UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

1. Definition and Types of Surveying

1.1 Definiton

Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative position of various points above, on
or below the surface of the earth. The relative positions are determined by measuring
horizontal distance, vertical distances (elevations), horizontal angles and vertical angles
accurately using various surveying instruments. After taking the measurements in the field,
computations are done and the plans and maps are prepared in the office. These plans and
maps are used for planning of engineering works, making of boundaries, computations of areas
and volumes, and various other purposes. Surveying also includes the art of setting out or
locating the points on the ground from the plan or map.

The first stage in all the big projects is generally to survey the area and to prepare plans. These
plans are used in the preparation of the detailed drawing, design and estimate of the project.
After finalizing the drawings, setting out is done by establishing the various points and lines on
the ground from the drawing.

Surveying, although simple in concept, requires great skill and practice for doing the work
accurately and economically. It requires basic knowledge of various disciplines such as
mathematics, physics, geodesy and astronomy. The need for accurate surveying is increasing
rapidly with the development in technology. The construction of modern buildings, highways,
railways, high dams, long bridges, and tunnels requires accurate surveying. As the cost of the
land and property is increasing rapidly, high accuracy is required in making the boundaries and
the land subdivision.

1.2 Primary divisions of surveying

Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. The shape of the earth is an
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oblate spheroid. It is an ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator (see figure 1.1). The length of the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the
equatorial axis is about 12756.602 km as computed by Clark in 1866. Thus the polar axis is
shorter than the equatorial axis by about 43.43km.

polar semi-axis = b
equatorial semi-axis = a

oblate spheroid

equator

Figure 1.1

Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface, the measured distances on earths are actually
curved. However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the earth, there is
no significant difference between the curved distances and the corresponding straight-line
distances, and the curvature of the earth can be neglected.

Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:

1. Plane surveying

2. Geodetic surveying

1. Plane surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected
and it is assumed to be a flat surface. All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be
projected on to a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane at a point is the plane, which is
perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.

Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portions of the earth’s
surface and the areas involved are less than 250 sq. km or so. It is worth noting that the
difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km on the surface of the earth and the
corresponding chord distance is less than 10mm. Further the difference between the sum of
the angles of a spherical triangle having an area of 200 sq.km on the earth’s surface and that of
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the corresponding angles of the plane triangle is only 1 second. In plane surveying, the angles
of polygons and triangles are considered as plane angles.

2. Geodetic surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken in
to consideration, and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The main object of
geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a system of widely spaced points on
the surface of the earth. In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor axes are computed
accurately and a spheroid of reference is visualized.

The spheroid is a mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse about the earth’s polar
axis. The earth’s mean-sea-level surface, which is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at
every point, is represented by a geoid (see also figure 1.2). Because of variation in the earth’s
mass distribution, the surface of the geoid is irregular. However, if the irregularities of the
surface are neglected, the geoid can be very closely approximated as spheroid. The dimensions
of the spheroid are selected so as to give a good fit to the geoid over large area.

actual earth surface

geoid
sea
direction of gravity
ellipsoid

Figure 1.2

1.3 Functional classifications of surveying

Based on the purpose for which they are conducted, surveys may be classified in to following
types:

1. Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely
spaced control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.

2. Land surveying: Land surveys are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas of tracts
of land. These are the oldest types, as land surveys have been used since the early civilization.
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These are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or cadastral surveys. These
surveys are also used to provide data for making a plan of the area.

3. City surveys: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning.
These are required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.

4. Topographical surveys: Topography is defined as the shape or configuration of the earth’s

surface. These surveys are required to establish horizontal locations of the various points as
well as their vertical locations. Information pertaining to relief and undulations on the earth’s
surface is generally shown in the form of contours of equal elevations.

5. Route surveying: These surveys are special types of surveys conducted along a proposed
route for highway, railway, sewer line etc. Route survey is done along a wide strip. In general,
route surveying also includes the staking out and calculation of the earth work.

6. Mine surveys: These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and
elevations of mines, shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to
plan the working of mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines.

7. Hydrographic surveys: These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as
lakes, rivers, bays, harbors.

8. Engineering surveys: Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing
and planning of engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers
and water supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys discussed above.

9. Astronomic surveys: These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes,
Azimuths, local time etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun
or stars).

