Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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XRD investigation of GTAW, GMAW, LBW and AGTAW Corten A588

grade steel weldments
J.R. Deepak a,⇑, J. Jeya Jeevahan a, D. Ramachandran b, S.V. Sai Suhas a, P.V. Praneethkumar Reddy a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 600119, India
b
Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology, Chennai 600119, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Corten A588 grade steel is a weathering with low carbon content less than 0.2%. It is a high strength low
Received 9 April 2021 alloy steel with exceptional corrosion resistant property. Hence Corten A588 grade steel is used in various
Received in revised form 4 June 2021 applications like construction of bridges, roof and side walls of buildings, shipping containers, rail wagons
Accepted 7 June 2021
etc. During fabrication work, when the Corten A588 steel is welded, it gets exposed to very high temper-
Available online xxxx
atures. Due to these few elements having low melting point in the Corten A588 steel base metal gets
vaporized, thereby changing the crystalline nature and phases i.e. metallurgy of the steel. The effects
Keywords:
of GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding), GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding), LBW (Laser Beam Welding)
Corten A588 grade steel
X-ray powder diffraction XRD
and AGTAW (Autogenous Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) based on the heat input and various other welding
GMAW GTAW Weld parameters are investigated analysed and compared. In this research GTAW, GMAW, LBW and AGTAW
Laser Corten A588 grade steel weldments were prepared and XRD test is performed to investigate the crys-
Metallurgy talline structure of the weldments. The d-spacing, phase identification, full width at half maximum
(FWHM), crystalline size is studied and a comparative analysis of all the four different weld which melio-
rates the mechanical, corrosion and metallurgical nature of the Corten A588 is made.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Futuristic Research in Engineering Smart Materials.

1. Introduction welding the fusion of metal occurs by heating of material to ele-

Welding is a metal joining technique used for fabricating engi-
neering components for various industrial sectors like oil and gas,
construction, petrochemical, automobile, food processing, etc. It is
the method of connecting two or more metallic components with
or without the use of heat, friction, and filler wire. Some of the
most influencing welding factors include, size and shape, type of
material, power supply, consumables, weld equipment, accuracy
required, and the expense of the welding operation [1]. In arc
welding processes, continuous electrode wire is fed into the weld
pool by a driven feed roll known as Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW). An electric arc is created between the wire’s tip and
the weld pool. The electrode wire fed continuously melts and
becomes a part of the weld pool. An inert shielding gas is dis-
tributed by a nozzle that is concentric with the welding wire guide
tube. The shielding gas is purged near the weld pool to prevent the
electric arc and the weld pool from contaminations [1]. During
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: deepakcape@gmail.com (J.R. Deepak).
vated temperature and allowing it cool. Due to this the material
gets exposed to high temperature and properties of the material
are completely altered [2].
Corten A588 grade steel is one such type of a weathering struc-
tural steel. Since the late 1800 s, the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) has standardized all grades of steel in the
United States [14]. Corten A588 grade steel is well-known for its
corrosion-resistant properties, and it is more sustainable alterna-
tive than any other for countering corrosion’s negative effects. This
was initially created to challenge corrosion of railroad coal wagons
without the need for extra painting or layering. Corten A588 steel
has a corrosion tolerance of 1 to 7 times than that of high carbon
steel coating or galvanizing, which is customarily needed to pre-
serve carbon steel. This can be avoided, resulting in a decrease in
self-supporting weight and reducing the maintenance cost of steel
structure. Decades of use and research of Corten steels have proven
that these steels have high corrosion resistance in coastal atmo-
spheres (containing Cl-). A protective rust layer is responsible for
the high corrosion resistance which is formed after a very long
time in usage. Hence these steels have been extensively used in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.081
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Futuristic Research in Engineering Smart Materials.

Please cite this article as: J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al., XRD investigation of GTAW, GMAW, LBW and AGTAW Corten A588 grade
steel weldments, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.081
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al.
the construction of bridges, transmission towers, homes, guard-
rails, and lighting poles [15].
