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PROJECT: SOLAR PV

INTERNSHIP REPORT (SMART TASK 4)

Submitted to Submitted by: Shubham Arora

ASHISH KUMAR Sir College: MBM engineering college Jodhpur

VARDAN CONSULTING ENGINEERS Email:shubhamarora9399@gmail.com

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Table of Contents
1 Solar Energy – An Overview 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Renewable energy and it's types 3

1.3 Why solar 4

2 Solar PV System– An Overview 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Solar pv system configration 8

3 Design of Solar power plant 12

3.1 Factors to be considered in solar system design 12

3.2 Performance of pv module 13

3.3 Physical parameters 16

3.4 System Design of Solar PV Systems 16

3.5 Solar Array Design 17

3.6 Battary design 17

4 An Intoductiom to Solar Resource Assessment 19

4.1 Resource Assessment Sources 19

4.2 Quantifying solar resources 20

5. DESIGN OF100KWP ROOFTOP GRID CONNCTED SOLAR PV PLANT 21

51 Solar panel characteristics 21

5.2 Array layout for 100kwp rooftop grid connected solar pv system of 22
a building.

5.3 Simulation of Solar power plant 22

6 Maintenance of Solar pv plant 23

7 Losses in PV Solar system 27

8 Summary 29
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1.SOLAR ENERGY AN OVERVIEW :

1.1 INTRODUCTION :
World population is expected to double by the middle of the 21st century (Global Energy, 1998). This will
consequently result in a 3-5 fold increase in world economic output by the year 2050, and a 10-15 fold increase by
the year 2100. Consequently, Primary energy requirements are expected to increase by approximately three folds
by the year 2050 and five folds by the year 2100. This is expected to exert tremendous pressure on primary energy
supplier. Energy has an established positive correlation with economic growth. Providing adequate, affordable and
clean energy is a prerequisite for eradicating poverty and improving productivity. The inevitable increase in the use
of fossil fuels alongside a country’s economic growth presents associated side effects of threat to the nation’s
energy security, as well as environmental degradation through climate change. A feasible alternative to the
indiscriminate burning of fossil fuels lies in the accelerated use of renewable energy. In tropical countries, which
have sunshine almost throughout the year in most parts, solar energy is one of the most viable options. Energy from
the sun has been used to provide electricity for many years. This form of renewable energy occupies less space
compared to the space occupied by hydropower projects. Developing countries can cover all their demands for
energy by solar systems with 0.1% of the land area.

1.2 Renewable Energy :

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or processes that are constantly
replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep shining and blowing, even if their availability depends on time and
weather.While renewable energy is often thought of as a new technology, harnessing nature’s power has long been
used for heating, transportation, lighting, and more. Solar energy , wind energy , hydro power energy , geothermal
energy , tidal and wave energy are some common example of renewable energy

TYPES OF COMMERCIALY FEASIBLE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

 SOLAR ENERGY

Humans have been harnessing solar energy for thousands of years—to grow crops, stay warm, and dry foods.
According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “more energy from the sun falls on the earth in one
hour than is used by everyone in the world in one year.”

Today, we use the sun’s rays in many ways—to heat homes and businesses, to warm water, or power
devices.Solar, or photovoltaic (PV), cells are made from silicon or other materials that transform sunlight
directly into electricity. Distributed solar systems generate electricity locally for homes and businesses, either
through rooftop panels or community projects that power entire neighborhoods .

 Wind Energy
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Wind Energy captures the natural wind in our environment and converts the air’s motion into mechanical
energyThe mechanism used to convert air motion into electricity is referred to as a turbine. A turbine is a
large structure with several spinning blades. These blades are connected to an electro-magnetic generator
that generates electricity when the wind causes the blades to spin. wind is that it is a clean and renewable
form of energy. Its production of electricity has no direct carbon emissions or air pollutants and does not
consume water. Wind also has relatively low operations and maintenance costs after initial construction .

 HYDRO POWER

Hydropower or hydroelectricity refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water into electricity. It is
considered a renewable energy source because the water cycle is constantly renewed by the sun.Hydropower
is the largest contributor of all renewable energy sources and accounts for 6.7% of worldwide electricity
production and also Hydropower is an abundant, low cost source of power (where applicable), despite high
upfront buidling costs.