10. Satellite surveys: These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter datum and
interisland geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s satellites.

11. Geological surveys: Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different
strata of the earth’s surface for geological studies.
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12. Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned survey is conducted to obtain information
required for preparation of maps, plans, and sections etc. After the plans have been prepared
and the structures designed, the construction survey is conducted. The points and lines are
established on the ground, and the layout plan of the structure is marked on the ground.

1.4 Classification of survey based on instruments used

Based on the instruments used, the surveys can be classified as under:

1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are
taken with a chain or tape.

2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help
of a magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.

3. Leveling: This is a type of survey in which a levelling instrument is used for determination of
relative elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.

4. Plane table surveys: In plane table surveys, a map is prepared in the field while viewing the
terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements
with telescopic alidade.

5. Thedolite surveys: A thedolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles. The theodolite surveys can be broadly classified in two types:

(1) Traverse, (2) Triangulation.

6. Tacheometric surveys: A tachometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted with a stadia
diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the central horizontal hair. In
tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured
with a tacheometer.

7. Photogammetric surveys: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements with the

help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for topographic mapping of
vast areas.
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8. EDM Surveys: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each
triangle are measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly
from the known sides of the triangles. Thus all the sides and angles are determined.

1.5 Basic measurements in surveying

Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements.

Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is measured in a horizontal plane. If a distance is

measured along a slope, it is reduced to its horizontal equivalent.

Vertical distances: A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity at that point.
The vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in elevations (height) of the
various points.

Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two lines in a plane that is horizontal
at that point.

Vertical angle: Vertical angles are measured between two lines in a plane that is vertical at a
point.

Control Questions

1. Define the term Surveying?

2. Compare and contrast the primarily division of Surveying?

3. List the classification of surveying based on application and instrumental used and
explain at least three?

4. What are the basic measurement of Surveying and explain each of them with giving a
suitable example?
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2. Units of Measurements

2.1 Introduction

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention and/or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical
quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the
unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity and meter is a unit of length
that represents a definite predetermined length.

There are two main systems of measurements

I. M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second) Metric system (SI = System International)

The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-second system, rather than
the centimeter-gram-second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. International System of
Units (abbreviated SI from the French le Système International d'unités) is the modern form of
the metric system and is generally a system devised around seven base units (i.e. meter,
kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, candela, and mole) and the convenience of the number ten.

It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and
in science.

The older metric system included several groups of units. Because the SI is not static, units are
created and a definition is modified through international agreement among many nations as
the technology of measurement progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves.
Metric unit system is easy to handle because everything is a multiple or a fraction of ten.

Table 2.1 The Seven SI base Units

Name Unit symbol Quantity Symbol

meter m length l

kilogram kg mass m
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second s time t

ampere A electric current I

Kelvin K thermodynamic temperature T

candela cd luminous intensity Iv

mol
mole amount of substance n

II. F.P.S. (Foot, Pound, Second) British system

The imperial system is one of many systems of English or foot-pound-second units, so named
because of the base units of length, mass and time. Although most of the units are defined in
more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for
different purposes, in one area rather than the other.

2.2 SI Units of Different Units of measurement

I. The unit of length is the base unit meter (m) 1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm

1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam 1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm

1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm 1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn

1 kilometer = 103m = 1km 1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm

1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm 1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm

1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm 1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm

1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm

II. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter square

1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha

1 square kilometer = 10 6 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m = 1km2 = 100 ha

III. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
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1000 cu millimeter = 1 cubic centimeter meter

1000 cu centimeter = 1 cubic decimeter

1000decimeters = 1 cubic meter

IV. The SI units for plane Angles

There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal
graduation and radian.

a. Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)

10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π/180 rad

10 = 60’ (minutes) and 1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds)

b. Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.

1 full circle = 400 gon/grad

1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2π/400rad = π/200rad

1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)

1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)

1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)

c. Radian: - The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to
the radius of the circle. The circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle :

360 0 = 2π radian and

1 radian = 57.300

2.3 Conversion of Units

We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the same system (English
or Metric) or between the two systems. To convert measurements, it is necessary to know
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conversion factors between measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as a

fraction in which the numerator is equal to the denominator but the numerator and the
denominator have different units.