Corten steel in India is graded as IRSM railway steel which was
developed to decrease the rate of corrosion. Usually the corrosion
is a nuisance in railway coaches which lead to replacement of rail-
way coaches more frequently. But with the development of IRSM
railway steel, the velocity of the train has increased, and the corro-
sion resistance has also increased. Corten steels are high-strength
low-alloy steel with microstructures of strong martensite particles
scattered in a light ferrite matrix [17]. Many pressure vessel man-
ufacturers have introduced ASTM A588 steels as a choice of mate-
rial for support structure. ASTM A588 steel is commonly used in
the construction of buildings and bridges. To take advantage of
its weathering qualities, it is often used unpainted in some applica-
tions [18]. Inter-critical heat treatment is used to create weather-
ing steels. Tiny pools of austenite are form in the ferrite matrix
at inter-critical temperature. The alloying of carbon and other alloy
elements to the steel has a locally enhanced hardenability [8].
Corten A588 grade steel is a low carbon steel with carbon con-
tent around 0.12%. Corten A588 grade steel can be easily welded
for various applications. Most common welding methods used in
fabricating Corten A588 grade steel weld joints are short-
circuiting transfer gas metal arc welding (GMAW), pulsed gas
metal arc welding (GMAW-P), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding and in recent days laser beam
welding (LBW) [3]. In railway industry, MAG welding is the most
common method used for welding. The MAG welding process is
similar to that of the GMAW process, which varies only in the
usage of shielding gas to protect the weldment from the environ-
ment. MAG welding produces a strong weld with high output rate
using Argo shield a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide as shield-
ing gas. GMAW welding process produces a high-quality welded
joint with increased production rate and product quality [4]. GTAW
welding is commonly used in several applications because of its
accurate material welding with high control, ability to weld a vari-
ety of materials, use of low ampere when compared to other weld-
ing processes, and clean welding. GTAW welding is a little slower
than most welding processes [5]. In contrast to GMAW and GTAW
welds, recent research found that friction stir (FS) welds are better
than fusion welds [6]. Avoiding preheating, allowing for cooling to
below 150 °C between weld passes, and heat treatment with a
minimum temperature rise of 30 °C to 50 °C to ensure complete
dissolution of the inter-metallic elements in the weldment are
the steps taken to obtain high-quality welds is FS welding [7].
Weld distortions, joint performance, and mechanical properties
are influenced by GTAW welding process parameters. Since the
welding process requires a non-uniform heating and cooling pro-
cess, distortions are inevitable [8]. Welding distortion often creates
issues such as spatial inaccuracies during installation and thus
component cost rises [9].
Corten A588 grade steel can be rolled, pounded, sheared, and
worked under both hot and cold conditions. It can be easily welded
and can be conveniently machined for various applications. When
Corten A588 grade steel is welded, no complications occur [10].
Strong weld joints can be easily prepared by GTAW, GMAW and
LBW welding techniques [11]. In general if the carbon counterpart
of steel increases, the material becomes less weldable [11]. At
room temperature, Corten A588 grade steel is easy to weld [11].
High carbon steel is more difficult to weld and needs preheating,
where as Corten A588 grade steel which is a low carbon steel does
not requires preheating can be easily welded. Corten A588 grade
steel at high temperatures show a drastic decrease in the ultimate
stress, and when cooled down its ultimate stress increases but
becomes brittle [12].
XRD patterns of welded Corten A588 grade steel is to be studied
as Corten A588 grade steel is used in several high temperature
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
applications like construction of chimney, exhaust shroud pipes
etc. X-Ray Diffraction is a non-destructive research tool used for
studying the crystalline structure of materials. XRD analysis is used
to classify the crystalline and amorphous phases present in mate-
rial. XRD studies helps in identifying the crystalline phases, orien-
tation, dimensions of lattice, spacing between atoms, and size of
the crystal. Studying the XRD patterns of welded Corten A588
Grade steels dealt with the exploration of the material in various
additional high temperature applications [19].
