Cognitive psychology: the study of cognitive processes, mind and mind’s porperties, characteristics and how it

operates.

 The branch of psychology concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use, and communicate
information

The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals (how the
mind operates). This definition is
important to Show mind’s importance in the sense of surviving and functioning.. The mind creates and controls mental
functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning

Mind basicially both creates representations for achiving goals and understanding World also it creates different types of
cognition. Also different types of cognitions help to achieve goals to both definitions are related .

Donders = reaction time experiment

According to Wund’s structuralism, our overall experiences is formed with little lots of elements getting together. And he calls those
elements as “ sensation”. Basic sensations involves creating an experience. He used a technique called “analytic instrospection”
which includes highly trained participants who are sensitive to stimuli, able to describe their experiences and thoughts. Wundwanted
to divide properties of an object into little details such as a pencil’s color, size, shape and etc but did not allow to name the object.
This technique is not reliable. Because it varies a lot among people, not accurate bc we can’t observe mind directly.

classify the structures of the mind in the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts”
Ebbinghaus: Ebbinghaus was interested in determining the nature of memory and forgetting—specifically, how rapidly
information that is learned is lost over time
He repeated to himself nonsense syllabuses at a constant rate to learn the list. He used nonsense words because he didn’t
want their meanings to influence him. Then he took time to see how long it took learn the list.
1) He waited for a while(delay)

2) He tried to relearn the list. While trying to remember errors were made because forgetting happened. But still
he learned the list more rapidly fort the 2nd time.

He used a technique called “savings”

Savings = (original time to learn the list) – (time to relearn the list)

As the delay increase, savings decrease(more forgetting happens). But by time losing savings happens less rapidly than it
does in the earlier times.(spcly first 2 days). This experiment was importnat to Show that memory could be quantified.

William James:

His observations are not based on experiments’ results, they are based on his own experiences.

John Watson (behaviorism):

Anayltic introspection(structuralist paradigm) was weak in the sense of:

A) İt varied a lot from person to person

B) Reuslts were difficult to verify bc they were inferred from invisible inner mental processes.

Watson wanted the shift “mind” as a subject in psyhcology with “behavior”. He was interested in directly observable,
quantible material rather than stuff like mind.

+Asking the relationship between behavior and stimuli rather than behavior and mind relationship
 Little Albert was Watson’s experiment based on classical conditioning.
Albert likes rat but every time rats comes in he gives loud noise, so after couple of times Albert tried to ran away from rat
ASAP. Watson didn’t care about what was going on in Albert’s mind, he only cared about pairing a stimuli with an affected
behavior. Analyzing behavior without any reference to mind.

Skinner’s operant conditioning:

Reinforcement: a response is strengthened by a positive outcome Punishment: a response is

weakened by a negative outcome.

Tolman’s Rat in a Maze:

Tolman put a rat in a maze and put cheese on the right side of the rat. Rat turned right and found cheese so he was
rewarded with turning right. After that rat was prevented from all the cues like smell and put in the other side of the maze.
Despite the fact that wat was rewarded with turning right, rat turned to left bc he developed a COGNITIVE MAP of the
maze which showed us that behavior is not everything, there is mind too.

Language acquisition:

Skinner belived that children learn language via operant conditioning and imitiation. Correct speech is rewarded
while wrong is punished..

Chomsky was like “ how about bad words or grammarly incorrect

sentences??”. He believe that language is sth inborn(languages have similar structures and rules universally) and a
product of the mind. He led psychologists to consieder observable behaviors and what behaviors tell about mind.

Paradigm: is a system of ideas that dominate science at a particular time.

Behaviorist paradigm did not allow to consider “mind” at all. So new paradigm shift occured wiht lots of events
cumulating. One of them was “digital
computer” technology. Scientist developed an approach to mind:

sequences of mental operations involved in cognition= information-processing approach.

One of the first experiments influenced by this new way of thinking about the mind involved studying how well people are
able to focus their attention on some information when other information is being presented at the same time.

Then psychologist wondered how well mind is to deal with incoming informations. James said that in order to focus on
one thing we need to drop off others. This led colin Cherry to give 2 different talkings from 2 different ears to people and
told them to focus only one of them. Participants focused and understood the attended message while hearing but not
understanding the content of unattended message. There’s more on that…

When working with memory and mind:

We measure observable behavior – And make inferences about underlying mental activity

According to Boradbend’s Theory of how mind Works:

There are lots of incoming messages to filter. Filter filters out the unattended messsages like all the noise at a party.
Then filter takes attended message to detector and detector records the info then sends it to short-term memory.
Furhter on that…
ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN

There are lots of incoming messages to sensory memory which holds information for a very short amount of time. It
passes the info to short term memory which holds infromation for couple of seconds, limited capacity. We keep rehears
what we are trying to remember till writing it down and etc. Curved arrow represents that rehearsal. Blue arrow
represents that some information can be transferred to long term memory which holds informations for so much longer
amount of time.
Green arrow respresents the information coming back to short-term memory from long term memory which
means “remembering”.

Endel Tulving said that:

Episodic (episodes of your life) : what happened last weekend Semantic:

capital cities of countries

Procedural: how to ride a bike or play a piano.

Neuropsychology: study of behavior of people with brain damage. Interested in the functioning of the different parts of
the brain. provided important insights into the physiological basis of the mind.

Electrophysiology: measuring electrical responses of the nervous system. Made it possible to listen to activity of a single
neuron. Mostly done on animals. provided important insights into the physiological basis of the mind.

Brain imaging: PET technique was developed to see which areas of the brain gets activated during a cognitive activity.

Knowledge is central to most of our cognitive processings.

Palmer gave a scene of a kitchen and then he flashed one of the 3 different pictures. When he put ktichen scene and
flashed a Picture of a bread 80% of a time participants recognized the bread while only 40% of them could recognized
mailbox and a drum. Thus, he concluded that our knowledge about the environment affects our perception.

Ecological validity: methods, materials, settings and etc. Should be very similar to real-life situations.

Connectom: wiring diagram. Determining the brain’s wiring diagram is an important step in understanding how different
areas of the brain communicate, because communication depends on structural connections. Interestingly, maps of
structural connectivity of the brain have recently been likened to “fingerprints” that are different for every person, so it
could be argued that the brain’s wiring makes us who we are. Just as different parts of the city’s road network are
involved in
achieving different goals, so different parts of the brain’s neural network are involved in carrying out different cognitive or
motor tasks

WEEK 2 PERCEPTION

Neurons connect with each other via action potentials and synaptic transmissions.

Localization of function: specific areas of brain serve for specific functions.

Perception gill& mary example: when gill is talking with marry, some chemical processes happen in gill’s eyes and ears
which creates electrical signals in neurons. Then first of all individual then multiple structures of brain get activated. After
conversation they had, those electrical signals and chemicals store in gill’s brain and then when he passes that park again
he experiences a sequence of pyhsiological events that reminds him that day they talked.

Dendrites recieve signals from other neurons while axons transmit signals from one to other neuron.

Neurons only connect specific neurons, not all of them. This forms groups of interconnected neurons
------------------neural circuits. This is how brain creates cognition.

There are some neurons aimed to pick up information from environment like in the skin, eye, ear. These are called:
RECEPTORS
 • Receptors: Specialized cells that are designed to break down incoming stimuli into simple “sensations”

There is a gap between axon of a neuron and transmitters of another neuron. For signals to pas this gap,
neurotransmitters play a role.

Rate of Nerve Firing: that is, the number of action potentials that traveled down the axon per second. İncreasing
intensity of stimulus = increasing in rate of nerve firing. Thus, the rate of neural firing is related to the intensity of
stimulation, which, in turn, is related to the magnitude of an experience, such as feeling pressure on the skin or
experiencing the brightness of a light

Memory is not determined by a single “memory area,” because there are a number of areas involved in creating
memories and remembering them later. In short, it became obvious that large areas of the brain are involved in creating
cognition. Vision is also not created in only one area, but in many areas. neural representation involves casting a wide net
across the brain

having a stroke caused specific areas to hurt and specific

functions to get damaged. For example in Broca’s aphasia, patients speak very slow and ungramatically. In Wernicke’s
aphasia, patines talk gramatically correctly but their talking don’t make sense. Can’t match words with their meanings.
These 2 showed us that different aspects of language occurs in the different areas of the brain.

fMRI, has played an important role in understanding the physiological basis of cognition and about localization of function
in the brain. In fMRI, colors mean the activity level in different areas of brain.
 all of these (except default)
increase activity during a task and decrease when in the rest, but default mode increases activity during rest and decrease
duing a task.

PERCEPTION:

Gateway to other types of cognition.

Perception: experiences resulting form stimulation of the senses. Senses get stimulated by an object in the environment
and we perceive them. Perception creates a Picture of environments and leds us to act within it, it is also important for
cognition. Perception is recognizing, organizing and interpreting the info coming from senses. It doesn’t have to be exact
copy of the real World.
We might misunderstand what we thought we saw. For example lets say we thought we saw a bird on sky but it might
be plane, UFO or anything else and we might be wrong (erroneous). But still erroneous perception is still considered as
perception.

Inverse problem of vision:

• Fundamentally ambiguous mapping between sources of retinal stimulation and the retinal images. Problem is
solved by adding a 2nd eye.

Viewpoint Invariance: our ability to understand it is the same object even from different points of view.

These 3 can create a vision like what a square book created in the eye.That’s why retina is ambiguous.

hidden objects occurs any time one object obscures part of another object. But people can understand that
even tho that object is obscured it is still continuum and exists.

People also are good at recognizing faces, objects that are not in sharp focus.

Human perceptual system:

(1) environmental energy stimulating the receptors

(2) knowledge and expectations that the observer brings to the situation

Bottom-up processing: eye recieves images and then carries it to the brain. This process starts at the very beginning of
system with environmental energy stimulating the receptor. Perception relying only on info carried by senses, stimulus
driven, incoming raw data.

Top-down processing: people have background knowledges about some environments and situations. Thus they bring
their prior knowledge and expectations to the perception system. So in this process system start from the top of the
perception. (Remember the bread example). It helps to people identify objects and secenes rapidly. There are 2 types of
top-down processes:

a) Perceiving objects: for example the blob being different objects in different environments. Because
our brain makes the best fit for objects into their contexts.
 We are likely to see a car in the Street and a shoe in a man’s feet. So we perceive blob as 2
different types of object according to its context.
Ames room is an example of illusion. Bc we have the prior knowledge of people don’t change size and
rooms are rectangular. It is less likely for illusion to work if we know the person in the room.

b) Hearing words in a sentence:

a. Speech segmentation: the ability to understand where a Word ends the new one begins.
Each person has different experiences and deprivations about languages and that affects their
perception.
b. As we learn a language, we are learning more than the meaning of the words. Without even
realizing it we are learning transitional probabilities— the likelihood that one sound will
follow another within a word. For example, consider the words pretty baby. In English it is
likely that pre and ty will be in the same word (pre-tty) but less likely that ty and ba will be in
the same word (pretty baby).
c. This prediction was based on previous research that showed that infants tend to lose interest
in stimuli that are repeated, and so become familiar, but pay more attention to novel(new)
stimuli that they haven’t experienced before. Thus, if the infants perceived the whole-word
stimuli as words that had been repeated over and over during the 2-minute learning session,
they would pay less attention to these familiar stimuli than to the more novel
part-word stimuli that they did not perceive as being words.

ambiguous means that a particular pattern

of a stimulation on the retina can be caused by lots of objects in the environment. For example 2 rectangles can create the
same image as 1 rectangle and a 6 sided geometric shape do. How do we assume that blue rectangle covered a part of red
rectangle? Because based on our prior experiences we make unconscious inferences. we take what is most likely the
reason for the pattern on the retina. This is called likelihood principle.

Geştalt rejected the idea of structuralism. He did not believe in “adding up sensation”.

Whole is better than sum of its parts.

Apparent movement: our perceptual system creates a perception of movement which doesn’t exist.

first light flashed then darknes then second light flashes. Our brain creates a
movement act between 2 light flashes and perceives as it moves. Movies are made like this.

2 conclusion from apperant movement:

1) apparent movement cannot be explained by sensations, because there is nothing in the dark space
between the flashing lights. Thus, nothing to sense.
2) Geştalt principle: the whole is greater than sum of its parts.

Gestalt grouping rules: when elements in an image will appear to group together. The mind, groups patterns according to
the laws of perceptual organization

Similarity: Similar things appear grouped together

Proximity: Objects near each other are processed as a unit

Good continuation: lines tend to be seen in such a way as to follow the smoothest path. Also, objects that are
overlapped by other objects are perceived as continuing behind the overlapping object
Synchrony - elements occurring at the same time are seen as belonging together Common fate -

things moving in same direction are grouped together

REGULARITIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT- frequent characteristics of environment.

