the subject’s
of translating, perceptual
assimilating, and
interaction
conformingcontinues
to emotional to dominate
patterns, the thepower
implicit force of
of social emotional
culture and the patterns
subject’s to perceptual
guide the
practice
interactionof vernacular
continues to architecture.
dominate the It fully stimulates
implicit force of rural residentspatterns
emotional to participate
to guide in the
the
cultural creation of the settlement, strengthens the reshaping of collective
practice of vernacular architecture. It fully stimulates rural residents to participate in identity and sense
the
of identity,
cultural establishes
creation of thea settlement,
more intimate relationship
strengthens the between
reshapingpeople and nature,
of collective identitypeople
and
and
sense others, people establishes
of identity, and countryside,
a moreand peoplerelationship
intimate and faith, and promotes
between the link
people and of rural
nature,
emotional
people andcommunity.
others, people and countryside, and people and faith, and promotes the link
(3) Promote
of rural emotional the consolidation and continuation of family emotions
community.
The subjective–cultural–ecological
(3) Promote the consolidation and continuation design system of translates culture into a symbolic
family emotions
code The in the vernacular building through the emotional
subjective–cultural–ecological design system translates culture patterns and sharesinto it with the
a symbolic
residents, constituting an identity space or imaginary field
code in the vernacular building through the emotional patterns and shares it with for the existence of the groupthe
with common
residents, cultural an
constituting background.
identity space Theyorgrasp the meaning
imaginary field forofthe this symbolic
existence ofemotional
the group
pattern
with commonwith each other.
cultural In the continuous
background. They grasp self-renewal
the meaning of the system,
of this the vernacular
symbolic emotional
architecture and the whole family members will continue to produce
pattern with each other. In the continuous self-renewal of the system, the vernacular emotional resonance ar- so
that the family culture, norms, and interpretation of emotional
chitecture and the whole family members will continue to produce emotional resonance patterns will be consolidated
and continued
so that the familyin the transmission.
culture, norms, and interpretation of emotional patterns will be consol-
idated and continued in the transmission.
4. Discussion
The idea of writing this paper is also the process of thinking about new ways of co-
existence between vernacular architecture and residents’ subjective perceptions and social
4. Discussion
The idea of writing this paper is also the process of thinking about new ways of coex-
istence between vernacular architecture and residents’ subjective perceptions and social
culture, as well as exploring a more systematic and scientific theory and design model
for the sustainable development of vernacular architecture. In reviewing the literature,
domestic scholars’ research on vernacular architecture has mainly focused on three aspects:
cultural, functional, and economic. (a) Cultural dimension: analysis and preservation of the
architectural culture and spatial layout of residential buildings in terms of history, physical
geography, spatial and temporal distribution characteristics, cultural genes, and digital
technology, respectively, based on the disciplines of anthropology, ethnography, cultural
studies, and archaeology. (b) Functional level: design and planning of the structural per-
formance, life cycle, and environmental impact of residential buildings in terms of spatial
structure, spatial function, habitat environment, fire and earthquake prevention, and green
sustainability, respectively, based on the disciplines of architecture, environmental behavior,
and ecology. (c) Economic dimension: mainly focusing on the tourism industry, the country-
side and the incorporation of vernacular architectures into the industrial upgrading system
to improve their economic value, which is also a renewal strategy vigorously promoted
in China. Although the residents’ living standard has improved, the lax refinement of
culture has led to the undesirable phenomenon of cultural homogenization in some altered
vernacular architecture. This phenomenon reflects that the study of vernacular architecture
cannot ignore that the interaction between the inhabitants’ subjects and the society’s culture
has an intrinsically determining influence on vernacular architecture. To sum up, the con-
servation and development of vernacular architecture cannot focus only on external factors
or only on internal factors. Research on the conservation and development of vernacular
architecture must combine internal and external factors to ensure its healthy growth.
Therefore, this study aims to construct a systematically, normatively, and flexibly
designed research framework for the sustainable development of vernacular architecture,
with the following specific contributions. (a) Firstly, domestic vernacular architecture’s
research trends and hot spots are analyzed through the bibliometric method, literature cross-
referencing network analysis visualization, and the close relationship between vernacular
architecture, social culture, and residents’ subject perceptions are clarified. (b) Second, this
study draws on the concept of cultural ecology and the reasoning method of relational
transmission in logical deduction. The theoretical coupling of the socio-cultural structure
of emotion and the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture is analyzed. It is proven
that the interactive relationship between the resident subject and the social culture has
an inherent determining force on the heritage transmission and innovation of vernacular
architecture. Therefore, the concept of the subjective-cultural ecological design system
of vernacular architecture is proposed in this study. (c) This study integrates the subject,
cultural, and spatial dimensions to construct a three-dimensional structural analysis design
paradigm and evaluation matrix for the subjective–cultural–ecological design system of
vernacular architecture. This provides a systematic, standardized, and flexible design
system integrating theory, method, and evaluation and a database of emotional evaluation
factors for conserving and developing vernacular architecture. (d) Finally, use case studies
to demonstrate how this design research framework works. This study finds that in
the dynamic cycle of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system, the vernacular
architecture endogenously generates a self-renewal mechanism of “continuous exchange
and revision” from the inside out, effectively extending the life span of cultural values.
5. Conclusions
In short, in the dynamic cycle of the subjective–cultural–ecological design system,
vernacular architecture can undergo a self-renewal of “continuous exchange–revision”, no
longer waiting to be interpreted like “antiques”. It presents the dynamic characteristics
of frequent participation in the home’s cultural identity, the subject’s identity, and the
transmission of family emotion. A subjective–cultural–ecological design system helps
stimulate vernacular architectures to generate an excellent sustainable growth cycle and

