Unit I – BPED 71

Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
University Town, Musuan, Bukidnon
E-mail: pe.department@cmu.edu.ph

DEPARTMENT OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
UNIT I. OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM

TIME ALLOTMENT

This Learning Guide will be tackled for six (6) hours, equivalent to four (4) class sessions of 1 hour and 30
minutes.
INTRODUCTION

This Learning Guide is about school curricula and the teacher. This introductory Learning Guide identifies
the different types of curricula that exist in the teacher’s classroom and school. Further, it describes the
important roles of the teacher as a curricularist who engages in the different facets of curriculum in any
educational level.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the Unit, the students must have:

1. Demonstrate in-depth understanding on curriculum development;
2. Determine the purpose, for implementing the curriculum, for assessing curriculum output, for the
overall impact of the curriculum;
3. Create individual criteria for goals and objectives; and
4. Value personal observations and experiences on the existing PE and Health in the K-12 curriculum.
TOPICS

Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as
all learning experiences that individuals undergo while in school, we cannot deny the fact that curriculum
should be understood by teachers and other stakeholders for curriculum affects all teachers, students,
parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or even the common people.
Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common definition of 'curriculum'. Because of this,
the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the
word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced.
The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational
institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in
schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different people. Sometimes educators equate
curriculum with the syllabus while a few regards it as all the teaching-learning experiences which the
student encounters while in school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse
interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as cultural
perspectives. Here are some of them.
Some Definitions of Curriculum
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school,
for the learners' continuous and willful growth in personal social competence." (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning
activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
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3. contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning
outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum.
(Schubert, 1987)
4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a
framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice." (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as
possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to
bring about behavior changes in students as a-result of planned activities and includes all learning
experiences received by students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? 2.
Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
Some Points of View of Other Curricularists
Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person's point of view, this has added to
fragmentation, and some confusion. However, when put together, the different definitions from diverse
points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever changing.
Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to the person's
philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These views can also define what a
curriculum is all about.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph
Schwab.

•Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules of grammar, reading,
rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing,
arithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal education should be the
emphasis in college.
•Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training,
hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and
writing. It should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
•Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject areas such as Science,
Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as
humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling
doctrine for curriculum development.

•Philip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various
disciplines.
Collectively from the traditional view of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and Phenix, curriculum can be defined
as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological
and social issues. From a traditional view, curriculum is mostly written, documents such syllabus, course of study,
books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and specific discipline does not make a:
curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual.
Let us look into how curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.

•John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular
elements that are tested by application.
•Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance
of teachers.

•Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of potential
experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of
thinking and acting.
 •Corm Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are
planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

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The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person's philosophical beliefs. Let us
put all of these interpretations in, a summary.
CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies, a set of materials, a
sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that goes within the school. It is what is taught
inside and outside of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences
undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is
the total learning experiences of the learner, under the guidance of the teacher.
A man by the name of New-Fist-Hammer-Maker knew how to do things his community
needed to have done, and he had the energy and the will to go ahead and do them. By
virtue of these characteristics, he was an educated man. New —Fist was also a thinker.
Then as now, there were few lengths to which men would not go to avoid the labour and
pain of thought . . . . New-Fist got to the point where he became strongly dissatisfied with
the accustomed ways of his tribe. He began to catch glimpses of ways in which life might be
made better for himself, his family and his group. By virtue of this development, he became
a dangerous man New-Fist thought about how he could harness the children's play to
better the life of the community..He considered what adults do for survival and introduced
these activities to children in a deliberate and formal way. These included catching fish with
bare hands, clubbing little woolly horses, and chasing away-sabre-toothed-tigers-with-fire.
These then became the curriculum and the community began to prosper-with plenty of
food, hides for attire and protection from threat. "It is supposed that all would have gone well
forever with this good educational system, if conditions of life in that community remained
forever the same." But conditions changed. The glacier began to melt and the community
could no longer see the fish to catch with their bare hands, and only the most agile and
clever fish remained which hid from the people. The woolly horses were ambitious and
decided to leave the region. The tigers got pneumonia and most died. The few remaining
tigers left. In their place, fierce bears arrived who would not be chased by fire. The
community was in trouble. One day, in desperation, someone made a net from willow twigs
and found a new way to catch fish-and the supply was even more plentiful than before. The
community also devised a system of traps on the path to snare the bears. Attempts to
change education system to include these new techniques however encountered "stern
opposition."

These are also activities we need to know. Why can't the schools teach them? But most of
the tribe particularly the wise old men who controlled the school, smiled indulgently at this,
suggestion. "That wouldn't be education... it would be mere training". We don't teach fish
grabbing to catch fish, we teach it to develop a generalized agility which can never be
duplicated by mere training . . . and so on.