For example, blue is associated with open sky, landscapes are often green and smooth, and verticals and horizontals are
often associated with buildings. These frequently occurring characteristics are called regularities in the environment.
There are two types of regularities: physical regularities and semantic regularities.

Physical Regularities: Physical regularities are regularly occurring physical properties of the environment. For example,
there are more vertical and horizontal orientations in the environment than oblique (angled) orientations. Oblique
effect: people can percevie vertical & horizontal lines better than other orientations like more angled shape.

We usually assume that light is coming from above, because light in our environment, including the sun and most artificial
light, usually comes from above. One of the reasons humans are able to perceive and recognize objects and scenes so
much better than computer-guided robots is that our system is adapted to respond to the physical characteristics of our
environment, such as the orientations of objects and the direction of light. But this adaptation goes beyond physical
characteristics. It also occurs because, as we saw when we considered the multiple personalities of a blob, we have
learned about what types of objects typically occur in specific types of scenes.
Semantic Regularities: depends on the meaning of a scene. We know which scene, environment include which objects.
When we think about a scene we have some illustration of a scene in our mind and we make it based on our knowledge.
This process is explained by scene schema.

Color: usually homogeneous or similar colors are used in a places that are close or nearby each other.

-This applies when there is not an object boundary like the one with faces and vase.

The Interaction of Perception & Action :

• Continually occurring coordination between ‘perceiving stimuli’ and ‘taking action toward these stimuli’. (grabbing
coffee cup example)

Your movement relative to the objects causes you to see the houses and trees moving past AFFORDANCE:

potential uses of objects

…organisms did not evolve in a world of simple isolated stimuli. describe the relationships that exist between
organisms and their environments

ATTENTION- WEEK3

Attention is about withdrawing from sth in order to deal effectively with other things. Attention is the ability to focus on
specific stimuli or location. Attention is limited in the sense of timing and capacity. there are overt(eye movements) and
covert attention

Focusing on sth and while ignoring other stimulus = selective attention

Some stimulus interfers with the focused stimulus = distraction

Paying attention at more than 1 thing at a time = divided attention

a rapid shifting of attention usually caused by a stimulus such as a loud noise, bright light, or sudden movement. =
attentional capture (automatic)

moving eyes from one location to another = visual scanning DICHOTIC LISTENING:

Boradbent’s filter model of attention designed by colin cherry. He used dichotic listening where there are 2 differnet
talkings from different ears and only attended message should be repeated out loud (shadowing).

cocktail party effect, because at noisy parties people are able to focus on what one person is saying even if there are
many conversations happening at the same time.
Results: unattended message’s content was not clear at all . participants were able to hear sex of the unattended
message’s voice and tone changes. But other than that they had no idea.

Cocktail party effect: being able to hear attended message and ignore other voices in environemnet even if there is lots of
them.

Broadbent’s model is called an early selection model because the filter eliminates the unattended information right at
the beginning of the flow of information before the info gets analyzed for its meaning.

Sensory memory keeps messages for a really short amount of time. Filter identifies the message’s physical characteristics
like tone, pitch, speed etc. Also it only leds attended message to pass to detector. Detector processes the info in the
higher levels like meaning of it. All info is processed.
Filter pyhsical detector meaner

There are some failures of this model:

 instead of dear 7 jane, it is dear aunt jane. This occurred bc participants
were taking meanings of the words into account.

Treisman’s idea was similar to Boradbent but different in the way that he also involved language and meanings to
seperate the messages. But it is similar about “selective” part.

Treisman made a modification of boradbent’s model and replaced the filter with an
attenuator( zayıflatıcı) which analyzes message according to its

a. Physical characteristics
b. Language
c. Meaning

Note that the attenuator represents a process and is not identified with a specific brain structure. According to
treisman, both attended and unattended messages can get through attenuator once they were identified, but attended
message continuous strongly while unattended gets
weakened/attenuated. This is why Treisman’s model is called as leaky filter.
2nd part of Treisman’s model is DICTIONARY. Our brain stores words that are tend to be activated again later and they
have thresholds. Threshold means the smallest signal strength that can be barely detected. If a Word has a very low
threshold (like your name and common words) it can be detected even if it is shown softly or hidden by other words.
Uncommon words or words that are unimportant to the listener have higher thresholds which means it is hard to
activate them.
Treisman’s model is also an early selection model.

Late selection: MacKay made an experiment where there were 2 different messages sent 2 different ears of participants. İn
the attended ear they gave a ambiguous sentence like “ they were throwing Stones at the bank” where bank can mean
“Money bank” or “bench bank”. İn the unattended message they gave words like Money or river. The ones who heard
Money was more likely to choose Money bank sentence while others choose bench bank. It demonstrates that unattended
message(even tho they claimed they didn’t hear it) affects attended message. This is called LATE SELECTION MODEL bc
they were asked “which bank do you think?” after a while they first heard first sentence.

TASK LOAD:

Attention is like resources where a task requires lots of processing resources the other tasks get fewer resoruces.

Processing capacity: amount of information people can handle.

Perceptual load: it is about difficulty of a task. If a task is difficult to practice it uses big amount of processing capacity
while easily-practiced tasks use little amount of processing capacity.

Flashing an irrelecant figure like dog affects easy(low-load )task more than hard task.

Participant are wanted to press different buttons when they see N or X. For the N it is easier and faster bc they have
little circles rather than other letters, so they can react faster.
 on the left tehre is still a capacity left. Even though
participants were told not to pay attention to dog bc it is irrelevant, low-load task people processed the dog bc they had
the capacity to do so. This caused their reaction time to increase. Thus, if you are carrying out a hard, high-load task, no
processing capacity remains, and you are less likely to be distracted. Also the power of irrelevant stimuli is important too. İf
it was sth so striking, it would’ve been a distraction for low-load task ppl too.

In the Stroop effect, the task-irrelevant stimuli are extremely powerful, because reading words is highly practiced and has
become so automatic that it is difficult not to read them. Colors and name of the colors example.

In psychology, the Stroop effect is the delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli.

OVERT ATTENTION:

– Saccades: Rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another

– Fixations: Short pauses on locations of interest

Shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes is called overt attention because we can see attentional
shifts by observing where the eyes are looking.

Scanning based on stimulus salience: bottom-up

Attention can be influenced by stimulus salience which is about physical features of the stimulus like color, contrast, size,
shape, movement etc. This is a bottom-up process because we are looking at physical features without the consideration of
the meanings of stimulus. For example someone wearing pink in a funeral would get a high score on salience since it would
create a contrast and bright image. first few fixations are more likely on high-salience areas. After that top-down processes
begin.
Scanning based on cognitive factors: top-down

Scene schemas: an observer’s knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes.

People look longer at things that seem out of place in a scene because their attention is affected by their knowledge of
what is usually found in the scene(like a printer in the kitchen).

Shinoda and coworkers made an experiment about fixations in the traffic for stop sign. They found that the observers
were more likely to detect stop signs positioned at intersections than those positioned in the middle of a block.

Scanning based on task demands:

our fixations occur in the same sequence

of our tasks need to be done. For example for making a sandwich my eyes fristly goes to bread, then plate, then peanut
butter which is the same sequence where my hands go accordingly. The person fixated on few objects or areas that were
irrelevant to the task, and eye movements and fixations were closely linked to the action the person was about to take.

“just in time” strategy— eye movements occur just before we need the information they will provide
attention can enhance our response to objects and (2) when attention is directed to one place on an object, the enhancing
effect of that attention spreads to other places on the object.

Same object advantage:

even b and c have the same distance

to a, b is quicker bc it is in the same object with a so attention can be spreaded faster to b.

Divided attention:

What this means, according to Schneider and Shiffrin, is that practice made it possible for participants to divide their
attention to deal with all of the target and test items simultaneously(automatic processing) it is so automatic that if we
start to pay attention our performance will fall apart. Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult When Tasks Are Harder

Attention is a limited source.

Inattentional blindness: A stimulus that is not attended is not perceived, even if the stimulus is right in front of the eyes
(fixation)

Change blindness: The failure to notice a significant change in a stimulus if change is accompanied by some kind of
distraction. We dont see every little detail in the environment thus we miss a lot in daily life. But this is a very adaptive
feature of us. Becuase our perceptual system use optimal amount of our processing resources which are limited. Also even
as we are focusing on what is important at the moment, our perceptual system has a warning system that responds to
motion or intense stimuli, which causes us to rapidly shift our attention to things that might signal danger, such as a
charging animal, a pedestrian on a collision course with us, a bright flash of light, or a loud noise. Once our attention has
shifted, we can then evaluate what is happening at our new center of attention and decide whether we need to take action.

inattentional deafness experiment: focusing on a visual task results in impaired hearing

binding features: bind together all the features of one object and seperate them from features of other objects and
the background.“ looking at a ball with its all charctersiic and realizin it’s sth differnt from other things on the
background.

FIT THEORY:
Preattentive stage happens before we focus on the object. This stage is automatic, unconscious and effortless. We see
object’s form, color, motion etc but not associate them yet.

PROOF:

These combinations of features from different stimuli are called illusory conjunctions

illusory conjunctions occur because in the preattentive stage, each feature

exists independently of the others (free floating).

TOP DOWN HELPS:

However, when she told participants that they were being shown a carrot, a lake, and a tire, illusory conjunctions were
less likely to occur, and participants were more likely to perceive the triangular “carrot” as being orange. In this situation,
the participants’ knowledge of the usual colors of objects influenced their ability to correctly combine the features of each
object. In our everyday experience, in which we often perceive familiar objects, top-down processing combines with
feature analysis to help us perceive things accurately.

Feature Search: only looking for vertical line

Conjunction Search: looking for sth that has more than 1 features. Like vertical and red lined.(combination).
Focused attention is necessary for binding. Also serial search.
WEEK 4- MEMORY

Memory: Processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using info about stimuli, images, events, idea, and skills after
the original info is no longer present. Memory is active any time some past experience has an effect on the way you think
or behave now or in the future

When something is presented briefly, such as a face illuminated by a flash, your perception continues for a fraction of a
second in the dark. This brief persistence of the image, which is one of the things that makes it possible to perceive movies,
is called sensory memory.

Short term memory or working memory is where we can keep information for 10-15 seconds if we don’trepeat it till we
write it down.

Long-term memory is responsible for storing information for long periods of time, can be even life- time. Long term
memory has sbucategories too such as episodic, semantic(adresses,birthdays) and procedural memory.

MODAL MODEL OF MEMORY:

Atkinson & Shiffrin

Rachel example:

Rehearsal is REHEARSAL. İn part c where she transformes information to long- term memory is called ENCODING. In d,
where she remembers the number which is transforming information from long- term memory back to short-term memory
is called RETRIEVAL. Actions like these called “control
processes”.

Sensory memory: ıt keeps the information of sensory stimulation for a brief amount of time. For example watching a
movie happens thanks to this or seeing a trial left by a moving light/fire.

Persistence of vision: is the continued perception of a visual stimulus even after it is no longer present. When we
spin a fire stick we see it like it makes fire circles but actually it is our mind keeps the information of stick’s places. Thus we
think it is a continuous image. also while seeing a
movie in a second at least there are 24 different pictures flashing with periods of darkness(güneş örneği). But our
persistence of vision fills in the darkness by retaining the image of previous frame. Very large capacity, Very quick info
decay.

Sperling wondered how much information people can take in from briefly presented stimuli. He did an experiment where
he flashed 12 different letters for a short time then wanted participants to report letters. While using whole report
method, on average 4.5 letters were reported out of 12.
People saw all letter but when they try to report them sensory memory faded away. So he decided to do partial report
method where he wanted only a row of letters which conclude 4 letters. After flashing all 12 letter there was a voice telling
them which row to report. They did not foucs on the all letters but they focused on the trace of that specific row and they
reported better (3.3 out of 4 letters). He then wanted to test time and made a delayed partial report method where he put
1 second between flashing and voice. Only 1 out of 4 letters were reported. This brief sensory memory for visual stimuli,
called iconic memory or the visual icon.

Persistence of sound: echoic memory. We ask someone “what did u say?” then they say it and we hear it in our mind.

Short-term Memory: (STM) is the system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time. A
window to present. lasts 15 to 20 seconds or less. About capacity of stm, magic
number is 7-+(2).