2. Case study
(Lee. W.B et al., 2009) Carried out his XRD investigation on
GMAW welded Dual-phase steel plate of 2 mm thickness. The weld
samples were exposed to the atmosphere and the corroded layers
were taken under consideration. The exposure time is directly pro-
portional to the peak broadening, as the exposure time increases
the peak broadening increases. Grain refinement and cumulative
plastic deformation within the grain are responsible for this peak
broadening. This makes the region crystalline [20]. (Cunningham
David R., 1994) In his research on XRD studies on GMAW welded
HSLA (high strength low alloy) steel plate. The residual stress data
were collected using a TEC model 1610 Portable Apparatus for
Residual Stress (PARS) vanadium filtered chromium radiation of
wavelength 2.290920 Å diffracted from the (2 1 1) planes of iron
at 156° 2 h. Although the diffracted intensities associated with high
2 h angles are not as large as those associated with lower 2 h angles,
changes in 2 h are simpler to discern at high 2 h angles [21]. (Xinge
Zhang et al., 2018) Performed XRD analysis on the GMAW spot
welded 2 mm thick plate of CR590T/340YDP galvanized dual-
phase steel plate using the D/MAX-2500PC, Rigaku X-ray diffrac-
tometer (XRD) machine with the following parameters 50 kV volt-
age, 300 mA current, Cu Ka radiation, and 4°/min scanning. XRD
peaks were observed at 45°,65°,83°,98°, and 117°, at the intensities
of 1300, 200, 380, 50, and 50 respectively. With reference to the
XRD pattern, the base metal was majorly composed of ferrite with
86.2% and 13.8% of martensite [22].
(Shipin Wu et al., 2019) Carried out XRD test on the MIG welded
martensite-austenite dual-phase steel plate of thickness 0.5 mm in
D8 Advanced with the voltage 40 kV, current 40 mA, and Cu-Ka
radiation ranging from 30° to 120° at a step interval of 0.02°. The
specimens were electropolished with a solution of 95% alcohol
and 5% perchloric acid prior to the XRD test. The volume fraction
of austenite for the AW, S-ART, and C-ART deposited metals is 13
percent, 22 percent, and 17 percent, respectively, according to
the XRD trends of all deposited metals. The MWH procedure was
used to determine the dislocation density of martensite in the
deposited metal. S-ART and C-ART deposited metals have disloca-
tion densities of 0.251015 m 2 and 0.791015 m 2, respectively
[23]. (Ali Waqas et al., 2019) Performed the XRD test using X’Pert
PRO with a copper anode and generator settings with the power
supply 40 mA and 40 KY on a GMA welded low carbon steel plate
of 5 mm thickness. The existence of a ferritic structure of predom-
inantly pure iron in the central part of the former wall is verified
through X-ray diffraction analysis. The peaks are formed at
45°,65°,82.5° with intensities at 5500,1500,2000 respectively [24].
(Zakaria Boumerzoug et al., 2010) Carried out X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD) test on MIG welded low carbon steel plate, using CuKa radi-
ation to evaluate the primary phases of welded steel. XRD was car-
ried out on the welded HAZ (heat affected zone). Only ferrite phase
was observed from the XRD results considering the three peaks
which subsequently showed ferrite peaks: bcc (1 1 0), bcc (2 0 0),
and bcc (1 1 1) [25]. (Lima. C.R.C et al., 2015) has performed X-ray
diffraction on GMAW welded low carbon steel of 0.8 mm thickness
plate using Shimadzu equipment (Cu, where the wavelength is
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al.
(k) = 1.54 nm). The LCS welded specimen has a low proportion of
austenitic process, according to the X-ray diffraction pattern [26].
(Ravindra Kumar et al., 2016) carried out XRD analysis directly
on the PC-GTAW-welded low carbon steel substrate surface having
2 mm thickness, with CuKa, radiation at 2/min scan rate within the
scan angle between 20° less than 20 less than 110°. Different
phases were analyzed on the low carbon steel. The ferrite peaks
were observed at 45° with intensity of 88, iron carbide peak were
formed at 82° at an intensity of 37. The major Fe2C peak was
observed at 94° with intensity of 30 [27].