I. Conversion of length

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 foot = 0.30 48m

1mile = 1.6093 km

II. Conversion of area

1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm

1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm

III. Conversion of Volume

1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km

1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm

1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m

IV. Conversion of Angles

Examples

I. From gon to degree

48.0488 gon

48.0488 gon X 9/10 = 43.24390

II. From degree to gon

43.24390 X 10/9 = 48.048 gon

III. From Degree decimal value to degree, minute, second (0, ’, ”)

43.24390 = 430+0.24390

= 430 + 0.2439X60
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= 430 +14.6340’

= 430 +14’+0.6340’X60

= 430+14’+38”

=43014’38”

IV. From degree, minutes, seconds (0, ’,”) to decimal value

430 14’ 38” = 430 +14’/60+38”/3500 = 43.24390

2.4 Scale

A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a
horizontal plane. A map generally shows Natural and man-made features on the earth’s surface
with additional information such as relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate undulation on
the ground. The plan of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a town, city
country cannot be prepared in full size on a drawing sheet.

Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring instrument to measure the line or

measurement is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced size,
this operation being known as drawing to scale.

2.4.1 Scale of a map

Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The
scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or
vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's surface, is an
important factor in planning and executing military missions. Scales of a map are generally
classified as large, medium and small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than
a small scale map. Large denominator numbers refer to small scale, where as small
denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.

Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500

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Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000

Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000

I. Representations of Scale

The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:

I. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)

II. By representative fraction

III. By graphical Scale

I. By statement (Engineer’s Scale)-According to this representation, a specified distance on the

map represents the corresponding distance on the ground.

For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm on the map represents 100m on the ground.

II. By Representative Fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on the map (plan) and
the distance on the ground.

This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is

always written with the map distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards,
meters, inches, and so forth).

R= Dm/Dg Where: Dm = map distance

Dg = corresponding actual distance on the ground

Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unit less).

Example: 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm on the ground.

III. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that its map distance
corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground and it is used to convert distances
on the map to actual ground distances. It is also used to determine straight line distance
between two points on a map.
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2.5 Types of measuring scale

1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a
line divided in to suitable numbers of equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided
in to smaller parts.

5km 3hm

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
hectometer kilometer

2. Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated
comparatively to read different units called comparative scales, such as the scales
showing comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers, degree and radians,
time and distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that measurements are taken directly in
the desired unit with out any calculations.
centimeter

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 1 2 3 4
inch

3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its
fraction up to second place of decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable
number of equal parts. The first part is subdivided into suitable number of equal parts,
each of which is further divided into smallest parts by diagonals.

325m

100 0 100 200 300 400

meters meters

4. Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale which allows a distance or angle
measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly divided
straight or circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that is used to
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indicate where the measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the
main scale

3. Measurements and Theory of Errors

3.1 Introduction

In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to measuring.
Surveying is concerned with measurements of quantities that are exact or true values may not
be determined, such as distances, elevations, volumes directions etc, if a person were to
measure the width of his desk with a ruler divided in to tenths of an inch, he could estimate the
width to hundredths of an inch. If he were to use a ruler graduated in hundredths of an inch, he
could estimate the width to thousandths of an inch; and so on. Obviously, with better
equipment he can estimate an answer that is closer to the exact value but will never be able to
determine the value absolutely.

Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true value of
the quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but they can not be
determined).

3.2 Necessity for Accurate Surveys

The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very accurate
measurements. This fact is obvious when one is thinking in terms of the construction of long
bridges tunnels. Tall buildings, and missile sites or the setting of delicate machinery, but it can
be just as important in land surveying.
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A few decades ago land princes were not extremely high except in and around the largest
cities. If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a few acres in a farm, it was usually not
considered to be a matter of great importance.

The instruments used for surveying before this century were not very good compared to
today’s equipment, and it was probably impossible for the surveyor to do the quality of work
expected of today’s surveyor. Today, land prices are in most areas very high, and evidently the
climb has only begun. In many areas of high population and in many popular resort areas, land
is sold by so many dollars per square foot; therefore, the surveyor must be able to do splendid
work.

3.3 Accuracy and Precision

The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct meanings
are a little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the following definitions are
presented:

Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It denotes

how close a given measurement is to the true value of the quantity. Precision or
apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity is
measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to another. If a
quantity is measured several times and the values obtained are very close to each
other, the precision is said to be high.