It is also a flexible and reliable source of electricity compared to other renewable options, as it may stored
and used later

1.3 Why Solar ?

While a majority of the world's current electricity supply is generated from fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural
gas, these traditional energy sources face a number of challenges including rising prices, security concerns over
dependence on imports from a limited number of countries which have significant fossil fuel supplies, and growing
environmental concerns over the climate change risks associated with power generation using fossil fuels. As a
result of these and other challenges facing traditional energy sources, governments, businesses and consumers are
increasingly supporting the development of alternative energy sources and new technologies for electricity
generation. Renewable energy sources such as solar, biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric and wind power
generation have emerged as potential alternativeswhich address some of these concerns. As opposed to fossil fuels,
which draw on finite resources that may eventually become too expensive to retrieve, renewable energy sources
are generally unlimited in availability. Solar power generation has emerged as one of the mostrapidly growing
renewable sources of electricity. Solar power generation has several advantages over other forms of electricity
generation:

 Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Solar energy production does not require fossil fuels and is
therefore less dependent on this limited and expensive natural resource

Environmental Advantages. Solar power production generates electricity with a limited impact on the environment
as compared to other forms of electricity production.

 Matching Peak Time Output with Peak Time Demand: Solar energy can effectively supplement
electricity supply from an electricity transmission grid, such as when electricity demand peaks in the
summer
 Modularity and Scalability: As the size and generating capacity of a solar system are a function of the
number of solar modules installed, applications of solar technology arereadily scalable and versatile.
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 Government Incentives: A growing number of countries have established incentive programs for the
development of solar and other renewable energy sources, such as:
1) Net metering laws that allow on-grid end users to sell electricity back to the grid at retail prices.
2) Direct subsidies to end users .
3) Low interest loans for financing solar power systems and tax incentives.
4) Government standards that mandate minimum usage levels of renewable energy sources.
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2 Solar PV System– An Overview

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The sun delivers its energy to us in two main forms: heat and light. Solar PV systems are used to convert
sunlight directly into electricity When the PV modules are exposed to sunlight, they generate direct current
(“DC”) electricity. An inverter then converts the DC into alternating current (“AC”) electricity, so that it can
feed into one of the building’s AC distribution boards (“ACDB”) without affecting the quality of power
supply.

Types of Solar PVSystem

Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the technology.There are two main types of
solar PV systems: grid-connected (or grid-tied) and off-grid(or stand alone) solar PV systems.

a) OFF GRID SOLAR PLANT - In OFF Grid Solar Plant whole system does not connect to the local grid. In this we have
to use local batteries to store solar power for consumption during clouding days or in night time. OFF Grid solar
plant is costly because the storage system like batteries must replace with in a particular time for better efficiency
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Figure: OFF-grid solar PV system configuration

b) ON GRID SOLAR PLANT - A Grid Tie System or Integrated System is called ON Grid Solar Plant. In this plant whole
system is connected to the local grid for consumption of electricity during cloudy days or in night time. ON Grid
Solar system is most efficient and cheap as no batteries are required .

Figure:Grid-connected solar PV system configuration

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2.2 Solar Pv System Configuration:

Figure: Layout of solar pv system

Basic components for grid connected system

1.PV module

2.PV Junction Box

3.PV Inverter

4.Solar Monitoring System

5. Transformer
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1. Solar PV modules : Solar PV modules convert solar radiation directly into electricity through the
photovoltaic effect in a silent and clean process that requires no moving parts. The PV effect is a
semiconductor effect whereby solar radiation falling onto the semiconductor PV cells generates electron
movement. The output from a solar PV cell is DC electricity. A PV power plant contains many cells
connected together in modules and many modules connected together in strings8 to produce the required
DC power output.

PV cells may be based on either silicon wafers (manufactured by cutting wafers from a solid ingot block of
silicon) or “thin-film” technologies for which a thin layer of a semiconductor material is deposited on low-
cost substrates. PV cells can further be characterised according tolong-range structure of the semiconductor
material, mono crystalline and multi crystalline.

