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2023-24
BIOLOGY iNVESTiGATORY PROJECT
TOPIC:- central dogma of molecular biology
SUBMITTED BY :- TAKSHAK KHANDELKAR
CLASS : 12TH [SCIENCE]
ROLL NO :

GUIDED BY: PRINCIPAL:

MR. ASHOK KULHARIYA SMT.POONAM RAJ
SHARMA
 What is central dogma of molecular biology ?
The central dogma of molecular biology is an explanation of the flow of
genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA
makes RNA, and RNA makes protein", although this is not its original
meaning. It was first stated by Francis Crick in 1957, then published in
1958:

The Central Dogma. This states that once "information" has passed
into protein it cannot get out again. In more detail, the transfer of
information from nucleic acid to nucleic acid, or from nucleic acid to
protein may be possible, but transfer from protein to protein, or from
protein to nucleic acid is impossible. Information here means the
precise determination of sequence, either of bases in the nucleic acid
or of amino acid residues in the protein. protein.

FRANCIS CRICK
 In the sense that DNA
replication must occur if
genetic material is to be provided for the progeny of any
cell, whether somatic or reproductive, the copying from DNA to DNA
arguably is the fundamental step in information transfer. A complex group of
proteins called the replisome performs the replication of the information from
the parent strand to the complementary daughter strand.
The replisome comprises:
 A helicase that unwinds the superhelix as well as the double-stranded DNA
helix to create a replication fork
 SSB protein that binds open the double-stranded DNA to prevent it from
reassociating
 Primase adds a complementary RNA primer to each template strand as a starting
point for replication
 DNA polymerase III that reads the existing template chain from its 3' end to its 5'
end and adds new complementary nucleotides from the 5' end to the 3' end of the
daughter chain
 DNA polymerase I that removes the RNA primers and replaces them with DNA
 DNA ligase that joins the two Okazaki fragments with phosphodiester bonds to
produce a continuous chain
 This process typically takes place during S phase of the cell cycle.
What is Transcription ?
It is one of the first processes in gene expression. The genetic information
flows from DNA to protein and this flow of information takes place in a
sequential process of transcription and translation. Only one strand of DNA
is copied during the process of transcription known as the template strand
and the RNA synthesised is called the mRNA.
The main motive of transcription is RNA synthesis from the DNA sequence.
The RNA transcript carries the information used to encode a protein.
 RNA Polymerase
The RNA polymerase is the main enzyme involved in transcription. It uses
single-strand DNA to synthesize a complementary RNA strand. The DNA-
dependent RNA polymerase binds to the promoter and catalyses the
polymerization in the 5’ to 3’ direction on the template strand. Once it
reaches the terminator sequence, the process terminates and the newly
synthesised RNA strand is released.

Different type of RNA are synthesised on the basis of RNA polymerase

used.
 TRANSCRIPTION UNIT

Transcription Unit is a stretch of a DNA transcribed into an RNA molecule.

Its function is to encode at least one gene. Suppose if gene encodes protein
than mRNA is produced by transcription. A protein encoded by the DNA
transcription unit may comprise a coding sequence. Compared to DNA
replication, transcription has a lower copying fidelity.
 Stages of Transcription

Initiation
RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA molecule and moves along
the DNA strand until it recognises a promoter sequence. These are known
as the transcription start sites. The DNA double helix then unwinds and all
the bases on each of the DNA strands are exposed. This acts as a template
for a new mRNA strand.

Elongation
Ribonucleotides are added to the template strand that enables the growth of
mRNA growth.

Termination
RNA polymerase encounters a terminator sequence and the transcription
stops. RNA polymerase then releases the DNA template.
 RNA PROCESSING
The transcribed RNA is known as the pre-mRNA. It is processed further to
convert it into mature RNA. RNA processing include:

 Capping A
methylated guanine cap is added to protect the mRNA. It involves:
 Addition of methylated guanine
 It occurs at 5′ end of mRNA transcript
 It protects the mRNA from degradation

 POLYADENYLATION/TAILING
The poly-A tail also protects the mRNA from degradation. It involves:

 The endonucleases cleave the mRNA at a specific sequence.

 The enzyme polyA polymerase facilitates the addition of several adenine
nucleotides.

 SPLICING
 The non-coding sequences, i.e., the introns are removed by spliceosome
excision.
 The coding sequences or the exons join together by ligation.

Thus several proteins can be made from a single pre-mRNA. A mature

mRNA is
obtained at the end
of
transcription.
 Protein Biosynthesis – Translation

The process by which the mRNA codes for a particular protein is known
as Translation. In the process, the ribosome translates the mRNA
produced from DNA into a chain of specific amino acids. This chain of
amino acids leads to protein synthesis.

It is a process where the expense of ATP is required and this energy is

given by the charged tRNA. The whole machinery of translation is

present in the ribosomes

.
 The ribosomes consist of a bigger subunit and a smaller
. subunit. The larger subunit, in turn, consists of two molecules of
tRNA that are placed close so that peptide bond could be developed at
the expense of sufficient energy. The mRNA enters the smaller subunit
which is held by the molecules of tRNA of the complementary codon,
that exists in the bigger subunit. Hence, two codons are held by two
molecules of tRNA, placed near to each other and a peptide bond is
produced among them. When this process repeats, a large chain of
amino acids is synthesized. At the stop, codon ribosome releases the
amino acid chain.
 CODONS
A codon is a DNA or RNA sequence of three
nucleotides (a trinucleotide) that forms a unit of genomic
information encoding a particular amino acid or signaling
the termination of protein synthesis (stop signals). There
are 64 different codons: 61 specify amino acids and 3
are used as stop signals.
 THE THREE CODON ARE:UAA,UAG, UGA which do not code for
any amino acid.
 Codon AUG which codes for Methionine act as a Start codon from
where process of Translation starts.
 EXCEPTION
The central dogma of molecular biology states that the
flow of genetic information is DNA → RNA → protein. With a few
notable exceptions,
1. Reverse transcription
Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to DNA (the
reverse of normal transcription). This is known to occur in the case
of retroviruses, such as HIV, as well as in eukaryotes, in the case
of retrotransposons and telomere synthesis. It is the process by which
genetic information from RNA gets transcribed into new DNA. The family of
enzymes involved in this process is called RNA-dependent DNA
polymerases, also known as Reverse Transcriptase.
 2, RNA REPLICATION
RNA replication is the copying of one RNA to another. Many
viruses replicate this way. The enzymes that copy RNA to new
RNA, called RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, are also found in
many eukaryotes where they are involved in RNA silencing.
RNA editing, in which an RNA sequence is altered by a
complex of proteins and a "guide RNA", could also be seen as
an RNA-to-RNA transfer.

3,DIRECT TRANSLATIONFROM DNA TO PROTEIN

Direct translation from DNA to protein has been demonstrated in a cell-
free system (i.e. in a test tube), using extracts from E. coli that
contained ribosomes, but not intact cells. These cell fragments could
synthesize proteins from single-stranded DNA templates isolated from
other organisms (e.g., mouse or toad), and neomycin was found to
enhance this effect. However, it was unclear whether this mechanism of
translation corresponded specifically to the genetic code.