In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the
distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.

Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to equal 0.7ft, the
precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This means that for every 6000ft
measured, the error would be one ft, if the work were done with this same degree
of precision.
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3.4 Errors and Mistakes

Surveying deals with the measurement of distance and angles. The true value of such
quantities is never known. The true value of a quantity is never known. The true value of a
quantity is a value, which is absolutely free from all types of errors. The true value cannot be
determined because some errors always creep in the measured quantities. The errors occur
because the instrument cannot be absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor cannot take the
observations correctly because of human limitations. Further, a change in climatic conditions
also limits the accuracy of the measurement. A major concern in surveying is the precision of
the work.

The ever present difference between measured quantities and the true magnitude of those
quantities are classified here in as either mistakes or errors. A mistake (or blunder) is a
difference from a true value cased by the inattention of the surveyor. For instance, he/she may
read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the wrong quantities in the field notes, or
may add a column or numbers incorrectly. An error is a difference from a true value caused by
the imperfection of the person’s senses, by the imperfection of his equipment, or by weather
effects, Errors can not be eliminated but they can be minimized by careful work, combined with
the application of certain numerical corrections. The result is that all measurements are
imperfect.

3.5 Sources of Errors

There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature. Accordingly, errors in
measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some errors do
not clearly fit in to one of these categories and may be due to a combination of factors.

1. Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch.

For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it
perfectly and will always be either a little large or a little small.
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2. Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be manufactured perfectly and the
different parts of instruments can not be adjusted exactly with respect to each other.
Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.

3. Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind,
humidity, refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20c,
but the field temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature
variation.

3.6 Types of Errors

In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following two types.

1. Systematic or cumulative errors

2. Accidental or random errors

1. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or physical law
or system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be determined and a
suitable correction can be applied to the measured quantity. A systematic error will always
have the same sign and magnitude under the same conditions. For example, if a 30m steel
tape has been standardized at a temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c the
tape will be about 3.5mm too long. This means when the measured distance is 30m, the
actual (real) distance is 30.0035m.

There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every 30m-tape length.

The systematic errors are cumulative in nature. For example, if in the above case the total
distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total systematic error will be 35mm for a field
temperature of 30c.

2. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the control of
the surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law. These errors can be
positive or negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series of measurements,
and are, therefore, also called compensating errors. For instance, when a person reads an
angle with a surveying instrument, he or she can not read it perfectly, one time he or she
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will read a value that is too large and the next time will read a value that is too small since
these errors are just as likely to have different signs as the other, they tend to a certain
degree to cancel each other or compensate for each other.

Accidental errors occur due to:

• Imperfection in the instruments

• Human limitation or

• Change in atmospheric conditions

Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have
been eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors.

Mistakes occur in measurements due to carelessness inattention, inexperience or poor

judgment of the surveyor.

For example, if the surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it would be a mistake.

3.7 Definitions

After all mistakes and systematic errors have been detected and removed from the
measurements, there will still remain some errors in the measurements, called the random
errors or accidental errors. The random errors are treated using probability models. Theory of
errors deals only with such type of observational errors. The following definitions should be
clearly understood.
I. The standard deviation ()

The standard deviation is defined as

=
 v2
( n − 1) Where, V= variations (Xi -X)

The standard deviation is also known as then root-mean

= number of observations
square (R.M.S) error of a measurement.
The standard deviation is generally used as an indicator to describe the reliability of a set of
repeated measurements.
The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the greater the precision and vice versa.
II. Most probable error
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The most probable error is defined as that error for which there is an equal chance that the true
error will be less than the probable error or will be more than the probable error.
In other words, the probability of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and
the probability of the true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%.This error is
also called 50% error, expressed as E50.
The most probable error is given by:
e =  0.6745

III. Standard error

Is the probability of the error to occur between +  and -  it has a percentage of 68.3% this
error is called the standard error. It is also represented as E68.3. In other words, the standard
error is the same as the standard deviation. The standard error establishes the limits with in
which measurements are expected to fall 68.3% of the time.