Figure: Mono-crystalline pv cell Figure :Multi-crystalline pv cell

 Crystalline Silicon (c-Si): Modules are made from cells of either mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline silicon.
Mono-c-Si cells are generally the most efficient, but are also more costly than multi-c-Si.
 Thin-film: Modules are made with a thin-film deposition of a semiconductor onto a substrate. This class
includes semiconductors made from:•Amorphous Silicon (a-Si).•Cadmium Telluride (CdTe).•Copper Indium
Selenide (CIS).
 Heterojunction with intrinsic thin-film layer (HIT):Modules are composed of a mono-thin c-Si wafers
surrounded by ultra-thin a-Si layers.

2. PV Junction Box:The PV junction box has a simple, but important role: housing all the electric bits on a solar
panel and protecting them from the environment. Wires connect to diodes inside, providing an easy way to
link panels together.A junction box has bypass diodes that keep power flowing in one direction and prevent it
from feeding back to the panels.
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Figure: A Junction box

3. PV inverter : Inverters play a crucial role in any solar energy system and are often considered to be the
brains of a project, whether it’s a 2-kW residential system or a 5-MW utility power plant. An inverter’s basic
function is to “invert” the direct current (DC) output into alternating current (AC). AC is the standard used by
all commercial appliances, which is why many view inverters as the “gateway” between the photovoltaic (PV)
system and the energy off-taker.

Figure: An inverter connected

to the solar pv system

Inverters are solid state electronic

devices. They convert DC electricity generated by the PV modules into AC electricity, ideally conforming to the local
grid requirements. Inverters can also perform a variety of functions to maximise the output of the plant. These
range from optimising the voltage across the strings and monitoring string performance to logging data and
providing protection and isolation in case of irregularities in the grid or with the PV modules.

4. Solar monitoring system: Monitoring and control of photovoltaic systems is essential for reliable
functioning and maximum yield of any solar electric system. The simplest monitoring of an inverter can be
performed by reading values on display - display (usually LCD) is part of almost each grid-connected inverter.
Most important inverter and grid related parameters are available on LCD screen in such case. Values like PV
array power, AC grid power, PV array current are usually available
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5. Transformer: Transformers are critical components in solar energy production and distribution. Historically,
transformers have “stepped-up” or “stepped-down” energy from non-renewable sources. There are different
types of solar transformers including distribution, station, sub-station, pad mounted and grounding. All solar
transformers have specialized needs that impact costs.

Solar-power systems also have special design issues. Because the largest solar inverter size is about 500
kilovoltampere (kVA), designers are building 1,000 kVA solar transformers by placing two inverter connected
windings in one box. The transformer must have separate windings to accept completely separate inputs.
Design issues also stem from running cables long distances to convert from DC to AC.

3.DESIGN OF SOLAR POWER PLANT

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Solar Power Plants Power supply in most of the cities and towns is unreliable, which has forced the people to
use small generators. These generators are operated with fossil fuels like kerosene, petrol or diesel cause
pollution. It also leads to increase dependence on oil imports. A solar power plant is a good option for
electrification in areas that are located away from the grid line or where other sources are neither available
nor can be harnessed in a techno economically viable manner. A solar power plant of the size 10–100 kW
(kilowatt), depending on the load demand, is preferable particularly with a liberal subsidy and low-interest
soft loan from financial institutions. The idea is to raise the quality of life of the people subjected to poverty
in these areas. This coupled with low-gestation remote areas of many states that need electrification. Typical
Stand alone solar power plant for the power generation comprises of Solar PV module array, Module
mounting structures, Charge controller, Battery bank, Inverter and Load circuitry.

3.1 Factors to be considered in Solar System Design

Some critical factors which must be considered during design include proper selection of modules, optimum angle
of tilt, minimization of ohmic losses with proper selection of conductors, selection of efficient transformers and
inverters etc. Use of reliable and long life components is equally essential for expensive solar power plants. The
actual energy output that one can expect from a given PV system depends on a large number of factors. Some of
these are:

1.Solar Irradiation: If the solar irradiation is higher then solar input to the solar cell will also be higher and hence
power magnitude will increase for same value of voltage. When there is more solar irradiation then due to high
temperature the mobility of electrons increases thus more power generates]

2 . Temperature: Temperature also affects the performance of solar cells. Increment in temperature has negative
impact on the capability of power generation. Generally solar cell is made of silicon so when temperature increases
then band gap of material also increases so a much higher energy is required to cross the barrier for electrons.So
the efficiency of cell reduces and hence power generation reduces.• Some module types have long-term variations
in the performance. Especially modules made from amorphous silicon are subject to seasonal variations in
performance, driven by long-term exposure to light and to high temperatures.