Change detection:

We can keep from4-5 to 9 item in our stm, but how come can we remember sentences, stories and etc? Chunking is the
answer. We chunk letters or items with each other in a sequence where they can be meaningful. Small units can be
combined into larger units. A chunk has been defined as a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one
another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks. We can get help of LTM too since we use our prior
knowledge to chunk stuff meaningfully.
 according to alvarez and cavanagh, stm’s capacity needs to
be investigated in the terms of amount of information rather than number of informaiton. They gave 6 of different
objects everytime but the amount of rememberd object was changable accordng to details and etc. Thus, greater the
amount of information in an image, the fewer items that can be held in visual short-term memory. there are two
aspects:

1) number of items 2) amount of detailed information.

. Information doesn’t just sit in STM; it can be manipulated in the service of mental processes such as computation,
learning, and reasoning.

Digit span: a number of digits a person can remember. About 5 to 9 items.

Chunking chess example

Working memory: same with stm but it has manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning,
and reasoning. STM and working memory works together where stm stores info and working memory does complex
processes. For example ordering a pizza with mushrooms and onion. Pizza guy tells us that they are out of mushroom and if
we want sauage instead. We keep the first sentence in storage(STM) and make decision and understand the sausage part
(working memory).
 phonological loop has 2 components:

1) Storage: keeps the info for a brief time.

2) Rehearsal part: for not to forget

Phonological loop is responsible for verbal and auditory, thus we use this part when we rehears phone number,
adress or trying to understand what our teacher says.

Visuospatial sketch pad: solving a puzzle or finding your way around campus, you are using your visuospatial sketch
pad.

The central executive is where the major work of working memory occurs. İt gets info from LTM and divides attention
betwen phono and visuo to do a task. Acting like a traffic police
Visuospatial sketch pad does visual imagery: the creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a
physical visual stimulus.

Based on this finding that reaction times were longer for greater differences in orientation.

ımagıne an F and point out the “out” or “in” according to corner you are on . then
to the same thing but this time with saying it out loud. Saying is easier becuase pointing and imagining are both
visuospatial tasks which makes it overloaded.

Central Executive (attention controller) : CE is the component that makes WM “working,” because it is the
control center of the working memory system. Its mission is not to store information, but to coordinate how
information is used by the phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad

articulatory suppression: “the”

 The episodic buffer can store information (thereby
providing extra capacity) and is connected to LTM (thereby making interchange between working memory and LTM
possible). Notice that this model also shows that the visuospatial sketch pad and phonological loop are linked to
long-term memory.

WEEK 5- LONG TERM MEMORY

Memory: The processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information.

Serial position effect: the ability to recall an item is influenced by the items position in a series

• Primacy effect: superior recall of early items (LTM)

• Recency effect: superior recall of recent items (STM)

LTM therefore provides both an archive that we can refer to when we want to remember events from the past and a
wealth of background information that we are constantly consulting as we use working memory to make contact with
what is happening at a particular moment

memory is better for words at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than for words in the middle.
participants begin rehearsing the first word right after it is presented; because no other words have been presented,
the first word receives 100 percent of the participant’s attention. Then 2nd, 3rd and more letters are presented and
atteniton spreads.
In recency effect, words are still in the STM so it is easier to recall them. Delay eliminates recency effect.

CODING

Visual Coding: remembering some place or face _ltm

Auditory coding: phonological similarity effect( misidetify F and S) this is STM. But singing a song is LTM.

Semantic Coding in Short-Term Memory: The Wickens Experiment

Semantic Coding in Long-Term Memory: The Sachs Experiment

Recognition memory is the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier.(like multiple-choice
exam)

Sach wondered if people remember and code information to their LTM according to its exact Word or general
meaning. He used a tecnhique where participants read a story or listened and they are asked to recognize which
sentecne was in the story and which ones changed. People recognized sentences by their general meanings rather
than exact words and that shows semantic encoding happens in LTM.

Overall, type of coding whether STM or LMT and auditory, semantic or visual depends on the task.

SEMANTIC VS EPISODIC

When we try to remember some of our memories we use episodic memory like how we went on vacation to Antalya
which is a city in Turkey. We self know or remember about stuff. Episodic memory includes MENTAL TIME TRAVEL.
On the other hand stuff like knowing Antalya is in Turkey and there is a beach there is semantic knowledge whichwe
know aoutomatically. We don’t need to go back in time to remember where Antalya was or if it had a beach. We
don’t even remember when we first learned that information usually. It is just knowing.

Brain imaging technique showed that there can be overlap between activation caused by episodic and
semantic memories, there are also major differences.

Knowledge Affects Experience (top-down): going to a fotball game with a friend who doesn’t know football. My
experience will be so much different bc I know the game and I know where to pay attention, so my experience is so
much differnet than my friend’s. Because he is like “what’s going on?” therefore our semantic knowledge influence
our experience, thus our episodic knowledge. • Episodic retrieval always involves semantic knowledge

Personal semantic memories: facts associated with personal experiences. For example an autobiographical
memory which has both semantic and episodic knowledge

“When I met Gil and Mary at the Le Buzz coffee shop yesterday, we sat at our favorite table, which is located near the
window, but which is hard to get in the morning when Le Buzz is busy.”

people’s knowledge about public figures, such as actors, singers, and politicians, can include both semantic and
episodic components. When they tested people’s ability to remember the names of public figures, they found that
recall was better for names of people who had higher autobiographical significance( like going to her concert etc.)

What Happens to Episodic and Semantic Memories as Time Passes?

Forgetting increases when there is longer time intervals. But forgetting doesn’t happen “all or nothingly”. We can
remember partially. Like:
: A friend introduces you to Roger at the coffee shop on Monday, and you talk briefly. Then later in the week, you see
Roger across the street. Some possible reactions to seeing Roger are: That person looks familiar. What’s his name and
where did I meet him? There’s Roger. Where did I meet him? There’s Roger, who I met at the coffee shop last
Monday. I remember talking with him about football.

Familiarity associated with semantic memory while recollection associated with episodic memory

Remember/Know Procedure makes the distinguishing between semantic and episodic memory. Present the to-
beremembered stimulus. After the retention interval, show the stimulus again.

FUTURE:

Thre were two patients with some brain damage and lost their episodic memory. DB(another patinet) was not
able to think peronally but able to think like politics.

Normal healthy people’s brain was used to brain imaging while thinking about past and imagining future. These results
suggest that similar neural mechanisms are involved in remembering the past and predicting the future .

constructive episodic simulation hypothesis: which states that episodic memories are used to construct
simulations of future events. Geçmişteki olayfan ders çıkarmak gibi.

İmplcit memory occurs when we do not need to conscious remembering while learning from experience.

Procedural memory is also called skill memory. Because it is about doing skillfull things that were learned before like
biking, swimming, playing a violin. No recollection is needed. Patients think that they are doing that skill for the first
time, no memory of doing it before at all. But they can do it. People with amnesia can recall their abilities by practice
evex”n tho they cannot reform a LTM. They can even learn new skills and be an expert despite the fact they can’t even
remember their training. Procedural memory happens unconscioıusly without our relization. İf a
pianist would look carefully at her fingers while playing she would be more likely to not play or make failures. This
automatic doing without not know what we did exactly in detail is called
expert-induced amnesia

When they asked to that violinist who can remember how to play but lost her semantic memory some semantic
questions about skills. She was able to answer them. Because she was an expert violinist and artist.(like knowing
famous people better if we had an episodic memory about them).

Priming: the change of a person’s behavior to test stimuli because of the priming stimuli. Occurs when test stimuli is
same or very similar with priming stimuli.

Repetition Priming: For example hearing the Word bird 2nd time you will react faster than hearing it for the 1st
time. You may not even remember when you heard the original presentation, thus priming is implicit memory.

people with amnesia group couldn’t recall the

words but they were able to fill the blanks and complete the words bc they can response them bc they’ve heard those
letters before. Priming is real.

Propaganda Effect: in which participants are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as
being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before. This can happen even if the person is told
that statement is false. This one is also implicit memory
because ppl can’t even maybe remember when they heard statement or maybe even thought it was false at first
time.

Classical conditioning: çoktan biliyosun bunu. Şu birini görüp tanıyıp tanımadığınnda emin
olamama deneyindeki gibi ama iyi ya da kötü hissediyosun ama nedenini bilmiyosun. Bu implicit.

Amnesia: Memory loss due to special conditions, such as brain injury, illness, or psychological trauma
H.M: failure to acquire new knowledge(declarative)?? Learning skill:

presenting movements without attention.

Maintenance rehearsal: simple repetitions and rehearsals without focusing. Creates a shallow processing.

Elaborative rehearsal: focusing on the meaning of information an elaborating it.

Shallow processing: Little attention to meaning, / Maintenance rehearsal / Structural features/physical

features

Deep processing: Close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship
to something else . better with the memory.

repetition group was told to repeat item to remember whereas other

groups was told to imagine .imagery group remembered more words than the other group.
 paired-associate learning, in which a list of word pairs is presented. Later, the first word of each pair is
presented, and the participant’s task is to remember the word it was paired with.

Another example of how memory is improved by encoding is the self-reference effect: Memory is better if you are
asked to relate a word to yourself.

•Describes you? (self-referent)

• Same meaning as fast? (semantic)

• Rhymes with drift? (phonemic)

• Capital letters? (structural)

remembering words in a particular category may serve as a retrieval cue—a word or other stimulus that helps
a person remember information stored in memory. For example apple retirevals fruits.

Retrieval Cue: stimuli that helps us to retrieve information from LTM.

Testing Effect:
Being tested helps to encode and process information in a deeper level which will be remembered earlier. Testing
yourself and somenelse testing you on an information helps learning, elaborating material.

In free recall: write as many Words as you can remember

Cued recall: giving cues like words and categories for participants to remember and write down the words under those
categories.

It is found that retireval cues was helpful for memory.

MANTYLA:

504 differnet nouns were given to participants and they wanted them to associate 3 words with this noun like
banana-yellow.edible.fruit then they were asked to remember nouns associaited by themselves and by others but
still nouns are presented them.

Retrieval cues are significantly more effective when they are created by the person whose memory is being
tested.

Encoding Specificity: ıt ıs best if we can retrieve information in the same location as we encoded it.
 a group was given a list to study
underwater, a group on land. Then they were tested in different places.

•State-dependent memory: Recall is better when individuals are in the same emotional and physical state as they were in
during learning.

• Encoding specificity principle: Memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that
were present during encoding (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)

• Context-dependent memory: It typically is easier to remember something in the same environment in

which it was originally encoded.

• Mood Congruent Recall: we tend to remember words and events that are matching our current mood

transfer-appropriate processing:
 cognitive tasks during encoding and
retrieval should be same for retrieval to be better.

Consolidation: the process where short-term memories are turned into long-term memories. The information that is just
learned is so fragile and forgettable. Consolidation makes it stronger and more permanent in the memory. There is an
experiment that müller and pilzecker did with 2 groups. Both of them were given 2 lists to remember. First one did not
have delay and learned immediately, second group had a delay. 2nd grouped remembered (1st list was tested) better.

In anterogorade
amnesia, consolidation is not possible due to brain damage
 Consolidation and Sleep:

Sleep within 3 hours after learning helps to consolidate information why:

One reason is that going to sleep eliminates environmental stimuli that might interfere with consolidation.

Another reason is that consolidation appears to be enhanced during sleep

After their training, they were told either that they would be tested on this task 9 hours later (the expected
group) or that they would be tested on another task (the unexpected
group)…memory for the task was stronger if participants expected they would be tested.

Reconsolidation: updating your memory is not unique. It happens all the time. We are constantly learning new things
and modifying information stored in memory in order to deal with new circumstances. This updating memory process
is called reconsolidation. İnfo gets fragile again and needs to be consolidated again.

Rat example:

Anisomycin: prevents formation of new memories. If it is injected before consolidation has occurred, it eliminates memory,
but if it is injected after consolidation occurs, it has no effect.
WEEK 6 EVERYDAY MEMORY

Autobiographical memory: memory for specific moments and experiences from our own lives. It can include both
semantic and episodic memory. It is multidimensional. Because when we think of an important moment in our life, we
think the smell, voicess, and the visuon of the environment. But this is not limited with them. Since we imagine in 3
dimensional way, we create some spatial components too as we remember. This is why memory is multidimensional.
There are some patients whose visual are of cortex is injured. Those patients are unable to recognize and visualize object.
This might be the reason why they’ve lost their autobiographical memory due to not having a visual cue to remember.but
even memories that are not based on visual information are lost in these patients.
Reminiscence bump:

55 yaşındaki bir kişi için gösterildiği gibi, olaylar 5 ila 55 yaş arasındaki tüm yıllar için hatırlanır, ancak hafıza son olaylar ve
yaklaşık 10 ila 30 yaşları arasında meydana gelen
olaylar için daha iyidir (Conway, 1996; Rubin et al. ., 1998). 40 yaşın üzerindeki insanlarda bulunan, ergenlik ve genç
yetişkinlik için geliştirilmiş hafızaya, “reminiscence bump” denir. Neden bu yaşlar önemli?