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Material
Corten A588 grade steel has alloying elements such as Ni, Cu,
Mo, and Cr up 3 to 5% of the overall composition. It has good
anti-corrosion property and reduces corrosion by creating dense
stable oxide formed on the top surface layers [13]. In this research
2 mm thick Corten A588 grade steel is used. The elemental compo-
sition of the Corten A588 grade steel is rechecked to assure the
quality of the material. The following table 1 illustrates the chem-
ical composition of Corten A588 grade steel and the melting point
of all the elements present in it.
3.2. Sample preparation
Preceding to welding of Corten A588 graded steel of 2 mm
thickness, the rust layer, (patina) is removed using a 120-grade
emery wheel and polished with soft wheel till it obtains a shiny
finish. It is then cleansed with acetone solution and dried in the
air. Then specimens for XRD inspection were prepared according
to ASTM specifications after the plates were welded and cut.
3.3. Welding of Corten A588 grade steel
Corten A588 grade steel plate is cut into 150  75  2 mm
dimensions using hydraulic shear cutting machine. The GTAW
and GMAW weld joint were fabricated using 1.6 mm diameter
ER70S-6 solid filler with a heat input of 1338.46 J/mm and
1174.34 J/mm respectively. The shielding gas used for GTAW and
GMAW weldment prepration is 80% of CO2 and 20% of Ar with a
gas flow rate of 15 lpm. Autogenous LBW weldments were pre-
pared using nitrogen as shielding gas with a low heat input of
71.99 J/mm. AGTAW weld joints are fabricated with 80% of CO2
and 20% of Ar as shielding gas. The high heat input of 1332.3 J/
mm is applied for the preparation of AGTAW weldment. In LBW
and AGTAW weldments, the Corten A588 grade steel base material
is directly heated and melted, and the weldment is prepared where
there was no usage of filler material. Along with the four GTAW,
GMAW, LBW, and AGTAW welded Corten A588 grade steel samples
and one Corten A588 grade base material sample is prepared as per
ASTM standard for XRD (X-Ray Diffraction) analysis. The Table 2
illustrates the filler material, shielding gas and heat input applied
for preparing the different weld joints.
Table 1
Elemental composition and melting point of corten A588 grade steel.
Base element Fe Cr Mn Si Cu
Percentage (%) 98.095 0.5 0.36 0.31 0.249
Melting point (°C) 1535 1857 1245 1410 1083
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
3.4. X-Ray diffraction (XRD)
The XRD analysis of Corten A588 grade steel base material and
GTAW, GMAW, LBW, and AGTAW welded Corten A588 grade steel
were carried to investigate the different phases developed during
the welding process in the weld zone (WZ)[16]. The sample for
XRD analysis is cut, grinded and polished into 20x20x2mm dimen-
sion. Further the samples are cleaned with acetone solution for
removing dust and impurities on the top surface. XRD test is car-
ried on the base metal and the four welded samples using Rigaku
XRD machine, Japan with Cu Ka with the radiation, ranging from
20 to 80° with the step size of 0.02°.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. XRD test
XRD test helps in identifying the crystalline and amorphous
phases present in material. It also helps to identifying the crys-
talline phases, orientation, dimensions of lattice, spacing between
atoms, and size of the crystal. XRD test is carried on Corten A588
grade steel base material and GTAW, GMAW, LBW, and AGTAW
welded Corten A588 grade steel samples using Rigaku XRD
machine, Japan with Cu Ka with the radiation, ranging from 20
to 80° with the step size of 0.02°. The results of XRD test are por-
trayed in Fig. 1. The Table 3 Summarises the XRD peaks of Corten
A588 Grade steel base metal BM and weldments from Rigaku Soft-
ware.[16]
4.2. XRD result of Corten A588 grade base metal
The XRD test was carried in Corten A588 grade steel BM sample,
and the following observations were made. The XRD pattern of
Corten A588 Grade steel Fe is associated with a cubic structure
(JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed. The Fe is pure and has a vari-
ety of constituent phases. The diffracted peaks of the Fe compound
are found at 44.270, 64.580, and 81.950, which corresponds to crys-
tallographic diffraction peaks of (1,1,0), (2,0,0), and (2,1,1), respec-
tively. The maximum intensity of the peak is observed at 44.270,
and its corresponding phase is Iron (1,1,0) having grain size of 30
mm. The corresponding d spacing values d (ang.) are 2.044433,
1.441863, and 1.17477. The corresponding Crystallite size (ang.)
values are 270.749752, 198.938328, and 222.734676. The corre-
sponding Full-width Half Maxima (FWHM) values are 0.330839,
0.493391 and 0.493391 (Fig. 2. and Fig. 3.).
