THERMODYNAMICS COURSEWORK

SET TWO

First law of thermodynamics

· When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net

heat supplied tothe system from the surroundings is equal to net
work done by the system on its surroundings.

An example of a process in which the law is applied;

· Operation of a car engine

Question two

· Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a

substance

· Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit temperature scales are three

distinct systems for measuring temperature, each with its own
reference points and units. Here's how they differentiate:Celsius
(°C):Reference Points: The Celsius scale is based on the freezing
and boiling points of water at standard atmospheric pressure.
0°C represents the freezing point of water, and 100°C represents
the boiling point of water.Unit Size: Each degree Celsius is equal
to 1/100th of the temperature difference between the freezing
and boiling points of water.Absolute Zero: -273.15°C on the
Celsius scale corresponds to absolute zero, the point at which
molecular motion theoretically ceases.Kelvin (K):Reference
Points: The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale with no
negative values. 0 K is absolute zero, the point at which
molecular motion theoretically ceases. The Kelvin scale uses the
same size unit as the Celsius scale (i.e., 1 Kelvin is equivalent to 1
degree Celsius).Absolute Zero: 0 K represents absolute zero, and
temperatures in Kelvin cannot be negative.Fahrenheit
(°F):Reference Points: The Fahrenheit scale uses different
 reference points than the Celsius scale. 32°F is the freezing point
of water, and 212°F is the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure.Unit Size: Each degree Fahrenheit is equal
to 1/180th of the temperature difference between the freezing
and boiling points of water.Theoretical Zero: The Fahrenheit
scale does not have an absolute zero like the Kelvin and Celsius

· Convert the following from celcius to kelvin

i. 25°C
=25 +273.15
=298.15 Kelvin

ii. -10°C
=-10 +273.15

=263.15 Kelvin

Question three

· Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems

are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. This law helps define
temperature and is the basis for the concept of temperature
scales.

 How the Zeroth law is used to define temperature scales

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is a fundamental
principle that helps define temperature scales. It states that
if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This law provides a basis for defining and comparing
temperature scales.Temperature scales, such as the Celsius
and Kelvin scales, are constructed by assigning numerical
values to various fixed points. The Zeroth Law helps in this
process by allowing us to establish a standard reference
point for temperature, known as absolute zero.For example,
in the Kelvin scale, absolute zero is defined as 0 Kelvin (0
K), which is the point at which all molecular motion ceases.
The Zeroth Law ensures that if two systems are in thermal
equilibrium, they have the same temperature, so we can use
this principle to calibrate and compare temperatures across
different systems.
Question Four
 Define heat and work.
Heat: Heat is a form of energy transfer between two
systems or objects due to a temperature difference. It
flows from a higher-temperature system to a lower-
temperature system. Heat is responsible for raising the
temperature of a system and can be measured in units of
energy, such as joules or calories.Work: Work is the
energy transfer that occurs when a force acts over a
distance. In the context of thermodynamics, work is
typically mechanical work, such as the expansion or
compression of a gas in a piston-cylinder system. It can
also be electrical or other forms of non-mechanical work.
Work is measured in the same units as energy, such as
joules.
 Sign conventions for heat and work
Heat (Q):Positive (+Q) indicates that heat is added to
a system. It represents heat transfer into the system,
increasing the internal energy.Negative (-Q) indicates
that heat is removed from a system. It represents heat
transfer out of the system, decreasing the internal
energy.Work (W):Positive (+W) indicates work done
by the system on its surroundings. This is often the
case when a system expands, pushing against external
pressure, or when work is done on an object.Negative
(-W) indicates work done on the system by the
surroundings. This occurs when a system is
compressed or when work is done by an object on the
system.
 An example of where work is done on a system.
A cylinder with a piston that can move up and
down.
 Calculate the work done if a force of 200N is
applied over a distance of 5 metres
Work = force × distance
=200×5
=1000 Joules

