ATOM

Thomson model: According to Thomson, atom is a sphere of positive charges of uniform density in which
negative charges are embedded like plums in pudding. It is also called plum pudding model.

Rutherford alpha particle scattering experiment (Rutherford and Geiger-Marsden experiment or Gold
foil experiment)

It consisted of a narrow beam of alpha particle which is incident on a circular screen coated with zinc
sulphide (ZnS) after passing through a thin gold foil. Alpha particles scattered in different directions were
observed with the help of movable detector. Alpha particles scattered by thin gold foil produces scintillations
or light flashes, which is observed by the detector.

Observations:

1. Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil un deflected.

2. Some of the alpha particles were deflected through small angles.

3. A few alpha particles (1/8000) were deflected through large angles (>90°). Some of them even retraced
their path (180°). A graph between number of alpha particles per unit area and scattering angle is given by.
Conclusions:

1. Most of the space in an atom is empty.

2. Positive charges in an atom were concentrated in a very small region at the centre of the atom, which is
called nucleus.

3. The alpha particles which travel towards the nucleus directly, get retarded due to Coulomb’s force of
repulsion and ultimately come to rest and fly off in the opposite direction.

4. Electrons being very light do not affect alpha particle.

Impact parameter: the perpendicular distance of velocity vector of the incident alpha particle from the centre
of the nucleus. Which is denoted by b, which is given by b = Ze2cot (θ/2)/ [4πε0 (1/2 mv2)]

Distance of closest approach: The minimum distance up to which an energetic alpha particle after
travelling directly towards a nucleus move before coming to rest and retracing its path. This distance
estimates the size of the nucleus. Let an alpha particle having K.E, E = ½ mu 2 is directed towards the centre
of the nucleus. When the distance between alpha particle and nucleus is equal to distance of closest
approach the alpha particle comes to rest. At this point K.E of the alpha particle is completely converted into
electric potential energy o the system. I.e. the impact parameter is zero.

1/2mu2 = 1/4πε0 (Ze/r0) x 2e = (1/4πε0) 2Ze2/r0.

r0 = (1/4πε0) 2Ze2/E. Where, E = ½ mu2

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model atom

1. It is failed to explain the stability of atom- According to classical theory of electrodynamics, any charged
particle while accelerating or retarding loses energy through electromagnetic radiations. Therefore a
revolving electron must loose energy continuously and finally fall into nucleus by following a spiral path.

2. It is failed to explain the complex spectrum emitted by an atom.

Atomic spectra

Line emission spectrum is series of lines of various wavelengths emitted by an atomic gas or vapour usually
excited by passing an electric current through it. Which consist of white lines on dark back ground, study of
emission line spectra can serve as a type of “finger print” for identification of gas.

Bohr’s atom model

Postulates:

1. An atom has a small positively charged core called nucleus where whole mass of the atom is supposed to
be concentrated. Electrons revolve around the nucleus with a definite fixed energy state or level without
gaining or loosing energy.

2. Electrons can revolve only in those energy levels, in which angular momentum is integral multiple of h/2π.
This is Bohr’s quantization condition for angular momentum.

3. Electron can jump from higher energy level to lower energy level radiating energy in the form of photon.

hν = Ei –Ef.
Bohr’s Quantum condition from De Broglie hypothesis

Bohr could not explain why only certain energy levels were allowed for orbiting electrons. But De Broglie
established a connection; he assumed that an electron orbit would be stable only if it contained an integral
multiple of electron wavelength. I.e. the first orbit contains one wave length, second two and so on. He
assumed the circumference of orbit of an electron must be equal to the integral multiple of electron wave
length. 2πr = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3…..

According to Bohr’s postulate L = nh/2π

mvr = nh/2π or 2πr = nh/mv but λ = h/mv

Therefore 2πr = nλ.

Drawback of Bohr’s atom model

1. This model could not explain the spectra of complex atoms having more than one electron.

2. it could not explain fine structure of spectral lines ( Balmer series)

3. It did not give any indication regarding the arrangement of electrons.

4. This model cannot account for the wave nature of electrons.

5. It does not able to explain relative intensities and splitting of spectral lines.