extend the building’s cultural value and practical use. Thus, it can play a more profound
social, ecological, and cultural benefit. However, this design research framework still has
many parts that deserve detailed refinement and improvement. The main limitation of this
study is that external factors such as epidemic control prevented the collection of sample
data from more regions from supporting further validation and refinement of the designed
research framework. Based on this, this study hopes to conduct fieldwork on samples from
different regions, diverse cultures, and multiple forms as much as possible. By deepening
its research ideas and methods through a large number of sample data, it will form a set of
theories and design models for the sustainable development of residential buildings that
are standardized and flexible. Finally, the authors hope this study can enrich the theoretical
system of sustainable development of contemporary vernacular architecture in China and
the new pattern of rural development in Yunnan.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation,

visualization, and writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, M.Z.; investi-
gation, visualization, L.W.; Resources, supervision, project administration, and funding acquisition,
Q.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Key research and development programs in the field of social
development of the Yunnan Provincial Department of Science and Technology (Provincial Key Fund),
grant number 2018BC008. The APC was funded by Key research and development programs in
the field of social development of the Yunnan Provincial Department of Science and Technology
(Provincial Key Fund), grant number 2018BC008.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology of Yunnan
Province for financial support and to Qingwen Zhang of the School of Civil Engineering, Southwest
Forestry University for support. The author thanks Yanling Zhang for her help. The authors thank
the anonymous reviewers for their comments, which helped to improve this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

Keywords: vernacular architecture; the cultural ecosystem of vernacular architecture; socio-cultural

Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013564 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Methods

2.2. Search Strategy

2.3. Data analysis and Conceptual Reasoning

Figure 1. Trends in the total published literature on vernacular architecture in 2005–2022.

Figure 1. Trends in the total published literature on vernacular architecture in 2005–2022.

Figure 2. A comparative analysis of the levels of study of vernacular architecture in 2015–2022.

shapes the spiritual temperament of vernacular architecture. In this spiritual dimension,

Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564 10 of 21

Vernacular architecture: (a) Traditional

Figure 8. Vernacular architecture

evaluation matrix, key evaluation factors corresponding to crucial elements of vernacular

Space Satisfaction Importance

Sustainability 2022, 14, 13564 14 of 21

Figure 13. Section of staircase.

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21

Figure 15. Second floor plan.

stimulate vernacular architectures to generate an excellent sustainable growth cycle and

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation,

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