4.3. XRD results of GTAW welded Corten A588
The XRD pattern of GTAW welded sample Fe is associated with
a cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed. The Fe is
pure and has a variety of constituent phases. The diffracted peaks
of the Fe compound are found at 44.2973990, 64.4995490, and
82.000, which corresponds to crystallographic diffraction peaks of
(1,1,0), (2,0,0), and (2,1,1), respectively. The maximum intensity
of the peak is observed at 44.2973990, and its corresponding phase
is Iron (1,1,0) having grain size of 50 mm. The corresponding d spac-
ing values d (ang.) are 2.043164, 1.443554, and 1.174127. The cor-
responding Crystallite size (ang.) values are 231.88163, 206.98133,
Ni C P Mo ΑΙ W Co Ti V S
0.197 0.12 0.106 0.021 0.018 0.01 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.001
1453 3500 44.1 2617 660.37 3410 1496 1660 1890 115.2
3
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Filler material, Shielding gas and Heat input applied during welding.

Type of weld Filler wire Heat Input (Q) Joule/mm Filler rod dia (mm) Shielding gas
GTAW Weld ER70S-6 1338.46 1.6 Argon + CO2
GMAW Weld ER70S-6 1174.34 1.6 Argon + CO2
LBW Weld No Filler 71.99 No Filler Nitrogen
AGTAW Weld No Filler 1332.3 No Filler Argon + CO2

Fig. 1. XRD of ASTM Corten A588 grade steel BM and weldments.

Table 3
Summary of XRD peaks of BM and weldments from Rigaku Software.

2-theta(deg) d(ang.) FWHM (deg) Crystallite size (ang.) Phase name

Corten A588 44.268434 2.044433 0.330839 270.749752 Iron (1,1,0)
64.584371 1.441863 0.493391 198.938328 Iron (2,0,0)
81.9455 1.17477 0.493391 222.734676 Iron (2,1,1)
GTAW Weld 44.297399 2.043164 0.386334 231.88163 Iron (1,1,0)
64.499549 1.443554 0.473997 206.98133 Iron (2,0,0)
82 1.174127 0.473997 231.943927 Iron (2,1,1)
GMAW Weld 44.243251 2.045539 0.316818 282.707234 Iron (1,1,0)
64.568184 1.442185 0.479522 204.674037 Iron (2,0,0)
81.9215 1.17505 0.479522 229.135 Iron (2,1,1)
LBW Weld 44.236682 2.045827 0.316483 282.999062 Iron (1,1,0)
64.485193 1.443841 0.495556 197.960914 Iron (2,0,0)
81.89725 1.17534 0.495556 221.680453 Iron (2,1,1)
AGTAW Weld 44.257644 2.044907 0.327892 273.172556 Iron (1,1,0)
64.535308 1.44284 0.387509 253.22758 Iron (2,0,0)
81.8605 1.175774 0.387509 283.412028 Iron (2,1,1)

4
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al.
Fig. 2. Effect of 2h Maximum Intensity Peak of BM and weldments.
Fig. 3. Effect of d spacing between atom of BM and weldments.
and 231.943927. The corresponding Full-width Half Maxima
(FWHM) values are 0.386334, 0.473997, and 0.473997.
4.4. XRD results of GMAW welded Corten A588
The XRD pattern of GMAW welded sample Fe is associated with
a cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed. The Fe is
pure and has a variety of constituent phases. The diffracted peaks
of the Fe compound are found at 44.240, 64.570, and 81.920, which
corresponds to crystallographic diffraction peaks of (1,1,0), (2,0,0),
and (2,1,1), respectively. The maximum intensity of the peak is
observed at 44.2432510, and its corresponding phase is Iron
(1,1,0) having grain size of 20 mm. The corresponding d spacing val-
ues d (ang.) are 2.045539, 1.442185, and 1.17505. The correspond-
ing Crystallite size (ang.) values are 282.707234, 204.674037, and
229.135. The corresponding Full-width Half Maxima (FWHM) val-
ues are 0.316818, 0.479522, and 0.479522.