"If you had any education yourself, you would know that the essence of true education is
timelessness. It is something that endures through changing .conditions like a solid rock
standing squarely and firmly in the middle of a raging torent"

The story was written in 1939. Curriculum then, was seen as a tradition of organized knowledge taught in schools of
the 19th century. Two centuries later, the concept of a curriculum has broadened to include several modes of thoughts
or experiences. No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum. Classrooms will be empty
with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there is no curriculum. Curriculum is at the heart of the
teaching profession. Every teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in the classroom and in schools. In our
current Philippine educational system, different schools are established in different educational levels which have
corresponding recommended curricula. The educational levels are:

1. Basic Education. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for
secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the
Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new basic
education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of
Education.
2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training
taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). For the. TechVoc
 track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination.
3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees
(Master's and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED)

In whatever levels of schooling and in various types of learning environment, several curricula exist. Let us
find out how Allan Glatthom (2000) as mentioned in Bilbao, et al (2008) classified these:

Types of Curricula in Schools

Have you realized that in every classroom there are several types of curricula operating? Let us look into
each one.

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1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all currricula found in our schools are recommended. For Basic
Education, these are recommended by the Department of Education (DepEd), for Higher Education,
by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and vocational education by TESDA. These three
government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in
the form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or
international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.

2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They come in
the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among others. A packet
of this written curriculum is the teacher's lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to
12 for Philippine Basic Education.

3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or p anne , curriculum has to be implemented or
taught. The teacher and the, learners will put life to the written curriculum. The skill of the teacher to
facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities
will be necessary. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and
the learning style of the learners.
4. Supported Curriculum. This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make
learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters,
worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentation, movies, slides, models, realias,
mock-ups and other electronic illustrations. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where
learning occurs outside or inside the four-walled building. These include the playground, science
laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where
authentic learning through direct experiences occurs.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher
has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of teaching and at the end of every
lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is made. It can either be assessment for learning,
assessment as learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning,
then the assessed curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned or
mastered, then it is assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.
6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe that if a
student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non-reader to a reader or from
not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to being obedient. The positive outcome of
teaching is an indicator of learning. These are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate
higher order. and critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the
behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal
changes, -cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that create the hidden curriculum.
Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good
foresight to include these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.

In every teacher's classroom, not all these curricula may be present at one time. Many of them are
deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed, and learned curricula.
However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and a teacher may or may not be able to predict its influence on
learning. All of these have significant role on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and have direct
implication to the life of the learners.
 Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in every teacher's classroom,
it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader about the role of the teacher in relation to the school
curriculum.

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The Teacher as a Curricularist

Look at the words inside the box, Read each of them. Which one describes the teacher as a
curricularist?

Exciting Facilitating Knowing

Planning Frustrating

Initiating GrowingEvaluating
Growing
Innovating

Broadening

Build ing
Rewarding
Recommending
Believing ShowingCopying

Are you aware that the teacher’s role in school is very complex? Teachers do a series of interrelated actions
about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation, teaching and learning. A classroom teacher is
involved with curriculum continuously all day. But very seldom has a teacher been described as curricularist.

Curricularists in the past, are referred only to those who developed curriculum theories. According to the
study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularist in America include John Dewey,
Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit. You will learn more of them in the later part of the module.

In this lesson, we will start using the word curricularist to describe a professional who is a curriculum
specialist (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person who is involved in curriculum
knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as
curricularist. A TEACHER'S role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a
curricularist.

So what does a TEACHER do to deserve the label curricularist? Let us look at the different roles of the
teacher in the classroom and in the school. The classroom is the first place of curricular engagement. The
first school experience sets the tone to understand the meaning of schooling through the interactions of
learners and teachers that will lead to learning. Hence, curriculum is the heart of schooling.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricularist.

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

1. knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts with knowing
about the curriculum, the subject matter or the content. As a teacher, one has to master what are
included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or
informal (derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of the subject
matter. (Knower)

2. writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts, subject matter or
content. These need to be written or preserved. The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory
manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum
writer or reviewer. (Writer)

3. plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the teacher to make a
yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a guide in the implementation of
the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These

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factors include the learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired
outcomes, the context of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a
curriculum planner. (Planner)

4. initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd,
CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational agencies for improvement of quality
education, the teacher is obliged to implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires the
open mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There
will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading, however, a transformative
teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (Initiator)

5. innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent teacher. A
curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing. From the content, strategies, ways of
doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a
single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good • teacher, therefore, innovates the
curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator)

6. implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written will never serve its
purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mentioned previously, at the heart of schooling is the
curriculum. It is this role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor
gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners,
with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding,
facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the highest level. It is here where teaching as a
science and as an art will be observed. It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come
into play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on the
implementation. (Implementor)

7. evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes have been
achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results? What do outcomes reveal?
Are the learners achieving? Are there some practices that should be modified? Should the
curriculum be modified, terminated or continued? These are some few questions that need the help
of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator)

The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the classroom everyday! Doing
these multi-faceted work qualifies a teacher to be a curricularist.
To be a teacher is to be a curricularist even if a teacher may not equal the likes of John Dewey, Ralph Tyler,
Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. As a curricularist a teacher will be knowing, writing, implementing,
innovating, initiating and evaluating the curriculum in the school and classrooms just like the role models
and advocates in curriculum and curriculum development who have shown the way.

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid foundation. Although considered to be a new discipline,
its significance in the light of global developments has now been acknowledged. What philosophical,
historical, psychological and sociological influences inform the current school curriculum? How do these
foundations reflect the development of curriculum in our 21st century classrooms and learning
environment? Who are the identified curricularists with these foundations? Let us find out!

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief
about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers' classrooms or learning
environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What are schools for? What subjects
are important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should be
achieved? Why?

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The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey
influenced the use of "learning by doing", he being a pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus on the
fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those presented by Ornstein and
Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism

•Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect

•Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking HOTS)

•Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring

•Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism

•Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent

•Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area

•Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects

•Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy

C. Progressivism

•Aim: Promote democratic social living

•Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners

•Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based

 •Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education D.

Reconstructionism

•Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change

•Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms

•Focus: Present and future educational landscape

•Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and Convergence,
Standards and Competencies

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us the chronological
development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum development started when
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book "The Curriculum." Let us see how each one contributed to
curriculum development during his own time. Here are eight among the many, we consider to have great
contributions.

PERSONS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS/THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES

❖He started the curriculum development movement.

❖Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’ needs.

❖Curriculum Prepared learners for adult life.

❖Objectives and activities should group together when tasks

are clarified.

Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

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@timetoast.com

❖Like Bobbit, he posted that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’ needs.
❖Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.
❖Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered. ❖The purpose of the curriculum is child
development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and student plan the activities.
❖Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.

❖Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered. ❖With the statement of objectives and related
learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.
❖Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

❖Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest.
❖Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated. ❖Curriculum is a set of experiences subject matter is
developed around social functions and learners’ interests.
Unit I – BPED 71

Werret Charters (1875-1952) @soturi.com

William Kilpartick (1875-1952) @edu.glogster.com

Harold Rugg (1886-1960) @alchetron.com

Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
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Unit I – BPED 71

❖Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and interest.
❖Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
❖The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educated generalists and no specialists.
❖She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in
social studies curriculum. ❖She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

❖He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor. ❖Teachers and curriculum specialist
constitute the professional core of planners.
❖Significant improvement is achieved through group activity. 3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) @museumofeducation.info

Hilda Taba (1902-1967) @en.wikipedia.org
Peter Oliva (1964-2012) @en.wikipedia.org

Psychology provides a bass to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the
learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How
should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in
learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this learning guide, we shall consider three groups of
learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories and
humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

3.1. Association and Behaviorism

3.2.Cognitive Information Processing Theory

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Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

Iva
n ➢He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory,
Pav the S-R Theory
lov
(18 ➢The key to learning in early years of life is to train
49-
 193 them what you want them to become.
6)
@biography ➢S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice
.com called indoctrination.

➢He championed the Connectionism Theory.

Edwa
rd ➢He proposed the three laws of learning:
Thorn
dike - Law of readiness
(1874 - Law of exercise
- - Law of effect
1949)
➢Specific stimulus has specific response.
@ap
p.em
aze.c
om
\
Rob ➢He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory.
ert Learning follows a hierarchy.
Gag
ne ➢Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
(19
16- ➢He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.
200
2)

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

Jea
n ➢Theories of Piaget
Pia
get •Cognitive development has stages from birth
(18
96- to maturity
198 Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational
0) stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11)
@biography.c and formal operations (11-onwards)
om ➢Keys to learning

•Assimilation (incorporation of new

experience)
•Accommodation (learning modification and
adaptation
•Equilibration (balance between previous and
later learning)

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➢Theories of Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
@en.wikipedia.org •Cultural transmission and development:
 Children could, as a result of their interaction
with society, actually perform certain
cognitive actions prior to arriving at
developmental stage
•Learning precedes development

•Sociocultural development theory

➢Keys to Learning

•Pedagogy created learning processes that

lead to development
•The child is an active agent in his or her
educational process

➢Gardner’s multiple intelligence

Howard Gardner
@historical.fandom.com •Humans have several different ways of
processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another
•There are eight intelligences: linguistic,
logico-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic

Daniel Goleman
➢Emotion contains the power to affect action.
@keystepmedia.com
•He called it Emotional Quotient.