3.Air Mass :“Air mass” normally indicates relative air mass, the path length relative to that at the zenith at sea level.
By definition, the sea-level air mass at the zenith is one. Air mass increases as the angle between the source and the
zenith increases, reaching a value of approximately 38 at the horizon. Air mass can be less than one at an elevation
greater than sea level. However, most closed-form expressions for air mass do not include the effects of elevation,
so adjustment must usually be accomplished by other means. Designation of Solar Air Masses is shown in Figure
below.
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3.2 Performance of PV Module:

A PV module’s performance is directly

related to the amount of sunlight it
receives. If a PV module is shaded, even
partially, its performance will be very poor. PV modules should never be installed in a location, where they will be
shaded all the time as they will produce little to no power and prolonged shading can damage the module. On
overcast days as well as on sunny days, PV modules will not perform because the clouds reduce the amount of
sunlight hitting the modules.

Geometric Effect

The direction that a solar panel faces is referred to as its orientation. The orientation of the solar array is very
important as it affects the amount of sunlight hitting the array and hence the amount of power the array will
produce. The orientation generally includes the direction the solar module is facing (i.e. due south) and the tilt angle
which is the angle between the base of the solar panel and the horizontal. The amount of sunlight hitting the array
also varies with the time of day because of the sun’s movement across the sky.

 Tilt Angle: Solar radiation available at a particular location keeps changing during the day and also during
the year. Amount of solar radiation received by a solar array is not same during all the time of the day and it
is also not the same in different months of a year. Solar modules should be installed so that as much
radiation is collected as possible. To have a module face directly towards the sun at all times would require
a solar tracking frame to be installed. This can be expensive, so it is not common practice for most PV
applications.

Modules mounted on a fixed structure should be tilted up from the horizontal. The correct tiltangle varies with the
times of year the system is used, and the latitude of the site. The tilt should be within 10 degrees of the listed angle.
For example, a system used throughout the year at a latitude of 25° can have a tilt angle of 15° to 35° without a
noticeable decrease in annual performance.
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 INVERTERS

Inverters are solid state electronic devices. They convert DC electricity generated by the PV modules into AC
electricity, ideally conforming to the local grid requirements. Inverters can also perform a variety of functions to
maximise the output of the plant. These range from optimising the voltage across the strings and monitoring string
performance to logging data and providing protection and isolation in case of irregularities in the grid or with the PV
modules.

 INVERTER EFFICIENCY

A number of different types of efficiencies have been defined for inverters. These describe and quantify the
efficiency of different aspects of an inverter’s operation. The search for an objective way of quantifying inverter
performance is still ongoing. New ways of measuring efficiency are frequently suggested in the literature. The most
commonly used methods are discussed below.

THE CONVERSION EFFICIENCY is a measure of the losses experienced during the conversion from DC to AC. These
losses are due to multiple factors: the presence of a transformer and the associated magnetic and copper losses,
inverter self-consumption, and losses in the power electronics. Conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
fundamental component of the AC power output from the inverter, divided by the DC power input.

The European Efficiency is an accepted method of measuring inverter efficiency. It is a calculated efficiency
averaged over a power distribution corresponding to the operating climatic conditions of a central European
location. As a useful means of comparing inverter efficiencies, the efficiency standard also attempts to capture the
fact that in central Europe, most energy is generated near the middle of a PV module’s power range.

Inverters can have a typical European Efficiency of 95 percent and peak efficiencies of up to 98 percent. Most
inverters employ MPPT algorithms to adjust the load impedance and maximise the power from the PV array. The
highest efficiencies are reached by transformerless inverters.

 PERFORMANCE RATIO:

The Performance Ratio (PR) is a parameter commonly used to quantify PV plant performance. Usually expressed as
a percentage, the PR provides a benchmark to compare plants over a given time independent of plant capacity or
solar resource. A plant with a high PR is more efficient at converting solar irradiation into useful energy. The PR is
defined as the ratio between the exported AC yield and the theoretical yield that would be generated by the plant if
the modules converted the irradiation received into useful energy according to their rated capacity.