Because it’s the ages where self-image development occurs. Ben şu oldum bu oldum demek gibi ya da hayattaki
önemli noktalar bu yaş aralığında gerçekleşir. some meories are better remembered than others.

“I am” statements = around the age of 25

İnfantile amnesia: almost total lack of memories for the first 5 years of life. Cognitive-self development occurs around
late of 2nd year in life.

• Cognitive hypothesis – Encoding is better during periods of rapid change followed by stability.
Cultural life script: The culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span. events in a person’s
life story become easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script for that person’s culture.
Youth Bias:

ppl think they’ve had their most notable public

events before the age of 30( olders& young ppl both). The ages of reminiscence bump and youth bias seem to be
overlaping. The question was “ which age do you think when the most notable public events are more likely to occur?”.

Emotions:

Emotions and memory are intertwined. Emotions are often associated with “special” events, such as beginning or ending
relationships or events experienced by many people simultaneously, like the 9/11 terrorist attacks
Flashbulb memories:

They occur under very high emotional state. They are so vivid and detailed. People do not talk about the event itself but
they talk about what they heard. Those memories are also rememberd for a long time.

The only way to check for accuracy is to compare the person’s memory to what actually happened or to memory
reports collected immediately after the event.

Unlike photographs, which remain the same for many years, people’s memories for how they heard about flashbulb
events change over time.

Rehersal: shocking memories are rehearsed more.

Repeated Recall: comparing the later memories with the memories collected right after the event occurred. It aims to see
whether the memory changes over time. After stimuli
occurred participants’ memories are collected as the baseline. Then after amount of time they are asked again about
the stimuli/event.

In an experiment people were asked how they heard about Challenger explosion and after 2 years they were asked again.
Their stories were different(like in one story heard it in class, in 2nd story heard it from TV).

Narrative rehearsal hypothesis: the idea that memory can be affected after the event happens. It is because we rehearse
those memories. For example people claim that they saw a video of princess
diana died in a car crash. But the video doesn’t exist. In tv and eberywhere it is rehearsed and told so many times ppl think
that they saw non-existing video.

Flashbulb memories do not differ from everyday memories so much in terms of the amount
remembered and accuracy • BUT people think these memories are stronger and more accurate
The Constructive Nature of Memory:

People’s memory sometimes don’t match with what actually happened. Or they might change memories or even talk
about memories that’s never existed. People construct memories based on the actual even plus personal experiences,
expecatations and some other additional factors.

Source monitoring: the problem where we cannot remember and are not sure about the origins of our ideas,
beliefs or knowledge. misidentifying the source of a memory.

Becoming Famous Overnight:

Nonfamous people started to be considered as famous people because hearing their name again after 24 hours made
them sound like they are famous. Bc it was familiar now. This is a source monitoring error becasue we need to get down
to the source and find out where we heard the names for the first time and why familiar?

Bir ifadenin tekrar tekrar sunulduğunda doğru olarak değerlendirilme olasılığının artması=
ılllusory truth effect.

Bartlett’s “War of the Ghosts” Experiment:

Şu klasik seal hunting hikayesini okuyor ve participantlardan hikayeyi belirli zaman aralıklarıyla as accurate as possible
şekilde anlatmasını istiyor. Bu tekniğin adı repeated reproduction( flashbuldaki tekniğbe benzyo-repeated recall). As
participant retell the story they addred and changed parts according to their cultures (boat instead of canoe). In Bartlett’s
experiment is that his participants
created their memories from two sources. One source was the original story, and the other was what they knew about
similar stories in their own culture. This is also another source monitoring problem bc they mix up the sources.

Making Inferences: Memory reports can be influenced by inferences that people make based on their experiences and
knowledge
Pragmatic inferences: people read a sentence and they act like something else happened too based on their expectations
and prior knowledge even tho that was not stated in the sentence. (baby stayed awake all night—baby cried all night or
snowman vanished-snowman melted).

Schemas and Scripts: people often have a view about a specific scene or an environment based on their prior
knowledge like what a classroom or playground is like. To test this an experiment was conducted in an Office.
Participant waited in an Office for a while then they were asked to write down what was in Office. They reported lots of
object and some of them weren’t even in the
environment but fit in their schema of an Office. They reported boks but there wasn’t any.

Script we have includes “sequence of actions” that we expect to be in environment. Same thing happens as in
schema.

Cryptomnesia: unconscious plagiarism

MPI (Loftus): Presentation of MPI can alter not only what participants report they saw, but their conclusions about other
characteristics of the situation. r (1) “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” or (2) “How
fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
Although both groups saw the same event, the average speed estimate by participants who heard
the word “smashed” was 41 miles per hour, whereas the estimates for participants who heard “hit” averaged 34 miles
per hour. Then they asked to participants if they saw any broken glass even
though when theresn’t any. Participants who heard “smashed” said yes more than participants who heard “hit” said yes.
This is also a source monitoring error.

Misinformation effect (MPI) : misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change
how the person describes that event later.

Chilhood Memories:

Bir deneyde katılımcılara diyolar ki 6 yaşında düğünde kâseyi devirdin hatırlıyor musun
onlarda hayır diyor sonra ıkı gün sonra yine geliyolar yine soruyolar bu kez katılımcılar detaylı bi şekilde düğünü anlatıyor
dışarıda oldu hava sıcaktı şunun düğünüdyü ben de kaseyi
deviridm gibi. Aslında bu olay hiç olmadı ama familarity sayesinde oldu sanıyorlar. Still says no ı dont remember but gives
details. Hearing the event then waiting caused event to
emerge as “false memory” like it happened.

Eye-witness Testimony: emotions usually run at a high level during witnessing a crime and this can affect what a person
pays attention to and what they remember about the crime.
 Errors Associated with Perception and Attention

Misidentifications Due to Familiarity

Donald Thampson Case: (familiarity and source of monitoring error)

In the book I tell a story about psychologist Donald Thompson, who was accused of rape by a woman who had been brutally
raped. It turns out he couldn't have committed the rape because he was giving a live television interview about memory
and memory distortion at the moment this woman was raped. It turned out that she was watching the show when an
intruder broke into her house and raped her, and she misattributed her memory of this guy Thompson from the TV screen
to the face of the rapist. That's a classic misattribution error: she remembers the face accurately but she got the source of
the memory wrong. The next one I call suggestibility, which refers to the power of leading suggestions or questions to help
create false memories.

Errors Due to Suggestion:

 when there is an eye testimony, police officer asks “ which one
of these guys did u see stealing?” participant is likely to think “well he must be one of them so ımma choose the most likely
and similar one”. The correct question should be like “ do you see the guy here?” if police officer responds like “okay”,
participants’ reaction would be even more positive.

“Good, You Identified the Suspect,” Gary Wells

and Amy Bradfield

Participant watched an actual crime, then given numbers of people and asked which one is guilty? They picked someone
even tho the actual criminal wasn’t even in the Picture. Then they got feedbacks from experimenters which made them
more sure if the feedback was positive. This is called post-identification feedback effect.
Cognitive interview: in order to reduce misidentification, people recreate the crime scene with all the emotions and
from different perspectives and even make suspects talk. Takes longer but it works.

Week 7- Conceptual Knowledge Imagery

Knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their
properties. Conceptual knowledge happens automatically that we don’t even realize we categorize.

• Differences / Similarities

Concept: Mental representation of a class or individual - categories of objects, events and abstract ideas. Because we
know whta that item whether it is abstract or annything else.

Organization = categorization

• A category includes all possible examples of a particular concept. Knowing that something is in a category provides a
great deal of information about it.

When we think about a geometrical object it is easy to fit all members into that category and meet the definition. But it
is harder for natural and everyday objects.

Categories = pointers to knowledge. Once we categorize an object we can use our energy to focus on what is special about
this object.

Categorization helps understand what is happening in the environment, it also plays an

essential role in enabling us to take action.

 For example, to spread jam on bread, you must recognize the jam jar, the bread, and the knife; realize their
relevant properties (bread is soft unless it is toasted; knives are rigid, and jam is sticky); and know how to grasp the
knife handle with the right grip to scrape the jam from its jar

Categorization also helps us to understand behaviors we might find weird or bizarre.

For example halloween costumes are actually weird but on halloween day totally normal and understandable.

1) Definitional Approach: we have a set of criteria for a category and every member has to apply.
2) Family Resemblance: family resemblance is not as strick as definitional approach, because we don’t try to
aplly all features of a categroy to its members. when it’s hard to categorize
objects and made all items meet the definition this term was created. Members of a category don’t have to fit in
the exact definiton of the category but they need to have some features in common. For example a chair needs
to resemble at least one another chair in the chair category in some way, maybe they both have legs or not. This
term allows the variations in a category. When an item’ characteristic features overlap a lot with the another
item in the same category, the family resemblance for these items are high.

Family resemblance & prototypicality = strong relationship

3) Prototype: typical member of a category. Average representation of a category.

High-prototypicality: a category member that very much resembles the protoype of that category. Low-prototypicality:

a category member that doesn’t resemble category prototype very much.

Rapidly answering = typicality

Prototypical Objects Are Named First: when people list items ona category they list the high- prototypical Words
first.

Priming: ın Rosch’s experiment there was a priming heard like a color “green”. Then there was 2 shades of color for
participants to decide whether they are same or not and they are asked to push button ASAP when they realize colors are
the same or different. People pushed button quicker fort he first green bc in their mind that shade of green is more
prototypical green(good example) rather than “light green”(bad example). This experiment showed us that not all
members in a category are the same.

The Exampler Approach: concept/category is represented by multiple members rather than only a n average single one.
Also members are actual members of that category, not an average prototype.

Exampler approach enables all variatons more than prototypical approach. For example it would be hard to find a
prototypical game defnition but in exampler approach we can list all golf, volleyball, 101 and etc. It is different than
protottype approach bc it’s about specific examples rather than representations of a group. But similar too because it
doesn’t define , it represents.
Levels of Categories

basic level is psychologically privleged.

Rosch wanted participants to list features for these 3 different levels. For basic level 9 features, 10.3 for specific, 3 for
global were listed. Basic level is privileged bc there is a huge lost from basic to global whereas there is a little gain from
basic to specific.

preferred guitar rather than electro-guitar on instrument. Preffered

fish rathern than animal or tuna. Preferred pants rather than clothing or jeans.

• Quicker to identify basic-level category member as a member of a category

• Children learn basic-level concepts sooner than other levels

• Basic-level is much more common in adult discourse than names for superordinate categories

• Different cultures tend to use the same basic- level categories, at least for living things
 experts of a subject can list names in specific level while
nonexpert more on the basic level. İt is normal because we categorize stuff according to our

a) Experiences
b) Typically what we encounter in the environment
c) What we pay attention to.

So objects’ meanings and our knowledge about that category can be different for everybody.

SEMANTIC NETWORK APPROACH

. It is a hierarchical model, because it consists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts, such as “canary” and
“salmon,” are at the bottom, and more general concepts are at higher levels.
İf we put “can fly” feature for every bird fir example it would take so much space. Thus we place “can fly” feature at a
higher level node because almost all birds can fly. Keeping the features at a higher level node for a category to gain storage
space is called COGNITIVE ECONOMY

But not all the birids can fly. Thus collin and friend developed expectations on the lower nodes. Like under the category of
bird there can be ostrcih but it also need to have the property “can’t fly”.

This diagram is not exactly how our physiology is like. İt is a design to Show how our minds organize properties of objects
associated with that category.

In order to meaure how long it takes to make a connection is decided by Sentence Verification Technique(yes-no
answers and measuring rt).
 from canary to animal takes longer
time than from canary to bird.
Lexical decision task – Participants read stimuli and are asked to say as quickly as possible whether the item is a word or
not

Criticism of the collin an quillian theory:

According to them when each member of a category has the same distance to nodes and people should react all of them
in the same amount of time. But in the experiment people reacted as yes to “robin is a bird” faster than they did to
“ostrich is a bird”. This is why they couldn’t explain typicality effect.

Cognitive economy problem:

people reacted to “pig is an animal” faster than to “pig is a mammal”.

According to their distance idea and cognitive economy animal should take longer time than mammal.
Connectionism: creating computer models to represent cognitive processes.