Question Five
 Define the concept of internal energy and
explain its significance in
thermodynamics
Energy Conservation: The First Law of
Thermodynamics, often referred to as the
law of conservation of energy, states that
the change in internal energy (ΔU) of a
closed system is equal to the heat added
(Q) to the system minus the work done
(W) by the system on its surroundings.
This law emphasizes that energy is
conserved within a system, and internal
energy is the means by which this energy
is stored and transferred.Temperature
and Heat Transfer: Internal energy is
closely related to temperature. When
internal energy increases, the temperature
of a system rises. Heat transfer (Q) is the
energy transferred due to a temperature
difference. Understanding internal energy
helps in analyzing and predicting how a
system's temperature changes in response
to heat exchange.Work and Mechanical
Processes: Internal energy is involved in
mechanical work (W) performed by or on
a system. The change in internal energy
during a process is linked to the work
done, particularly in systems where
pressure and volume change. For
example, in a piston-cylinder system,
work is done as the gas expands or is
compressed, resulting in changes in
internal energy.Phase Transitions:
Internal energy plays a crucial role in
phase transitions, such as solid to liquid
or liquid to gas. During these transitions,
the internal energy remains constant, and
the energy exchanged is used to change
the arrangement of particles without
altering their kinetic
energy.Thermodynamic Processes: In the
analysis of various thermodynamic
processes, understanding internal energy
helps to determine how heat and work
interact with the system. It is a key
parameter in defining the efficiency of
engines and the behavior of gases.
 system absorbs 500 J of heat and does 300 J of
work on its surroundings, what is the change in
internal energy of the system?
You can calculate the change in
internal energy (ΔU) of the system
using the First Law of
Thermodynamics, which is:ΔU = Q -
WWhere:ΔU is the change in internal
energy.Q is the heat added to the
system.W is the work done by the
system on its surroundings.In this case,
the system absorbs 500 J of heat (Q =
500 J) and does 300 J of work on its
surroundings (W = -300 J, using the
convention that work done by the
system is negative). Now, plug these
values into the formula:ΔU = 500 J - (-
300 J)ΔU = 500 J + 300 JΔU = 800 JSo,
the change in internal energy of the
system is 800 Joules, and it has
increased by 800 J.

Question Six
Specific heat capacity, often
denoted as "c" or "C," is a
fundamental thermodynamic
property that represents the
amount of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass
(usually 1 gram or 1 kilogram) of a
substance by one degree Celsius or
one Kelvin. It quantifies a
material's ability to store or release
heat energy.The specific heat
capacity is significant in
thermodynamics for several
reasons:Energy Transfer: Specific
heat capacity helps in
understanding how much heat
energy is needed to change the
temperature of a substance. It is
used to quantify the heat transfer
(Q) in various thermodynamic
processes using the formula Q =
mcΔT, where "m" is the mass of the
substance, "c" is the specific heat
capacity, and ΔT is the change in
temperature.Temperature Changes:
In heating or cooling processes,
specific heat capacity is crucial for
predicting how much the
temperature of a substance will
increase or decrease when heat is
added or removed. This is especially
important in calorimetry, where it
is used to measure heat
exchange.Material Properties:
Different substances have different
specific heat capacities. For
example, water has a relatively high
specific heat capacity, which means
it can absorb or release a significant
amount of heat energy without
large temperature changes. This
property is vital for regulating
temperatures in natural systems
and engineering applications.
 Calculate the heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 2 kg of water
from 25°C to 85°C. (Specific heat
capacity of water = 4.18 J/g°C)
To calculate the heat energy
required to raise the
temperature of 2 kg of water
from 25°C to 85°C, you can use
the formula:Q = m * c *
ΔTWhere:Q is the heat energy
(in Joules).m is the mass of the
substance (in kilograms).c is the
specific heat capacity of the
substance (in J/g°C).ΔT is the
change in temperature (in
degrees Celsius).First, you need
to convert the specific heat
capacity of water from J/g°C to
J/kg°C. Since 1 kg = 1000 g, you
can convert as follows: c = 4.18
J/g°C = (4.18 J/g°C) * (1 g / 1000
g) = 0.00418 J/kg°CNow, plug in
the values:m = 2 kgc = 0.00418
J/kg°CΔT = 85°C - 25°C =
60°CNow, calculate the heat
energy: Q = 2 kg * 0.00418
J/kg°C * 60°C = 0.5028 kJ.
Question Seven
In any energy transfer or
transformation, the total entropy
of an isolated system always
increases over time, and the
entropy change in an irreversible
process is always greater than or
equal to zero." This is the second
law of thermodynamics.
Entropy: Entropy is a measure
of the degree of disorder or
randomness in a system. The
second law implies that in
natural processes, the total
entropy of an isolated system
tends to increase, indicating an
increase in disorder.