The full definition of Performance Ratio is given in IEC 61724 “Photovoltaic system performance monitoring
—Guidelines for measurement data exchange and analysis.” The PR quantifies the overall effect of system
losses on the rated capacity, including losses caused by modules, temperature, low light efficiency reduction,
inverters, cabling, shading and soiling.
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 SPECIFIC YIELD

The “specific yield” (kWh/kWp) is the total annual energy generated per kWp installed. It is often used to help
determine the financial value of a plant and compare operating results from different technologies and systems. The
specific yield of a plant depends on:

The total annual irradiation falling on the collector plane. This can be increased by optimally tilting the modules or
employing tracking technology.

The performance of the module, including sensitivity to high temperatures and low light levels.

System losses including inverter downtime.Some module manufacturers claim much higher kWh/kWp energy yields
for their products than those of their competitors. However the divergence between actual peak power and
nominal power and correction for other technical distortions should also be taken into account.

 CAPACITY FACTOR

The capacity factor of a PV power plant (usually expressed as a percentage) is the ratio of the actual output
over a period of a year and its output if it had operated at nominal power the entire year.

The use of the term “capacity factor” is less common in the solar industry than “specific yield.” Capacity
factor and specific yield are simply related by the factor 8760. The capacity factor of a fixed tilt PV plant can
vary from 12 percent to 24 percent depending on the solar resource and the performance ratio of the plant.
In Germany, a capacity factor of 12 percent may be typical. Higher capacity factors in the region of 16
percent may be experienced in southern Spain, which has a higher solar resource. For Thailand and Chile,
capacity factors may be in the region of 18 percent and 22 percent,respectively. A 5MWp plant in Chile will
generate the equivalent energy of a continuously operating 1.1MW plant.

3.4 Physical Parameters

The following are the list of a few physical parameters that needs to be considered while selecting suitable location
for the installation of solar energy system. These parameters are most appropriate for large scale solar systems like
solar power plants.

1. Availability of Land and Foundation needs: The land must be plain and continuous. Non fertile, barren land
should only be considered. Rocky terrain shall be preferred so that the cost of foundation will be cheaper.

2. Orientation and Obstructions: The proposed land for SPV power generation must have a clear south facing
without any obstruction in Southern hemisphere.

3.Proximity of Power Evacuation: Proximity of high tension substation is an important factor for the proposed site as
the cost of laying transmission line is significant.
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4. Water Availability: Water is required for the construction purpose and for periodic cleaning of solar panels as a
part of daily Operation and Maintenance. Any industries of pollution nearby It is suggested that the site be selected,
which does not have any Polluting industries in the neighborhood. Otherwise the smoke and dust emitted by these
industries forms a deposition on top of panels resulting in Array losses. Power supply for construction Availability of
adequate power supply for construction work is necessary.

3.4 System Design of Solar PV Systems

1. Load Analysis: Accurate Sizing Accurate sizing of the load involves analyzing the various components in the load list
in terms of energy requirements. It includes the current drawn by each component, Operating voltage range of that
component and its expected duty cycle.

2.Peak current loads: For equipment loads that are variable or pulsating, identify "peak" current levels unless
definite patterns or duty cycles are determinable.

3.Worst case scenarios: Assessment of worst case scenario is extremely important because any small increment in
load apart from already assessed load can lead to system unbalance or a cycling down of battery capacity. So,
assessing worst case load scenario is important. Worst case load scenario could be consequent to any load
variations due to seasonal conditions.

4.Plan for the future: The system must be designed focusing on the future needs. The system must be scalable to
cater to the needs of expansion.

5.Compatibility issues: The system must be compatible with existing systems to meet the load requirements. All the
loads must be cross checked to ensure their compatibility of operation throughout the upper and lower voltage
ranges of the solar system.

3.5 Solar Array Design:

Solar array is one of the major subsystems of any solar power generating system. Solar array is formed by
connecting solar “modules” in series and/or parallel arrangement. This array produce direct current with respect to
the incident solar radiation. The following are the factors that need to be considered in designing solar array for
power generation.