Like neurons, some units can be activated by stimuli from the environment, and some can be activated by signals received
from other units. Units activated by stimuli from the environment (or stimuli presented by the experimenter) are input
units. In the simple network illustrated here, input units send signals to hidden units, which send signals to output units. .
A connection weight determines how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit.

Learning adjusts the connection weights: Eğitimsiz ağımızda tüm bağlantı ağırlıklarının 1.0 olduğunu varsayalım. Bağlantı
ağırlıkları aynı olduğu için, aktivite ağ boyunca yayılır ve kanaryalarla ilgisi
olmayan çiçek, çam, ağaç kabuğu gibi özellik düğümleri etkinleştirilir. Ağın düzgün çalışması için, bağlantı ağırlıkları
ayarlanmalıdır, böylece “kanarya” kavram birimi ve ilişki birimi etkinleştirildiğinde, yalnızca özellik birimleri büyür, hareket
eder, uçar ve şarkı söyler. Ağırlıkların bu şekilde ayarlanması bir öğrenme süreci ile sağlanır. Öğrenme süreci, özellik
birimlerindeki hatalı yanıtlar, geri yayılım adı verilen bir işlemle (sinyaller özellik birimlerinden başlayarak ağda geriye
doğru gönderildiği için) ağ üzerinden bir hata sinyalinin geri gönderilmesine neden olduğunda gerçekleşir. Gizli birimlere ve
gösterim birimlerine geri gönderilen hata sinyalleri, doğru özellik birimlerinin etkinleştirilmesi için bağlantı ağırlıklarının
nasıl ayarlanması gerektiği hakkında bilgi verir.
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its functioning. As the parts of the system gets damaged
performance decrease gradually = graceful degredation.

Because similar concepts have similar patterns, training a system to recognize the properties of one concept (such as
“canary”) also provides information about other, related concepts (such as “robin”). This is like how we learn concepts.
Because when we learn about canary we also can predict characteristics of other birds we’ve never seen before. =
generalization

Thanks to Slow learning our mind networks can handle lots of inputs.

(Mental) Imagery

• Relation to perception, attention, and memory

• The mental representation of stimuli when those stimuli are not physically present.

• Exclusive reliance on top-down processing

• No input to sensory receptors

Useful in theraphy like you imagine your mother and talk like u talk to her. Tehre is no

need to go nodes to find information, just imagine.

İmagining makes it easier to recall.

Visual Imagery

• “Visual imagery”: Visually imagining something that isn’t physically present

• Visual perception and visual imagery share many properties – Visual imagery experiences are less detailed & more
fragile
Imagery and perception

mental images differ from perception in that they are not as vivid or long lasting, imagery shares many properties with
perception. Shepard and Metzler’s results showed that mental and perceptual images both involve spatial representation
of the stimulus

Kosslyn’s Mental Scanning Experiments

he wanted participants to focus on one area

than look for another one and press T if they can find it or F if can’t. He took reaction times.

Kosslyn reasoned that if imagery, like perception, is spatial, then it should take longer for participants to find parts that are
located farther from the initial point of focus because they would be scanning across the image of the object.

Then someone else suggested that it can be because other things take all attention then they did a map test where they
made participants to imagine a state map with different locations and an island map. Kosslyn was right. Closer the place,
faster to point. Thus both imagery and perception are spatial.
Spatial vs Propositional

spatial is about taking place in space where ar

propositional is about relationships represented by abstract words, equations, symbols and statemens. Propositional:

paranthesis = spatial relations

Imagery vs perception:

The result of these experiments, shown alongside the pictures, was that participants answered questions about

the rabbit more rapidly

when it filled more of the visual field.

When people imagine small animals their distance to animal were smaller while bigger for bigger animals. This tells us
that images are spatial like perception.

Perception and Image are connected

participants didn’t realize there was a slglhty banana pic on the Wall.they are
asked to create a banana pic and it was same as the one been shown.sth can be unseen but influence our imagery
and perception.
Imagery can Effect Perception:

she was asked to imagine T or H then push

button. There was 2 squares flashing. İn either one of them one of the letters were shown. She was asked which square
showed a letter. She knew better if she imagined the same letter asa the shown letter.

method of loci: in order to remember things, we place them at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout.

• Perception: Bottom-up and top-down • Imagery: Top-down

All in all imagery and perception are closely related and share some mechanisms. But there are differences too like
according to fMRI results, their brain activation is not overlapin completely. Also perception happens automatically while
imagery needs effort. Also perception is stable which means it can happen as long as stimuli is presented. But imagery is
fragile, it can fae away without effort to keep it on all the time.

Aphantasia: inability or limited ability to create mental images.

IMAGERY NEURONS- possible physiological mechanism for imagery

some neurons were examined while perceptioning and imagining.they

responded to ball but not to face bc face selectivity w/face.close rltsnhsp btw im.per
 LANGUAGE

Language is a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas,
and experiences. Animals use limited symbols, gestures and signals to communicatre for limited stuff like survival stuff.
Most language deficies happens due to damage to left brain.

Hierarchical nature of language: means that it consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form
larger units. For example, words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn can create sentences, which
themselves can become components of a story.

Rule-based nature of language: means that these components can be arranged in certain ways (“What is my cat saying?” is
permissible in English), but not in other ways (“Cat my saying is what?” is not)

These 2 rules make it possible to go beyond of an animal communication and make thousands of
different pharases and sentences.

Language is so universal and needed for every human-being. Even deaf children found a way to communicate with
each other when there is nobody and no any language around them.

People learn langugae atuomatically without even realizing but when it comes to grammar they can have a hard time.
Thus all human develop a sense of language.

There isn’t any culture without a language. Actually there are lots of languages around the world.

Language development steps are very similar all around the world.

All languages have differents sounds, words and rules; but all languages include a system to make things negative, to ask
questions, and to refer to the past and present. All languages are similar but unique too. How the rules are implemented
are different in different languages.

Aphasia: difficulty in producing and comprehensing of speech. It is not caused by deafness or simple motor deficit. It is
caused by brain damage.

Skinner says that children learn lanugage via reinforcement, because he is a behaviorist. On the other hand Chomsky thinks
that learning language is innate and coded in our genes. He says that children can say words and sentences that they were
never exposed before, thus nor reinforced. He also talks about bad words children say even though they are not reinforced
for those.

Psycholinguistics: psychological study of language.

1. Comprehension. How do people understand spoken and written language? This includes how people process
language sounds; how they understand words, sentences, and stories expressed in writing, speech, or sign language;
and how people have conversations with one another.

2. Representation. How is language represented in the mind? This includes how people group words together into
phrases to create meaningful sentences and how they make connections between different parts of a story.

3. Speech production. How do people produce language? This includes the physical processes of speech production
and the mental processes that occur as a person creates speech.

4. Acquisition. How do people learn language? This includes not only how children learn language but also how people
learn additional languages, either as children or later in life.
Phonology: sound of language

Morphology: smallest units of a language, like words or parts of the worlds.( old, the, -er, -ist). Lexicon is all of the

words we know (our “mental dictionary”)

Semantics: is the meaning of language. This is important for words, because each word has one or more meanings.

Lexical semantics: The meaning of words.

• Word frequency effect: (in a lexical decision tasks) we respond more rapidly to highfrequency words like home
than to lowfrequency words like hike

Lexical decision task: in which the task is to decide as quickly as possible whether strings of letters are words or
nonwords.

people stare and do fixation for a longer amount of time when they are
reading low-frequnecy words compared to high-frequency words. It showes us the past experiences with words
influence our ability to understand the word.

Pronunciation: there are lots of ways to pronounce words and they can be hard to understood especially when they are
presented without a context. People listened couple of words presented alone without any context or any words along
with them. And they couldn’t understand what those words are even though they recorded those words with
participants’ own voices.

Speech segmentation: The ability to understand where a word ends the new one begins even though there are often no
pauses between words.

knowing the meanings of words helps us perceive them. Perhaps you have had the experience of hearing individual
words that you happen to know in a foreign language seem to “pop out” from what appears to be an otherwise
continuous stream of speech.
So our ability to hear and understand spoken words is affected by

(1) how frequently we have encountered a word in the past;

(2) the context in which the words appear;

(3) our knowledge of statistical regularities of our language;

(4) our knowledge of word meanings.

Michael Tanenhaus and coworkers (1979) showed that people briefly access multiple meanings of ambiguous words
before the effect of context takes over.

Lexical priming: is priming that involves the meaning of words. Lexical priming occurs when a word is followed by another
word with a similar meaning. For example, presenting the word rose and then the word flower can cause a person to
respond faster to the word flower because the meanings of rose and flower are related. This priming effect does not,
however, occur if the word cloud is presented before flower because their meanings are not related. The presence of a
lexical priming effect therefore indicates whether two words, like rose and flower, have similar meanings in a
person’s mind.

To make things even more interesting, when Tanenhaus ran the same experiment but added a delay of 200 msec between
the end of the sentences and the probe word, the result changed. As shown in Figure 11.2b, priming still occurs for
Condition 1—rose the noun primes flower—but no longer occurs for Condition 2—rose the verb does not prime flower.
What this means is that by 200 msec after hearing the word rose as a verb, the flower meaning of rose is gone. Thus, the
context provided by a sentence helps determine the meaning of a word, but context exerts its influence after a slight delay
during which other meanings of a word are briefly accessed (also see Swinney, 1979, for a similar result and Lucas, 1999, for
more on how context affects the meaning of words.) context includes
TOP-DOWN processing.

İn cognitive psychology, language is idealized &correct. In conversational analyses it is messy.

Some words are more frequently repeated, thus they are faster to recognize. Words have similar meanings but all meaning
are not equal. The relative frequency of the meanings of ambiguous words is described in terms of meaning dominance.
Words such as tin, in which one meaning (a type of metal) occurs more often than the other (a small metal container), is an
example of biased dominance. Words such as cast, in which one meaning (members of a play) and the other meaning
(plaster cast) are equally likely, is an example of balanced dominance.

Syntax: The structure of a sentence (the rules that govern the order of words)

Parsing: The mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases

Constraint approach: insnlar duymaya yada okumaya bailadıklaı an processe başlıyorlar. The spy saw the

man with binocular.

Garden Path Sentences: these sentences lead people to one meaning at the beginning, then to another meaning at
the end of the sentence. It creates temporary ambiguity.

The mechanism that leads people to group words into pharases while reading or listening is called
heuristics. Heuristics have two properties: On the

positive side, they are fast

On the negative side, they sometimes result in the wrong decision.

Late Closure: when reading a sentence from beggining, our brain keeps adding up the words to each other in order to
create a pharase till it doesn’t make sense anymore.

After the musician played piano…. (thinks that piano belongs to 1st pharase) After the musician

played piano was ..(sth is wrong)

After the musician played piano was broken.. (understands that piano belongs to the 2nd pharase.

These researchers have provided evidence to show that factors in addition to syntax can influence parsing right
from the beginning.??????

Heuristic: – A shortcut rule that can be applied to make decision

The constra
int based theory: argues all possible interpretations of sentences are activated with the most appropriate being
selected
Influence of Word Meaning: Here are two sentences that illustrate how the meaning of words in a sentence can
influence parsing right from the beginning. They differ in how hard they are to figure out because of the meanings of the
second words in each sentence.
1. The defendant examined by the lawyer was unclear.
2. The evidence examined by the lawyer was unclear.
2nd one is easier to interpret and correct the wrong understood meaning of the sentence. Because evidence is much
more likely to be examined than defendant. And evidence can’t do examining.

Influence of story context:

1. The horse raced past the barn fell

2. There were two jockeys who decided to race their horses. One raced his horse along the path that went past the
garden. The other raced his horse along the path that went past the barn. The horse raced past the barn fell.

Influence of a Scene Context: observing objects in a scene influences how we interpret the sentence.

visual world paradigm: involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is
processed.

Figure 11.6a. As participants looked at this display, they were told to carry out the following instructions: Place
the apple on the towel in the box. When participants heard the phrase Place the apple, they moved their eyes to the apple,
then hearing on the towel, they looked at the other towel (Figure 11.6b). They did this because at this point in the sentence
they were assuming that they were being told to put the apple on the other towel. Then, when they heard in the box, they
realized that they were looking at the wrong place and quickly shifted their eyes to the box. The reason participants looked
first at the wrong place was that the sentence is ambiguous. First it seems like on the towel means where the apple should
be placed, but then it becomes clear that on the towel is
referring to where the apple is located. But after saying “put the apple that’s on the towel into the box.”, they directly
looked at the box(correct place) and placed it in the box.