5
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
4.5. XRD results of LBW welded Corten A588
The XRD pattern of LBW welded sample Fe is associated with a
cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed. The Fe is pure
and has a variety of constituent phases. The diffracted peaks of the
Fe compound are found at 44.240, 64.480, and 81.900, which corre-
sponds to crystallographic diffraction peaks of (1,1,0), (2,0,0), and
(2,1,1), respectively. The maximum intensity of the peak is
observed at 44.2366820, and its corresponding phase is Iron
(1,1,0) having grain size of 8 mm. The corresponding d spacing val-
ues d (ang.) are 2.045827, 1.443841, and 1.17534. The correspond-
ing Crystallite size (ang.) values are 282.999062, 197.960914, and
221.680453. The corresponding Full-width Half Maxima (FWHM)
values are 0.316483, 0.495556, and 0.495556.
4.6. XRD results of AGTAW welded Corten A588
The XRD pattern of AGTAW Welded sample Fe is associated
with a cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed. The
Fe is pure and has a variety of constituent phases. The diffracted
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al.
peaks of the Fe compound are found at 44.260, 64.540, and 81.860,
which corresponds to crystallographic diffraction peaks of (1,1,0),
(2,0,0), and (2,1,1), respectively. The maximum intensity of the
peak is observed at 44.2576440, and its corresponding phase is Iron
(1,1,0) having grain size of 50 mm. The corresponding d spacing val-
ues d (ang.) are 2.044907, 1.44284, and 1.175774. The correspond-
ing Crystallite size (ang.) values are 273.172556, 253.22758, and
283.412028. The corresponding Full-width Half Maxima (FWHM)
values are 0.327892, 0.387509, and 0.387509.
4.7. Discussion
The cubic a-Fe structure is indexed with (JCPDS Card No: 089–
7194) the XRD pattern. Similarly, the XRD patterns of C, Cr, and Ni
correspond to cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194, 089–
7194, and 089–7194) indices. The peak intensity of LBW welded
sample is recognizably increased, this might be because of the
presence of C, Cr, and Ni which less than 0.4%, but not recorded
on the diffracted peaks as the XRD instrument selects the elements
which are only more than 5%. The Table 4 illustrates the major
intensity XRD peaks of different weldments and base metal.
The intensity of the peak has also increased drastically for the
GMAW weldment, whereas for GTAW and AGTAW weldments
the XRD peak intensity has decreased. This may be attributed to
the C and Cr segregation from the grain boundary to the grain.
Residual compressive stress is observed in the weld samples, if
the lattice constant value is greater than the normal JCPDS (Joint
Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards) value.
The d value of the base Corten A588 steel plate 2.0444 d (ang.)
which is greater than the d value of standard JCPDS 06–0696 (Fe)
2.0268 d (ang.). The Corten A588 rolled steel plate Base metal is
exposed to residual compressive stress during roll of the plate dur-
ing manufacturing process. The same trend is observed in GTAW,
GMAW, LBW, and AGTAW, where the d value is more than the base
metal. This is because of the heat being applied during welding
process.
As the heat input during LBW welding is 71.99 J/mm which is
comparatively less than other welding technique, the FWHM value
is more, whereas for the AGTAW the heat input is high which leads
to the decrease in FWHM value and resulting in inferior mechani-
cal properties when compared to LBW weld. The LBW welded Cor-
ten A588 steel sample posses better mechanical properties as the
FWHM (Full Width Half Maxima) value of the LBW welded Corten
plate is more than that of base metal and any other welding as
shown in the Fig. 4.
The crystalline size of GMAW welded Corten A588 is higher
when compared to other weldments as its periodicity is high.
GTAW weldments have a crystal size of 231.88 which is due to
the peak broadening. The peak broadening results in reduction in
size of the crystal. The crystalline size of the LBW welded sample
is the highest among all the welded samples. The crystallite size
of the GMAW, LBW and AGTAW Welded Corten A588 grade steel
Table 4
Major Intensity XRD peaks of BM and weldments from Rigaku software.