1.Collector size :The required solar collector area depends on the solar insolation level of a particular region. A
region with poor insolation level will need a larger collector area than one with high insolation levels. Once
insolation level of a region is known, the required collector size and energy output can be computed with some
precision.
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2.Dirt and Other contaminating effects:Dirt and other contaminants (e.g. bird-droppings) on the face of the solar
array can reduce the power output. Site conditions should be assessed to gauge the problems associated with
contaminants. The mitigating solutions like special mounting considerations, more frequent cleaning could be
recommend. If the tilt angle of the array is less than 30°, buildup of dirt and other contaminants can be expected.

3.Orientation and Tilt issues :The specific orientation and tilt of the solar array should be adopted to optimize
system power during the worst-case periods of the year and when the average solar insolation is lowest and load
requirements are highest. It may be desirable in certain locations to increase the array tilt to aid the clearing of
snow and ice.

4.Design of Balance of Systems (BOS) :Design of Balance of Systems is a very important factor in system design.
Balance of systems include the Charge controller, Battery, Cables etc. Balance of systems must be designed in such a
way that it is neither too small nor too large.

3.6 Battery Design

Battery selection and sizing is critical to overall system performance and reliability. The battery serves as an energy
buffer, storing excess energy produced by the solar array during the day and releasing that energy as required
during night and periods of inclement weather, when the array is unable to support the load. The following are
some important factors that need to be considered in designing a battery bank.

Physical and Performance Requirements The battery should be capable of handling both the physical and electrical
rigors of the application, while providing the desired life expectancy and reliability. Key areas to be considered
include:

• Cycle life

• Capacity to withstand extended undercharged condition

• Capability to withstand extended overcharging when array output is not regulated

• Charge efficiency and degree of self-discharge

• Need for equalization

• Performance and life effects of temperature extremes

• Tolerance of abuse

• Maintenance requirements

1.Reserve Capacity

The capacity of the battery should be sized to override:

1. Expected uncertainties in solar insolation

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2. Any seasonal periods when the array power is unable to fully match the load requirements.

2.Temperature and Ageing deration Battery performance is not static but will vary with age and environmental
conditions. Battery performance should be derated to compensate for loss of capacity due to ageing and the
reduction in available capacity due to low temperature.

These factors will vary with type of battery. An additional consideration for certain applications will be the life-
shortening effects of sustained high-temperature environments. Regulation and Charge control A system regulator
or Charge controller may be necessary to prevent excessive overcharge during peak periods of solar radiation, which
could damage some batteries, particularly flat plate lead acid batteries and sealed maintenance-free batteries. A
regulator or controller may also be desirable to reduce battery water consumption and extend required
maintenance intervals.

4.An Introduction to Solar Resource Assessment

4 1Resource Assessment Sources :

Solar radiation is the main fuel and resource for solar energy systems. The availability of radiation directly
determines the revenue of solar energy power plants. Knowledge of this resource is crucial to determine
economical viability.

The direct normal irradiance is the amount of solar radiation received directly from the sun (ignoring radiation from
the rest of the sky), falling onto a plane perpendicular to the direction of the sun. It can be used for electricity
generation via concentrating solar thermal power plants or concentrated PV. Direct irradiance has the advantage
that it can be concentrated with mirrors to reach high temperature or high radiative flux. The disadvantage is that it
is only available in cloud-free situations. Therefore, energy systems that use direct irradiance are only possible in
sunny regions where cloud-free conditions are prevalen

4.2QUANTIFYING SOLAR RESOURCE

The solar resource of a location is usually defined by the direct normal irradiation, the diffuse horizontal
irradiation and the global horizontal irradiation. These parameters are described below:

•Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI):

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The beam energy component received on a unit area of surface directly facing the sun at all times. The DNI is of
particular interest for solar installations that track the sun and concentrating solar technologies (concentrating
technologies can only make use of the direct beam component of irradiation).

•Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation (DHI):

The energy received on a unit area of horizontal surface from radiation that is scattered off the atmosphere or
surrounding area is known as DHI.

•Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI):

The total solar energy received on a unit area of a horizontal surfaceis the GHI. It includes energy from the sun that
is received in a direct beam (the horizontal component of the DNI) and the DHI. The yearly sum of the GHI is of
particular relevance for PV power plants, which GHI is the total amount of short wave radiation received from
above by a surface horizontal to the ground.are able to make use of both the diffuse and beam components of solar
irradiation.

•Global Tilted Irradiation (GTI)

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The total solar energy received on a unit area of a tilted surface. It includes direct beam and diffuse components.A
high value of long-term annual GTI average is the most important resoce parameter for project developers.

5.DESIGN OF100KWP ROOFTOP GRID

CONNCTED SOLAR PV PLANT
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The long term commercialization of utility based solar PV electric generation requires the development of safe,
efficient, reliable, affordable components and systems that meet utility expectations of performance and life cycle
cost per kWh production goals, while allowing for full integration of time variant intermittent renewable generation
resources in the utility generation portfolio. Cost reductions available through design, material specification and
construction techniques developed by the power industry in response to the need for lower cost traditional
generating stations can effect significant cost savings when applied to PV generation systems. Higher generation
through proper design and use of efficient system components effectively means lower cost of power. Some critical
factors which must be considered during design include proper selection of modules, optimum angle of tilt,
minimization of ohmic losses with proper selection of conductors, selection of efficient transformers and inverters
etc.

5.1SOLAR PANEL CHARACTERSTICS

The typical I-V curve and P-V curve for a solar panel
temperature & irradiation the above figure, there is a power
point on the knee of I-V curve. This point is called “maximum
power point” (MPP). In the curve, Isc is the solar panel
circuit current in short circuit condition & Voc is the solar
panel circuit voltage under open circuit condition. IMP and
VMP are the tracking point for maximum current and
maximum voltage respectively and can be track by MPPT
system. Thus, the multiplication of both IMP and VMP gives the
condition of maximum power for solar module as-

Pmax= VMP * IMP (watts)

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5.2Array layout for 100kwp rooftop grid connected solar pv system of a building.
Here, following drawing of Array layout for 100kwp solar pv system , of a buildings shown so that here total
number of 400 module’s of 250 Watts are mounted on circular rooftop.

5.3Simul
ation of
solar
power
plant

PV plant
design is
developed
initially as
part of a

prefeasibility study which is based on preliminary energy resource and yield estimates, as well as other site-specific
requirements and constraints. The plant design is further improved during the feasibility study, which considers site
measurements, site topography, and environmental and social considerations. Key design features include the type
of PV module used, tilting angle, mounting and tracking systems, inverters, and module arrangement. Optimization
of plant design involves considerations such as shading, performance degradation, and trade-offs between
increased investment (e.g., for tracking) and energy yield. Usually, the feasibility study also develops design
specifications on which the equipment to be procured is based.
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Simulation result for 100 kw solar pv rooftop plant in new delhi

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6.Maintenance of Solar pv plant

The following table shows some recommendations on the preventive maintenance works
on the components and equipment, and the corresponding remedial actions to be carried
out by qualified 3 Cabling Check for cable Replace cable if
personnel. conditions i.e. wear necessary
and tear

S/n Components/equipment Check cable terminals for

description Tighten connections or
Remedy/Action
burnt marks, hot spots or recommend
1 PV modules Checkconnections
loose for dust/debris Wipe clean. Do not
replacement
on surface of use any solvents other
than water
PV module
4 Junctionboxes Check cable terminals Tighten or
Check for physical recommend
Recommend
e.g. wear to
damage andany
tearPV
or replacement
replacement
loose connections
module
if found damaged
Check for warning Replace warning
notices
Check for loose cable notice if necessary
Retighten
terminations between connection
PV modules,
Check PV arrays,
for physical Recommend
etc.
damage replacement

Check for cable conditions Replace cable if

necessary
5 Means ofisolation Check functionality Recommend
replacement

2 PV inverter Check functionality, Recommend

replacement if
6 Earthing of solar PVsystem Check earthing cable
e.g. automatic Recommend
functionality fails
conditions
disconnection upon replacement
loss of grid power
supplythe physical
Check Retighten
earthing connection connection
Check ventilation condition Clear dust and dirt in
Check continuity ofthe ventilationsystem
Troubleshoot or
cabletoelectricalearth recommend
Check for loose replacement
Tighten connection
cable terminations