It is shown that not only syntatic information influence our interpretation, information we get from the scene
(non-linguistic) also effects us. This experiment is against to garden path model bc gpm suggest that only linguistic syntatic
information is effective.

Coherence: relating information from different parts of the text in the reader’s mind.
Inference – determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text
– Anaphoric, instrumental, causal.

Making Inferences

John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was pounding the nail when his father came out to watch him and help him do the
work. After reading that passage, participants were likely to indicate that they had previously seen the following passage:
“John was using a hammer to fix the birdhouse when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work.” They
often reported seeing this passage, even though they had never read that John was using a hammer, because they inferred
that John was using a hammer from the information that he was pounding the nail. People use a similar creative process to
make a number of different types of inferences as they are reading a text.

One role of inference is to create connections between parts of a story.

coherence—the representation of the text in a person’s mind that creates clear relations between parts of the text and
between parts of the text and the main topic of the story

Riffifi, the famous poodle, won the dog show. She has now won the last three shows she has entered. What does she
refer to? If you picked Riffifi you are using anaphoric inference— inference
that involves inferring that both shes in the second sentence refer to Riffifi. In the previous “John and the birdhouse”
example, knowing that He in the second sentence refers to John is another example of anaphoric inference.

Readers are capable of creating anaphoric inferences even under adverse conditions because they add information
from their knowledge of the world to the information provided in the text.

What do you picture upon reading the sentence, “William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk”? It
is likely that from what you know about the time Shakespeare lived that he was probably using a quill pen (not a laptop
computer!) and that his desk was made of wood. This is an example of instrumental inference. Similarly, inferring from
the passage about John and the birdhouse that he is using a hammer to pound the nails would be an instrumental
inference

Causal inferences: helps readers to reach a conclusion from a sentence based on the data taken before, based on
prior knowledge. For example in a sentence like this:

Shannon took an aspirin, her headache gone away.(we know aspirin did this)

Shannon took a shower, her headachce gone away.(we might have the prior knowledge that shower relaxes her
and takes her headache away.)

Inferences create connections that are essential for creating coherence in texts, and making these inferences can
involve creativity by the reader.

Situational model: ppl create images and representations of a movement rather than understanding only the words as
they read. For example when we say “she stood up and ran” we imagine a girl running etc.

The perceptual and motor characteristics of objects.

People imagine the nail as it is horizontal when they read “ he hammered the nail into the Wall” and vice versa. Thus it
takes longer reaction time for the 2nd nail Picture when they read this sentence. Bc they imagine that object according to
the movement in the sentence.

When we read sth our knowledge about the subject activates in the brain. N400 response is that the response is larger
when a word in a sentence is unexpected.

The band was very popular and Joe was sure the concert would be sold out. Amazingly, he was able to get a seat down in
front. He couldn’t believe how close he was when he saw the group walk out onto the (stage/guitar/barn) and start
playing.

Three different versions of each scenario were created, using each of the words shown in parentheses. Each
participant read one version of each scenario. If you were reading this scenario, which word would you predict to follow
“he saw the group walk out onto the . . .”? Stage is the obvious choice, so it was called the “expected” condition. Guitar
doesn’t fit the passage, but since it is related to concerts and bands, it is called the “event-related” word. Barn doesn’t fit
the passage and is also not related to the topic, so it is called the “event-unrelated” word. According to a situation we
read, some of our ideas get activated based on our prior knowledge. This supports that we create situational models as
we read.

Thinking about an object is not only about it’s definition. It also includes it’s other properties like movements,
how they are used, even sometimes our emotional thought on that object.

CONVERSATION
 The given–new contract: states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of
information: (1) given information—information that the listener already knows; and (2) new information—information
that the listener is hearing for the first time.

She is going to be late ( already knows who she is)

So we are gonna start later today( new information)(infrence is made)

collaboration as being central to the understanding of language. Describing language as “a form of joint
action”.

not only providing given and new information but also taking into account the knowledge, beliefs, and
assumptions that the other person brings to the conversation, a process called establishing common ground. It is
important to understand what our conversation partner’s information limits are about the subject.

Referential communication: creating common ground with info between 2 people. For example in a card
experiment one of the people described different cards and tell other people how to put them in order etc. They didn’t
use the exact and actual names of the cards but they created names and new descriptions for cards so both could
understand. For example “ put the card with triangle shape but weird one one the top” the other person understands
that.

Syntactic Coordination: using similar grammatical constructions while talking.

Syntatic priming: Syntactic priming Production of a specific grammatical construction by one person increases
chances other person will use that construction

Theory of mind: the ability to understands what others feel, think or believe and understanding
also the gestures, voice tone and cues like that in a conversation.

McGurk Effect: ıt is about the interaction between visual and hearing factors in perception. Visual data and
vocal data does not match exactly then a third outcome is created. For example, when we hear the sound “ba” while
seeing the face of a person articulate “ga,” many adults perceive the sound “da,” a third sound which is a blend of the
two.

If we only looked at mouth movements or only close our eyes and listen what person says we would’ve perceive
the Word correctly.

İf our visual dominance?? is strong what we hear replaces with what we see.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: our language influences and shapes our cultural reality by limiting our thought processes. An
example of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is how sexist
language influences the way in which our society views men and women.

Taking the consaderation of voice tone and etc into account sometimes can give more information than meanings of the
words(=lexical approach)

Languge is more than cognitive psychological approach to it. It is importnat o approach language as the main tool that
social animals(us) use to answer social needs rather than very grammal and ideal usage of language. Cognitive
psychology sees language as idealized and correct but it actually is messy.

Analyzing utterances to undersand what person actually say. Slots???

Dynamic and rapid???

• Semantic coordination: Conversations go more smoothly if participants have shared knowledge and build upon that

There are two coordnations for conversation to go smooth:

1) Semantic coordination: having shared knowledge

2) Syntatic coordination: using similar grammatical constructions
Linguistic theory misses what people actually do in a social conversation. Because it’s concerned with perfect, gramatically
correct, not-divided speech. But we-humans- have some cognitive limitations and they reflect to our speech too
(distractions, memory limitations, shifts of attention and etc.)
SYNTATIC COORDINATION

Syntatic priming: Production of a specific grammatical construction by one person increases chances other person will use
that construction.

Branigan’s experiment was about that. He wonderedd how one’s usage of grammar effect the experimenter.

The girl gave the book to the boy. or The girl gave the boy the book.

The Branigan et al. (2000) experiment. (a)

The subject (right) picks, from the cards laid out on the table, a card with a picture that matches the statement read by the
confederate (left). (b) The participant then takes a card from the pile of response cards and describes the picture on the
response card to the confederate. This is the key part of the experiment, because the question is whether the participant
on the right will match the syntactic construction used by the confederate on the left. speakers are sensitive to the
linguistic behavior of other speakers and adjust their behaviors to match. . This coordination of syntactic form between
speakers reduces the computational load( amount of resouces to do a task)
involved in creating a conversation because it is easier to copy the form of someone else’s sentence than it is to create
your own form from scratch.

Pragmatics: is the study of how context contributes to meaning.

– Helps you understand other people

– Helps you make sure that other people understand you

 – Influenced by top-down processing???

Understanding Language: Social context • Adjust how you speak according to your conversation
partner

BILINGUALISM

Bilingual speaker: fluent in two different languages Mother

tongue = native language = 1st language Multilingual: speaks

more than 2 languages

Simultaneous bilingualism: learning 2 languages at the same time simultaneously during childhood.

sequential bilingualism; their native language is referred to as their first language, and the nonnative language
that they acquire is their second language.

people learn second lnguages because their environment, busnisses or schools require so.
People also become bilingual because colonization has imposed another language upon them. some families use 2

langauges

immigrants learn language to adapt to country they landed on Two important

predictors of success in acquiring a second language are

1. a person’s motivation
2. his attitude toward the people who speak that language

The better the mother tongue skills, the better the second language performance.

An example is that english canadıan children who learn french have more positive attitude towards to french canadians
rather than monolingual english canadians do.

Bilingualism has positive effects on children's linguistic and educational development

1. Bilinguals acquire more expertise in their native (first) language – What one learns about one language improves
linguistic ability in the other language too.

For example, English-speaking Canadian children whose classes are taught in French gain greater
understanding of English-language structure. They can also analyze that some words are divided into 2 or 3 .

Bilinguals are more aware that the names assigned to concepts are arbitrary- Meslea kalem her dilde başka bir kelime ile
ifade ediliyor. Yani aslinda hangi harfler ya da ses ile ifade edildigi farketmiyor, yani keyfi; onemli olan o dili konusan
herkesin ayni kavram icin ayni kelimeyi kullanmasi. Bu keyifiligi bilingualler daha erken ve iyi kavriyor.

2. Better Metalinguistics: Knowledge about form and structure of language

3. Bilingual children are better at following complicated instructions and performing tasks where the
instructions change from one trial to the next.
 4. Bilinguals also score higher on problem-solving tasks that require them to ignore irrelevant information.
5. İnhibition helps to develop executive attentipn which bilinguals have.

Disadvantages:

1. They may forget the pronounce of some words in bpth languages.

2. Furthermore, bilingual children may have somewhat smaller vocabularies for words
İn the arly of 1900 scietnist suggested that bilingualism causes cognitive deficits since the brain has to store 2 langauges at
the same time. But later it was proved that bilingual children score higher on many task than monolingual children. For
example on school test they scored better at their first language exams and showed greater mental flexibity. Bilinguals
have only one system for both langugaes rather than one for each language.

All kinds of cognitive exercise causes later dementia.

Bialystok (2009) also reported that bilingual individuals are more accurate and respond more quickly on the Stroop Test, a
task that requires people to emphasize an item’s color and ignore its meaning.

We need to inhibit all categories came up to our minds while thinking about a concept. Bilinguals do that better.

All kinds of cognitive exercise causes later dementia. Being bilingual is also a very good cognitive excercise.

• The level of development of children's mother tongue is a strong predictor of their second language development (from
home to school) – Concepts and thinking are interdependent across languages

When we speak, we use our semantic network. Knowing what a doctor, chair, table is. These are the available concepts.
Building and using semantic networks in multiple languages helps ypu to transfer what you learn from what language to
other languages you know.

• Semantic networks: Semantic relations between concepts.

İt is possible to learn a languagge at some degree, but you can’t be like someone who learned it at a very early age.

Critical period hypothesis: if you dont learn that language at a very specific time after birth, you will never be native-like
speaker ever.
 But you can learn pretty good actually but of course there will be a difference between you and a ppl learned in
her childhood. Thats because she had a more amount of time to practice. As gramatically 2 different aged people with same
amount of experience can have similar success. But about phonetic aspect of langugae, early learners sound more native-
like(less Accent). Children who learn a second langugae is better at grammar too, because they get grammarly educaion by
school at the same time. With a kid age of 5 and a kid age fo 15 are getting same amount of schooling, their grammar skills
can be comperable.

In the sense of vocabulary learning, children and adults are equally the same.

İn the sense of phonology, children have less Accent than bilinguals who learned their 2nd language in adulthood.

but it decreases gracually rather than rapidly like the one suggested in
“criticial period hypothesis”.

İnterpreting: usually refers to the process of changing a spoken message in one language into a second spoken
language.

Simultaneous interpreting: probbaly most difficult linguistic task. You constantly recieve information from a language and
translate it to another language at the same time. They have a very good working memory. Theres a correlation between
working memory and being simultanously interpreter but we dont know which causes which. Simultaneous interpreting or,
listening to speech in one language and simultaneously producing the translation in a different language—is one of the
most challenging linguistic tasks that humans can perform.

Embodied cognition??? is a theoretical perspective that helps explain why gestures are useful to both speakers and
listeners.

PROBLEM SOLVING & CREATIVITY

Problem: obstacle between present and goal point that can’t be seen directly.

• Well-defined problems: usually have a correct answer; certain procedures, when applied correctly, will lead to a
solution.

• Ill-defined problems do not necessarily have one “correct” answer; the path to their solution is often unclear.
Gestalt: Solving the problem involves a restructuring of the problem.
Gestalt psychologists, was about

(1) how people represent a problem in their mind

(2) how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation

we can solve this puzzle with either starting from corners to central, vertical to
horiztontal or with little divided parts. This all are different representations of the problem.

Geştalt psychologist says the restructuring is an outcome of insight process.

Insight process: Sudden realization of a problem’s solution. ıt involves a reorganization of a person’s mental
representation of a stimulus, situation, or event that wasn’t obvious in the first place.

Insight: Solution comes suddenly, can’t predict how near they are to solution – Non-insight: Gradual approach

For algebra problems non insight happens because we come to conlcusion step by step.

”aha” moment, cant think about process of solving.