IV. Standard error of the mean ( m)

The standard error of the mean (m) of a number of observations of the same quantity is given
by

=
 v2
n ( n − 1)

It is also known as root- mean - square (R-M-S) error of the mean. The standard error of the
mean indicates that the probability of the mean value to be between +m and -m is 68.3%.

V. Maximum error.

It is impossible to estimate absolutely maximum error, as it would occur at infinity. In surveying

generally 99.9% error (E 99.9) is taken as the maximum error. It corresponds to a range of +3.29
and -3.29. The Maximum error is often used to separate mistakes (gross errors) from the
random errors. If any measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29 it is
considered as a mistake, and that measurement is rejected.

VI. Different percentage Errors

Sometimes, the following percentages of error are also required

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Surveying I -Unit 1
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

(a). 90% Error (E90) = + 1.645

(b). 95% Error (E95) = + 1.96

(c). 95.5% Error (E95.5) = + 2.0

(d). 99.7% Error (E99.7) = + 3.0

VII. Most probable error of the mean (Em) of a number of observation of the same quantity
is given by

Em = 0.6745
v 2

n ( n − 1)

Example-1 There is a standard error of +10 seconds for a measured angle of 710 30' 20".
Determine the range for which there are 50% chances that the true value would lie in that range

Also determine the range for the standard error and 99.7% error

0.6745
 v2
Soln Most probable error = ( n − 1)
= 0.6445 X 10  7"
There are 50% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" + 7" or 710 30' 13" to 710 30' 27"

Obviously, there are 68.3% chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" +10".

There are 99.7 % chances that the true value lies b/n 710 30' 20" + 3X10" or 710 29' 50" or

710 30' 50”

VIII. Relative precision

The relative precision or the degree of precision is used to express the precision of the various
measurements it is usually expressed as a ratio of the standard error of the mean (m) to the
mean value (M) of the quantity

Relative Precision = 1
M 
  
 m 
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Surveying I -Unit 1
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

Relative precision = m/M

It is usually expressed with numerator as Unit.

Example 2 - if the standard deviation is ± 0.03m for the mean value of the length of the line of
0.03
615.41m ,the relative precision =  1
615.41 20,500

Example 3- Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and found to be as
under

100.54m 100.56m 100.38m 100.36m 100.39m

100.46m 100.48m 100.32m 100.47m 100.52m

Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors, determine:

1. Standard deviation()
2. Standard error of the mean (m)
3. 95.5% error
4. Most probable value
5. Most probable error

No Measured length Residual (V) V2

(Xi- X)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

1 100.54m + 0.09 8.1X10-3

2 100.56m -0.11 12.1X10-3

3 100.38m -0.07 4.9X10-3

4 100.36m -0.09 8.1X10-3

5 100.39m -0.06 3.6X10-3

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Surveying I -Unit 1
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

6 100.46m +0.01 0.1X10-3

7 100.48m +0.03 0.9X10-3

8 100.32m -0.13 16.9X10-3

9 100.47m +0.02 0.4X10-3

10 100.52m +0.07 4.9X10-3

X=100.448 60.0X10-3

Solution:

100.448
= 100.448m
Most probable value = mean value =
 100.45m

Residual (V) = Measured value - mean value

The residuals have been calculated in column (3) the values of V2 are given in column (4)

The standard deviation ()

=+  v2 Or
( n − 1)

= + 60 x10−3 = + 0.08m
(10 − 1)

The standard error of the mean, m = +  v2 Or

n ( n − 1)

60 x10−3
m = + 10 (10 − 1) = + 0.025m

95.5% error = + 2 = + 0.16m

Most probable error = + 0.6745 = + 0.054m

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Surveying I -Unit 1
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014

Example 4

An angle is measured with a standard deviation of + 2" calculate the most probable error
determine 95% error and the maximum error

 v2
Most probable error = 0.6745 X n −1

= 0.6745 X= + 1.349"

95% error (E95) = + 1.96= + 3.92"

Maximum error (E99.9) = +3.29 = + 6.58"

Example

A distance is measured a large number of times and its 90% error is ± 0.8225cm.

What is the standard deviation? What is the percentage error for ± 1.50 cm?

Solution:

E90 = + 1.645

= ± 0.50 cm

99.7% error is equal to 3 = + 1.50 cm

The required percentage error is 99.7%

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Surveying I -Unit 1
Prepared By: Yonas Asefa
Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, 2014