Question Eight
 Differentiate between isothermal,
adiabatic, and isobaric processes.
Isothermal
Process:Temperature remains
constant during the
process.Heat can be
exchanged with the
surroundings to maintain
constant
temperature.Typically occurs
in systems with good thermal
conductivity and efficient heat
transfer.Follows the equation:
PV = constant, where P is
pressure and V is
volume.Adiabatic Process:No
heat is exchanged with the
surroundings during the
process.Temperature can
change as a result of work
done on or by the
system.Common in well-
insulated systems or rapid
processes.Follows the
equation: PV^γ = constant,
where γ (gamma) is the heat
capacity ratio.Isobaric
Process:Pressure remains
constant during the
process.Heat can be
exchanged with the
surroundings to maintain
constant pressure.Common in
systems where pressure is
externally controlled, such as
open containers.Follows the
equation: V/T = constant,
where T is temperature.
 Provide an example of each type
of thermodynamic process and
explain its characteristics.
Isothermal
Process:Example: Heating a
gas in a piston-cylinder
system while keeping its
temperature
constant.Characteristics: In
an isothermal process, the
temperature remains
constant. To achieve this,
heat is added or removed,
and the pressure and volume
of the system change. The
process occurs slowly to
maintain thermal
equilibrium.Adiabatic
Process:Example: The rapid
expansion or compression of
a gas in a well-insulated
cylinder, where no heat
exchange
occurs.Characteristics: In an
adiabatic process, there is no
heat exchange with the
surroundings. As a result,
the change in temperature is
significant, and the process
is usually faster. The
relationship between
pressure and volume is
described by the adiabatic
equation.Isobaric
Process:Example: Heating a
gas in a container with a
movable piston while
keeping the pressure
constant.Characteristics: In
an isobaric process, the
pressure of the system
remains constant while the
volume and temperature
may change. Heat is added
or removed to maintain a
constant pressure.

Question Nine
 Define the concept of a heat
engine
Heat engine is a device
that converts thermal
energy (heat) into
mechanical work.
 The efficiency of a
heat engine is a
measure of how
effectively it
converts heat
energy into
mechanical work. It
is typically
expressed as a ratio
of the useful work
output to the heat
input. The
efficiency can be
calculated using the
following
formula:Efficiency
(η) = Useful Work
Output / Heat
InputWhere:"Usef
ul Work Output" is
the amount of
mechanical work or
energy produced by
the heat
engine."Heat
Input" is the total
amount of heat
energy added to the
engine during its
operation.The
efficiency of a heat
engine is always
less than 100%
because some heat
energy is inevitably
lost as waste heat to
the surroundings
 due to the second
law of
thermodynamics.
This lost energy is
often referred to as
"thermal waste" or
"rejected heat."
 Efficiency (η) =
Useful Work Output
/ Heat InputIn this
case, the useful
work output is 2000
J, and the heat input
is 5000 J. Plugging
these values into
the
formula:Efficiency
(η) = 2000 J / 5000
JEfficiency (η) =
0.4To express the
efficiency as a
percentage, you can
multiply the result
by 100:Efficiency (η)
= 0.4 * 100% =
40%So, the
efficiency of the
engine is 40%.

Question Ten
 Define the Carnot
cycle and its
significance in
thermodynamics.
Carnot cycle is
defined as an
ideal reversible
closed
thermodynamic
cycle. Four
successive
operations are
involved:
isothermal
expansion,
adiabatic
expansion,
isothermal
compression,
and adiabatic
compression.
During these
operations, the
expansion and
compression of
the substance
can be done up
to the desired
point and back to
the initial state.
 Calculate the
Carnot efficiency
for an engine
operating
between
temperatures of
400°C (673 K)
and 100°C (373
K).
Th = 673k
Tl = 373k
Efficiency =
1-Tl/Th
= 1 - 373/673
=0.446
= 44.6%.

SSEMAKULA
ALLAN
20/1/231/D/
549