They did an experiment on how close(warm) or far away(cold) you feel to a solution. 1 meant not close at all where 7
meant found the solution. Analytic based problems went to warm very gradually.

OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING

• Functional fixedness: Restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions. Duncker’s
Candle Experiment:
The solution to the problem occurs when the person realizes that the matchbox can be used as a support rather than as
a container. People are so focues of the actual functions and usages of materials it becomes an obstacle for them to use
and solve problems by looking from a different perspective. The people with emtpy box were twice as likely to solve the
problem than people who saw boxes being used as containers.

another example is this one with 2 strings, a chair and a plier. People usually think plier as a
tool but if they think it as an weight for one of the string they can swing it and reach it while holding the other string.
Tendency to consider only the usual function of objects-functional fixedness

Changing the functional representations of objects leads to solution.

Mental Set: a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a
person’s experience of what has worked in the past. In these experiments, mental set was created by people’s knowledge
about the usual uses of objects.

Newell and Simon’s Approach

Saw problems in terms of an

initial state—conditions at the beginning of the problem goal state—

the solution of the problem

Operators— actions that takes problem from a step to another step.

Newell and Simon conceived of problem solving as involving a sequence of choices of steps, with each action creating
an intermediate state. Thus, a problem starts with an initial state, continues through a number of intermediate states,
and finally reaches the goal state. The initial state + goal state + all the possible intermediate states for a particular
problem = problem space.

TOWER OF HANOI

Operators: rules in this example

Means–end analysis A way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and
goal states. Establish subgoals, each of which moves the solution closer to the goal state.

Subgoals: Small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal. Occasionally, a subgoal may appear
to increase the distance to the goal state, but in the long run can result in the shortest path to the goal. Subgoal 4: To free
up the mediumsized disc, you need to move the small disc from the middle peg back to the peg on the left.

Problem-solver does not have a picture of the problem space when trying to solve the problem. The person has to search
the problem space to find a solution, and they proposed that one way to direct the search is to use a strategy called
means–end analysis: reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals

The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated

How a problem is stated can affect its difficulty.

Analogical transfer: process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution for one
problem to other problems

Target Problem: which is the problem the participant is trying to solve

Source Problem: which is another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that
illustrates a way to solve the target problem.

if the russian story is given before the checkboards, people can think that pairing is important and they can apply a
similar solution to different problems. the checkerboard problem is the target problem, and the Russian marriage
problem is the source problem

(a) Solution to the radiation problem. Bombarding the tumor, in the center, with a number of low-intensity rays
from different directions destroys the tumor without damaging the tissue it passes through. (b) Radiosurgery, a
modern medical technique for irradiating brain tumors with a number of beams of gamma rays, uses the same
principle. The actual technique uses 201 gamma ray beams.
(b) Thirty percent of the people in this group were able to solve the radiation problem, an improvement over the 10
percent who solved the problem when it was presented alone. But still most of the people can’t figure out
similarities. After that they told participants to think about the prior study. This caused more than 2 times of 30%
of people to figure out the solution. They had the stroy in their mind but couldn’t recall iy without a hint.

Analogical problem solving involves 3 steps:

– Notice the analogy: hardest step. Most of the people can’t notice similarities, analogicality without any hint. Source
stroy and target story should be similar to notice analogy between stories and go to the next step “mapping”.

– Map the correspondence between the source and the target problems : ın order to solve the problem, people need
to map correspondance between studies and match the elements together from different stories. ( for example tumor
and the dictator in the castle).

– Apply the mapping: Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem
 - A way to help people notice similarities via a training procedure is analogical encoding
- Analogical encoding: The process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are
determined

Meadow (2003) illustrated analogical encoding by showing that it is possible to get participants to discover similar problem
features by having them compare two cases that illustrate a principle. Their experiment involved a problem in negotiation.
In the first part of the experiment, participants were taught about the negotiation strategies of trade-off and contingency.

• Trade-off strategy: A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”

• Contingency strategy: A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.
An author wants 18 percent royalties, but the publisher wants to pay only 12 percent. The contingent solution would be
to tie royalties to sales: “You can have 18 percent if sales are high, but less if sales are low.”

Trade off stories were given to a group and contingenct strategy stories were given to another group. When there is a stroy
that can be solved with both of the negotiaton ways, everyone used the strategy they have been using. Because they
focused on the problem features that can be beneficial and that can enchange tha ability to achieve the solution. This is
explained with analogical encoding.

Analogies play an important role both in solving scientific problems

and in designing new products

EXPERTS

People who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have
become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field.

Fast & Accurate problem solving in their domain Expert

have more knowledge about their fields.

-chess chunking example

Experts organize knowledge differently: there’s an experiment made where there are questions about physics given to
studetns with one semester physics class and profs. They asked them to categorize questions based on the similarities.
Novices categorized questions based on the materials
and objects placed in the questions even though their subjects are completely different(planes).but experts categorized
questions based on pyhsical principles.

Experts spend more time for analyzing the problem rather than jumping into to solution right away.

CREATIVITY

creativity as “anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility”

divergent thinking: thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential “solutions”.

Creative thinking and analogy: Odón’s design can be traced to viewing a YouTube video that demonstrated how to remove
a cork that had been pushed inside a wine bottle (see Dvorak Uncensored, 2007). The procedure involves slipping a plastic
bag into the bottle, and blowing up the bag until it pushes the cork to the side of the bottle (Figure 12.21a). When the bag
is pulled out, the cork comes with it

Many researchers have proposed the idea that creative problem solving involves a process. creative problem solving as a
fourstage process that begins with generation of the problem and ends with implementation of the solution

GENERATIN IDEAS

Having a ground knowledge about subject can lead to finding great solutions to problems. On the other hand, being an
expert can limit that. Because experts, sometimes can’t think flexibly and reject accepted procedures. For example even
though Odon didn’t have much information about medicals he found the procedure to apply babies stuck in birth canal.
Because he had the mechanical info but also able to think out of the box.
How much knowledge can be a bad thing?(Smith)

providing examples to people before they solve a problem can influence the nature of their solutions.

one of the groups were shown some examples with tails,

antennaes, eyes and etc. The other group weren’t given any examples. Both of thm are asked to invent, label and
describe an living creature on earth or a toy. Example group gave more place to antennaes, tails and legs than control
group. Preconceptions can sometimes reduces creativity.

A way to individual idea generation: Creative Cognition

For example, Finke found that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects that they
had created themselves than for objects created by other people.

People remember material better when they generate it themselves (page 194). This advantage for self-generated
material also occurs for retrieval cues

Reasoning: Cognitive processes by which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that
information

There are 2 kinds of reasoning: inducitve & deductive

İnductive: a process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence. Conclusion are
probably true, not definitely.

-sun rised every morning in my life, it’s gonna rise tomorrow too., I saw cows are black in turkey and france, thus all cows
are black. We use inductive reasoing in our daily lives without even realizing it(automatic). For example if we liked a
restaurant we’ll thikn that they are gonna be good based on
our prior experience. Strength of the argument means how likely it is to happen. There are some factors that effect its
strength:

a. Representativeness: How well do the observations about a particular category represent all of the members
of that category? Clearly, the cows example suffers from a lack of representativeness because it does not consider cows
from other parts of the country or the world

b. Number of observations

c. Stronger evidence results in stronger conclusions. For example, although the conclusion “The sun will rise in
Tucson” is extremely strong because of the number of observations, it becomes even stronger when we consider
scientific descriptions of the subject.

when we use past experience to guide present behavior, we often use shortcuts to help us reach conclusions rapidly.
After all, we don’t have the time or energy to stop and gather every bit of information that we need to be 100 percent
certain about a conclusion. These shortcuts take the form of heuristics: in inductive reasoning we go from personal
experiences to general conlusion. Heuristics help us to use shortcuts on this path. Usually they lead to correct
conclusion, but sometimes wrong.

Our behaviors and judgments are often guided by what we remember from the past.

The availability heuristic: events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable.

Lichtenstein and Coworkers: they asked partiicpantss “wihch caused more death” people usually chose the wron answer
like tornado because when a tornado happens it is front page but not every people who died from asthma is on the front
page. Thus ppl think tornado caused more deaths. Also it is easier to remember words starting with r rarther than having r
in the middle. THEY ARE MORE AVAILABLE, THUS JUDGED BEING MORE PROBABLE.

Illusory correlations occur when a relationship between two events appears to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship
or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be. Illusory correlations can also result in stereotypes—an
oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative. selective attention to the
stereotypical behaviors makes these behaviors more “available”

Representativeness Heuristics: making judgements based on how much an event resembles the other events. How much
that case shows similar properties with the other members of that category.

We randomly pick one male from the population of the US. That male, Robert, wears glasses, speaks quietly, and reads a
lot. Is it more likely that Robert is a librarian or a farmer?-------------------------------------------------------people say librarian,
because they didn’t know about base rate: relative porportion of different classes in population. Librarirns are less
than farmers in USA.

In another example people were given an sample size with 30 engineers and 70 lawyers. They were asked how likely to be
an engineer if we picked a random ppl. They said 30% which was correct. Then they gave descriptive information(hobbies,
family life) with base rate information. People made the possiblity higher for engineers to be chosen. Although with the
right desc. info, right conclusin is possible.

Conjunction rule: the probability of the conjunction of two events (A and B) cannot be higher than the probability of the
single constituents (A alone or B alone)
Law of large numbers: states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the
more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.

-Male and Female births example is a good demonstration of how people ignore this rule.

Answer is small hospital has days over 60% more than large hospital. Because in a large hospitla numbers are more
representative of the population which means closer to the 50%.

Deductive reasoning(syllogism): Drawing logical conclusions from a set of statements

• Syllogism – Some statements called premises – Last statement called conclusion

• Categorical syllogism – Describe relation between two categories using all, no, or some
Premise 1: All birds are animals. (All A are B) Premise 2: All animals eat food. (All B are C) Conclusion:
Therefore, all birds eat food. (All A are C)

A syllogism is valid when conclusion follows logically from its two premises based on the syllogism’s structure. Validity
doesn’t mean “truth”. All birds are animals. (All A are B) All animals have four legs. (All B are C) All birds have four legs. (All
A are C) this is also a valid syllogism. syllogisms can also be invalid even though each of the premises and the conclusion
could be true. . In deductive reasoning, the conclusions reached can be definitely true, but only if both premises are
definitely true and if the form of the syllogism is valid

belief bias—the tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable. “good reasoning” and “truth” are not
the same thing

Conditional Syllogism: have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form “If
… then.” This kind of deductive reasoning is common in everyday life. Like ıf I lend steve 20 dollar then I won’t get it back. if
both of the premises are true and the syllogism is valid, then the conclusion is definitely true.

FOUR CARDS- deductive reasoning/ conditional syllogism

When problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increase. In order to investigate why the
real world problems are easier: Wason-four card problem.

falsification principle: To test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule.
 Determine minimum number of cards to turn over to test: if there is a vowel on
one side, then there is an even number on the other side. This is an “if..then” conditonal task.

IN REAL LIFE TERMS…

“If a person is drinking beer, then he or she must be over 19 years old.

In card experiment only 4% of the people found the correct answer whereas 73% of the people found correct answer in
the beer experiment. Thus, putting problem in real life terms can increase success rate. because it involves regulations
that people are familiar with.

Schemas are people’s knowledge about rules that govern their thoughts and actions. And people think in terms of
schemas. Types of schemas:

Permission Schema: if a person satisfies a specific condition (being of legal drinking age), then he or she gets to carry out
an action (being served alcohol). Permission schema is activated. Analogy may play a role
 also another example is immigration example where
“permission effect” is very powerful.

Pragmatic reasoning schema: thinking about cause and effect in the world as part of experiencing everyday life??

In the hospital study (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974) – 22% smaller, 22% larger, 56% said no diff – 56% demonstrated
representativeness heuristic???

• Myside bias: People can evaluate evidence in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

• Confirmation bias: People look for information that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore information that
refutes it.

Decision-Making

• Decisions involve both benefits and costs.

Utility: outcomes that overlaps with person’s goals.

Expected Utility Theory: the assumption that if people have the enough information, they can make a decision that result
in the best expected utility. Because PEOPLE ARE RATIONAL. But people always don’t make decision based on this theory.
 for an experiment, people were offered to earn 1 dollar
for the each red bean they find. In the left bowl there are much more less White beans than there are in the right bowl.
Chances were higher for left bowl but many people chose right one even though they knew that their chances were lower.
Another example for this flaw of us is a contest made in USA about Money and boxes. If people are doing good and seem
to be like successing they become cautious and accept whatever they have. But if they are doing bad, they are more likely
to
risk something. Becausee they don’t wanna feel like loser and try every chance. At this point EMOTIONS gets in
the way.