2-theta d(ang.) FWHM Crystallite size
(deg) (deg) (ang.)
Corten A588 44.268434 2.044433 0.330839 270.749752
GTAW Weld 44.297399 2.043164 0.386334 231.88163
GMAW 44.243251 2.045539 0.316818 282.707234
Weld
LBW Weld 44.236682 2.045827 0.316483 282.999062
AGTAW 44.257644 2.044907 0.327892 273.172556
Weld
6
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 4. Effect of FWHM of BM and weldments.
is more than the base metal except for GTAW as shown in the
Fig. 5.
The GTAW and AGTAW welded sample has large grain size of 50
mm which is the highest grain size among all the welds where as
the base metal has the grain size of 30 mm. As the grain size
increases, the total area of the grain boundary reduces, which leads
to increase in the strength of the material. The grain size of GMAW
welded sample is 20 mm. In LBW weldment the grain size reduced
to 8 mm, the total area of the grain boundary increases. This leads to
increase in the strength of the material, so the LBW welded sample
is stronger than other welded Corten A588 samples and the base
metal also. LBW welded sample has the highest d value which
resulted in the lowest grain size among all the welded samples
as shown in the Fig. 6.
5. Conclusion
From the XRD analysis, different phases, maximum peak inten-
sity, stress, FWHM, d spacing, grain size developed in the Corten
A588 grade steel base material and GTAW, GMAW, LBW, and
AGTAW welded Corten A588 grade steel at the weld zone (WZ)
is summarised as follows
 The XRD pattern of Corten A588 Grade steel Fe is associated
with a cubic structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194) indexed.
The diffracted peaks of cubic a-Fe compound are found at
44.270, 64.580, and 81.950, which corresponds to crystallo-
graphic diffraction peaks of (1,1,0), (2,0,0), and (2,1,1), respec-
tively. The XRD patterns of C, Cr, and Ni correspond to cubic
structure (JCPDS Card No: 089–7194, 089–7194, and 089–
7194) is not recorded on the diffracted peaks as the presence
of C, Cr, and Ni elements is less than 0.4%
 Maximum intensity peak of GMAW weldment is increased dras-
tically whereas for GTAW and AGTAW weldments the XRD
maximum intensity peak has decreased attributed to the C
and Cr segregation from the grain boundary to the grain.
 Residual compressive stress is observed in GTAW, GMAW LBW
and AGTAW weld samples, which is due to the lattice constant
value observed is greater than the normal JCPDS (Joint Commit-
tee on Powder Diffraction Standards) value. The Corten A588
rolled steel plate Base metal is exposed to residual compressive
stress during roll of the plate during manufacturing process.
 The d value of the base Corten A588 steel plate 2.0444 d (ang.)
which is greater than the d value of standard JCPDS 06–0696
(Fe) 2.0268 d (ang.). The same trend is observed in GTAW,
GMAW, LBW, and AGTAW, where the d value is more than
the base metal. This is because of the heat being applied during
welding process.
 The FWHM of LBW weldment is high 0.5 which is due to the
heat input 71.99 J/mm applied during LBW welding is which
is comparatively less than other welding technique. The
J.R. Deepak, J. Jeya Jeevahan, D. Ramachandran et al.
Fig. 5. Effect of Crystal Size of BM and weldments.
Fig. 6. Effect of Grain Size of BM and weldments.
crystalline size of LBW welded Corten A588 is 282.999 which is
higher than other weldments and BM. The grain size of the LBW
weldment is very small as 8 mm which leads to increase in the
strength of the LBW weld
 Among welded Corten A588 steels and Corten A588 Grade steel
BM, LBW welded Corten A588 Grade steel showed exceptional
properties, making the LBW welding more suitable for Corten
A588 Grade Steel where quality cannot be compromised.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
J.R. Deepak: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision. J.
Jeya Jeevahan: Investigation. D. Ramachandran: . S.V. Sai Suhas:
. P.V. Praneethkumar Reddy: .
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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