7 Bonding of theexposed Check bonding

Check for abnormal
cable Recommend
Recommend
operating temperature replacement
metallic structure of solar PV conditions replacement
system to lightning earth

Check physical bonding Tighten connection

connection
 25

7.Losses in PV Solar system

The estimated system losses are all the losses in the system, which cause the power actually delivered to the
electricity grid to be lower than the power produced by the PV modules. There are several causes for this loss,
such as losses in cables, power inverters, dirt (sometimes snow) on the modules, ambient temperature,
varying insolation levels and so on. While designing a PV system, we have to take into consideration all
possible losses.

 Reflection losses

PV module power ratings are determined at standard test conditions, which require perpendicular incident
light. Under field conditions larger incidence angles occur, resulting in higher reflection losses than accounted
for in the nominal power rating.Calculations show that for modules faced towards the equator, and with a tilt
angle equal to the latitude, yearly reflection losses relative to STC are about 1%.

 Soiling

Soiling of solar panels can occur as a result of dust and dirt accumulation. In most cases, the material is
washed off the panel surface by rainfall; however dirt like bird droppings may stay even after heavy rains. The
most critical part of a module is the lower edge. Especially with rather low inclinations, soiling at the edge of
the frame occurs. By often repeated water collection in the shallow puddle between frame and glass and
consecutive evaporation dirt accumulates. Once it causes shading of the cells, this dirt reduces the available
power from a module. The losses are generally 1%, however the power is restored if the modules are cleaned.

 Mismatch effects

Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar modules in series and parallel . The modules which do
not have identical properties or which experience different conditions from one another. Mismatch losses are a
 26

serious problem in PV modules and arrays because the output of the entire PV array under worst case conditions is
determined by the solar module with the lowest output. Therefore the selection of modules becomes quite
important in overall performance of the plant.

 MPPT Losses

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Power output of a Solar PV module changes with change in direction of
sun, changes in solar insolation level and with varying temperature. The PV(power vs. voltage) curve of the module
there is a single maxima of power. That is there exists a peak power corresponding to a particular voltage and
current.

Since the module efficiency is low it is desirable to operate the module at the peak power point so that the
maximum power can be delivered to the load under varying temperature and insolation conditions. Hence
maximization of power improves the utilization of the solar PV module. A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is
used for extracting the maximum power from the solar pv module and transferring that power to the load. A dc/dc
converter(step up/step down) serves the purpose of transferring maximum power f rom the solar PV module to the
load. Maximum power point tracking is used to ensure that the panel output is always achieved at the maximum
power point. Using MPPT significantly increases the output from the solar power plant. As depicted in the V-I curves
for the monocrystalline solar module below, the aximum power point is achieved at the intersection of the current
and voltage curves at a particular value of irradiation. There are losses in the cabling, transformer, inverter and
transmission systems, which are easy to determine in most cases.
 27

8.SUMMARY...........................................
For human, animals and plants solar energy is equally important. Solar energy is lauded as an inexhaustible fuel
source that is pollution and often noise free. Solar photovoltaic technology provides a technologically feasible
solution to so-cieties current health and environmental dilem-mas posed by the reliance on fossil fuel based power
generation. Solar energy is already economically viable in many applications, and will continue to expand as
production continues to increase in scale. Solar PV is one of the very few low-carbon energy technologies with very
high potential to grow to very large scale. Based on the latest information in PV technology it follows that:

1. None industries have grown as fast or as unpredictably as the PV industry in recent years.
2. No single PV technology today excels in all three key technical characteristics: high power conversion
efficiency, low materials usage, and low manufacturing complexity and cost.

If photovoltaic (PV) devices could be mass produced with printing presses using roll-to-roll (R2R) technology, as if
they were newspaper or banknotes, they could be affordable and omni-present. In recent years, several new PV
tech-nologies have emerged and these technologies rely on nanostructured materials, or nanomaterials which can
be easily engineered to achieve desired optical and electrical properties which may reach cost and performance
targets. Focusing on the unique features, strengths and potential applications of solar PV will help human civilization
to identify golden opportunity for future PV technology development and its implementation to meet the future
global energy demand.