• Decisions depend on how choices are presented

• Framing effect: decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated.

• Status quo bias: the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

In countries like Turkey, UK, USA peope are not organ donor unless they declare to be. And organ donors rate are very
low. But in the countries like France and Belgium(opt-out procedure), peple
born as organ donors and if they don’t want to be one, they declare to not to be. Organ donors rates are pretty fucking
high. People are tend to choose what already comes as default(car example on the book)

• When a choice is framed in terms of gains, people use a risk aversion strategy, and when a choice is framed in terms of
losses people use a risk-taking strategy.

In both of the cases odds are the same but framing effect has an effect.

Mind Emotion Body

• The mind creates and controls mental faculties such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding,
thinking and reasoning (types of cognition)

• The branch of psychology concerned with how people acquire, store, transform, use, and communicate
information

Cognitive Revolution: shift from behaviorists’ stimuli-response approach to the approach that explains behaviors
in the terms of the mind.

İnformation processing approach: using digital computers to investigate mind

Emotions affect decision-making process. For example, anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could lead
them to big negative outcomes. This technique is called risk avoidance. Another example is so much optimism can
cause to making decison without having complete information. Becasue optimistic people tend to seek for positive
sides of an event.

People Inaccurately Predict Their Emotions

Expected emotions: it is an important part of how emotions affect decision-making. İt states taht people predict which
emotions they probably will feel for an outcome.

Expected emotions are one of the big parts of risk aversion—the tendency to avoid taking risks. One of the things that
increases the chance of risk aversion is the tendency to predict that a particular loss will have a greater impact than a gain
of the same size (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991). For example, if people predict that it would be very disturbing to lose $100
but only slightly pleasant to win $100. Thus if people are told to gain or lose 100 dollar according to coin flip. They
wouldn’t take this bet.

ın an experiment, people are given 5 dollars and told to do a coin flip. İf they win
they are gonna get 5 more dollars but if they lose they will lose 3 dollars. Before doing th experiment, their predicted
emotions were investigated. They though that they would be so much sadder if they lose 3 dollars rather than they would
be happy if they gain 5 dollars. So it would make them sadder to lose 3 dollars insstead happy for 5 dollars. After the
experiment, it is seen that people became happy and sad almost at the same level. They overestimated their predicted
feelings. Why do peopleoverestimate their negative feelings? Because they forget that they are able to use coping
mechanisms when they face a negative situation in real life. For example ppl were focused on losing 5 dollars but when
they actually lost they focused on that they still have 2 
Not being able to predict correctly our emotions, we can make inefficient decisions.

• Incidental emotions: Emotions unrelated to a certain decision. They are not caused by having to make a decision. These
can be related to person’s own mood or the music playing on the backgorund or the forecast of the day and etc. There is an
experiment made about this. İt is found that university admission offices highly cares about the academical success on rainy
days, more non-academical success on sunny days. It is also found that if students visit an academically successful college
on a rainy day, they are more likely to enroll.

CONTEXT

Having multiptle chocies can cause making no choice at all. Context can affect decision. İt is found that judges even make
decision accordingly to their mealbreaks. For example when buying a laptop showed that decisions were split about
equally between the $170 and $240 model if those were the only options, but if a third, even more expensive option for
$470 was also on display, participants were much more likely to choose the $240 option than the $170 option. This shows
that even for everyday decisions like what to purchase, context can play a role—perhaps something to keep in
mind the next time you’re choosing between products at the store.

Bağlamın karar verme üzerindeki etkisi. Doktorların sezaryen önerme olasılığı, test vakası ilk kez sunulduğunda (kontrol
koşulu) veya sezaryen gerektiren dört ciddi vakadan önce geldiyse aynıydı. Bununla birlikte, aynı test vakasından önce
sezaryen gerektirmeyen dört ciddi olmayan vaka varsa, doktorların sezaryen önerme olasılığı daha yüksekti.

EMOTIONS & MEMORY

A characteristic of most memorable events is that they are significant and important to the person and, in some cases,
are associated with emotions. Memory and emotions are associated with each other. Examples:

In an experiment, participanst were given neutral and sexual words to recall. They recalled sexual words better. In
another example participants were given emotional and neutral images to remember after a 1 year delay. They
remembered emotional ones better.
BASIC EMOTIONS- WHY BASIC?

• Found across human cultures & in other animals

• They have distinct and universal facial expressions, gestures or postures

• Early development

• Distinguishable brain activity

CAUSE OF EMOTIONS
James-Lange Theory: in certain situations, body gives physical reactions to the stimuli and these reactions result in
emotions. Our interpretations of such physical reactions are our emotions. Before we label our feelings/emotions, we
experience some physical reactions. For example, let’s say there’s a snake following us; our heartbeat goes high and we
sweat. THEN we realize we are feeling fear.
It is seen that certain emotions create certain activations in the brain.

Appraisal theory: ? an evaluation of an emotional situation where a person evaluates the case and predicts how it will
affect her. Then interprets lots of aspects of that situation and comes to a conclusion about which emotion she should
feel based on all the interpretations. It usually happens when the clues or physical reactions for the case are not obvious.

In an experiment 3 different groups were given adrenalin. One group was informed, the other wasn’t and the other was
misinformed.

• If informed => no change in emotions • If not => get emotional! Because subject were more sensitive and euphoric
when they didn’t know what’s happening to their body than they did know.

attentional bias: selective attention to threatrelated stimuli when it is presented with neutral stimuli. ın an experiment,
participants saw 2 words on the screen one is threat-like the other is neutral. It is seen that time for participants took to
capture the words was shorter for threat-like word.

Participants were given a task in which pairs of words were presented at the same time, one to each ear. They were
instructed to attend to one ear and to repeat back aloud all the words.

Words presented to that ear while ignoring words on the unattended ear. A tone was sometimes presented to one ear very
shortly after a pair of words had been presented, and the participants were instructed to respond to this tone as rapidly as
possible. Anxious individuals high in trait anxiety (but not those low in trait anxiety) responded faster to the tone when it
followed a threatening word to the same ear than when it followed a threatening word to the other ear.
This therapy focuses on the causes and cures of maladaptive emotional behaviors and responses.
Embodiment: cognition doesn’t only happen in brain, it also includes body and conditions of it.

Body specificity: our mind is interracted with environment. Thus, different kinds of bodies display different kinds of
neural & cognitive representations of the environment and abstract thinking..

Five experiments demonstrated associations between horizontal space and the mental representation of abstract concepts
with positive and negative emotional valence. These associations differed between right- and left-handers. Right-handers
were more likely than left-handers to associate right with positive ideas and left with negative ideas. Left-handers were
more likely than right-handers to associate left with positive ideas and right with negative ideas. Right- and left- handers
tended to link good things like intelligence, attractiveness, honesty, and happiness with opposite sides of left– right space,
each group associating them more strongly with their dominant side. By contrast, both left- and right-handers showed the
same preference to associate good things with up and bad things with down. This pattern of results was predicted on the
basis of the body- specificity hypothesis and demonstrates that people with different bodies (in this case, right- and
left-handers) form correspondingly different mental representations, even in highly abstract conceptual
domains.

Affordances: directly observable usages/ functions of objects.

.
.

Bodyl self consciousness and spatial unity can be experimentally investigated.

people felt lilke :

They had more than one body

They found themselves between their actualy body and virtual body They felt

virtual body comes backwards towards to them

They felt like the touch was made by virsual body They felt

like virtual body belongs them

BODY SWAPPING

Participants wore glasses where they saw a body from a perspective that makes like body belongs them. With synchronous
moves made to both of the body, participants felt like that fake body is their own body.

PERCEIVED SIZE OF THE WORLD

One’s body size determines the size of the world.

 objects seem small with a large body. Objects

seem far with a small body.

Telepresence: the feelings that a human operator might experience when interacting through a teleoperator system

SUMMARY OF EMBODIED: cognition depends on the expeeriences that come from various senserimotors. These
senserimotor capacities are shaped with their greater context formed by cultural, biological and psychological aspects.

WRAP-UP

• Everything a person experiences is based not on direct contact with stimuli, but on representations in the person’s
nervous system

• fMRI – Indirect / Takes advantage of the fact that blood flow increases in areas of the brain activated by a
cognitive task.

• Publication bias: the tendency to only publish studies with positive results, while dismissing those with negative ones.

We know that feeling happy makes us smile, but can smiling make us happy? In 1988, researchers reported that
participants found cartoons funnier when they held a pen between their teeth, forcing them to smile, as compared with
when they held a pen between their lips, forcing them to pout. The finding appeared to be consistent with the facial-
feedback hypothesis – the idea that our facial expression doesn’t just reflect our feelings but also affects them – and
according to Google Scholar it has been cited nearly 1500 times. Also nearly two thousand participants found overall no
effect of mouth position on people’s rating of the funniness of cartoons.
3rd person data - data about behaviour and brain processes • 1st person data - data about subjective experiences

Phenomenology: a specialized study of experience or consciousness

One of the limitations of information processing approach is that computers are lack of emotions thus it can’t be
investigated how emotions affect cognition.

Emotion: more intense experiences for a brief amount of time Mood/ state: less

intense experiences for a longer amount of time. Factors that affect emotional

states:

1) Appraisal of external stimulations: most important factor.

2) Reactions of the body (e.g., arousal). According to the James–Lange theory, our emotional experience
depends on our perception of our own bodily symptoms. On the other hand, patients with spinal cord injuries
who doesn’t have little or any direct experience of their body symptoms but they reported no reduction in
emotional experience.)
3) Facial Expressions: ıt is found that participants were more amused while looking at cartoons whe their faces are
shaped close to a smile.
4) Action tendencies?
All these factors are related to each other. For instance appraisal of external stimulations affect bodily
symptoms, facial expressions and action tendencies.
appraisals start the emotion process, initiating the physiological, expressive, behavior and other changes that
creates emotional state.

APPRAISALS

• Primary appraisal: an environmental situation is regarded as being positive, stressful, or irrelevant to well-being.

• Secondary appraisal: account is taken of the resources that the individual has available to cope with the situation

• Re-appraisal: the stimulus situation and the coping strategies are monitored, with the primary and secondary appraisals
being modified if necessary.

Appraisal isn’t made concsciously all the time. two kinds of appraisal processe:

a. Automatic, without awareness

b. Made on purpose, deliberately
Appraisal: attributing source of stimulating to a cause. In order to have an emotion, we need to have both physical and
cognitive(appraisal) factors. Emotional processes are very complex, thus multiple cognitive processes can play a role.

MULTI-LEVEL THEORIES

Automatic or preattentive processes: Unconscious cognitive processes can influence and produce emotional reactions.
For example in an experiment, participanst who were afraid of spiders and snakes were shown couple of pictures
including snakes and spiders. Piscures were shown so rapidly that they couldn’t recognize them. But when the bad
Pictures were shown their bodly reactions changed .

Mere exposure effect: developing positive reactions to the stimuli that was presented before at the level of conscious
awareness. In an experiment participants were shown couple of polygons couple of times and some new figures along
with them too. Presentation of figures were very short, thus
they couldn’t recognize figures. After test they were asked to rate how much they liked objects. People mostly chose
the figures shown them before, then similar fıgures to them, the least one is different new objects. This liking process
happens automatically and preattentively.

Amygdala: emotional computer of brain. According to LeDoux, we have 2 emotional circuits. One is rapid and very useful
for survival. The other one is slow and more detailed, thus it helps us to evaluate the event and behave in the best way.

Mood affects cognitive processing, what we think and remember matches.

physciological
systems, ideas, events…

Mood congruity- Mood state dependent memory: occurs when people in a good mood learn (and remember) emotionally
positive material better than those in a bad mood, whereas the opposite is
the case for emotionally negative material. If participants are neutral, it is alos ezasy to learn and remember Because
emotionally loaded information is associated more strongly with its congruent emotion node than with any other emotion
node. This is much more likely to happen with personal events. Same for the retrieval(remembering). However, the effects
were generally stronger when participants were in a positive mood than a negative mood.Because people with unpleasant
emotional state tend to change their moods to sth bettr. People with multiple personality disorders, have trouble with this
subject. Because it is possible that the personality they have while learning can be shut down while trying to
remember(inter-identity amnesia).

In another experiment, college studnets read a story about 2 different college students, one having trouble with his life
and the other is very satisfied. It is seen that participants remembered mroe things about the character that they felt
more like themselves(their moods)

Perceptual process: bottom-up (threatening stimuli) Conceptual process: top-down