3.1 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles
Gestalt
➢Gestalt Theory
@researcggate.net
•Learning is explained in terms of
“wholeness” of the problem.
•Human beings do not respond to isolated
stimuli but to an organization or pattern of
stimuli.
➢Keys to learning

•Learning is complex and abstract.

•Learning analyze the problem, discriminate

between essential and nonessential data,
 and perceive relationships.

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•Learners will perceive something in relation

to the whole. What/how they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.
Abraham Maslow (1908-
1970) @verywellmind.com •He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory
and classic theory of human needs
•A child whose basic needs are not met will
not be interested in acquiring knowledge of
the world.
•He put importance to human emotions,
based on love and trust
➢Key to learning

•Produce a healthy and happy learner who

can accomplish, grow and actualize his or
her human self.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
➢Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
@thefamouspeople.com
•He established counselling procedures and
methods for facilitating learning.
•Children’s perceptions, which are highly
individualistic, influence their learning and
behavior in class.
➢Key to learning

•Curriculum is concerned with process, not

product; personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.

Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols
➢Contributions/Theories and Principles

Schools and Society

➢Society as a source of change
@studymore.org.uk
➢Schools as agents of change

➢Knowledge as an agent of change

 John Dewey (1859-1952)
@biography.com ➢Considered two fundamental elements ---
schools and civil society --- to be major topic
needing
attention and reconstruction to encourage
experimental intelligence and plurality.

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Alvin Toffler
➢Wrote the book Future Shock
@scmp.com
➢Believed that knowledge should prepare
students for the future.
➢Suggested that in the future, parents might have
the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from
home as a result of technology, not in spite of it.
(Home
Schooling)
➢Foresaw schools and students worked
creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their
age.

CURRICULUM CONCEPTIONS

“Conceptions of curriculum can be used to look at a curriculum through various viewpoints. It’s simply a way
to see how a curriculum is defined. When you're looking at a curriculum is it focusing on social and culture
needs, the individuals needs or subject matter (Sowell, 2005). This is what you notice when you look deeply
into a curriculum and see how it should be used or what we should focus on.”

What are the different types of conceptions of curriculum?

Social reconstruction conception: focuses on society needs

(Eisner & Vallence, 1974). We should create an education where
subject matter focuses on environmental, economic, social and
political issues or perspectives happening in society (ie.
pollution). This conception sees the curriculum as a way to
produce social change. (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; McNeil, 2006;
Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Pratt, 1994; Sowell, 2005) Education
should be structured to prepare students for living in a changing
society by providing them with tools they can use to function
appropriately. It’s about giving the learner real life situations they
can experience in the curriculum. (Eisner & Vallence, 1974;
Sowell, 2005) This allows young learners to have a better
understanding and connection with society where in the
curriculum they are learning ways on how to live (Sowell, 2005).
Note: also called social transformation and reconceptualist.

Cognitive process conception: focuses on the development of

the intellectual process. The curriculum should shape the
intellectual and cognitive skills of the learner. Once they gain the
skills the learner can apply it to other forms of learning and in any
context. It focuses mainly on the learner, the materials and the
learning process where they see the individual as interactive.
(Eisner & Vallance, 1974; Sowell, 2005) This approach believes
if the learner is provided with the correct set of intellectual skills
they can grow to be intellectually independent and can use them
in situations outside of school (Eisner & Vallance, 1974). Note:
also relates to humanistic and technology conception.

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Academic conception: is the traditional way of

approaching curriculum (Eisner & Vallence,1974; Sowell,
2005). The main mode of teaching is that the individual
needs to learn various academic subjects (math, English,
science, history, social studies) in school (Eisner &
Vallence,1974; McNeil, 2006; Schiro, 2008; Sowell,
2005). In each academic area there are a set of academic
standards. Academic thinkers believe school should be
structured to help repair needs and gaps in an individual's
understanding. The transmission of information should
also be taught by teachers through verbal or written
means (Pratt, 1994). Basically, the curriculum should be
used to help individuals understand knowledge (skills,
tools, concepts) that they need to participate actively in
their cultural needs (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; Sowell,
2005). Note: also called cultural transformation and
scholar academic.

Technology conception:
focuses on how curriculum
should be taught or how
knowledge should be
communicated. It looks for a
system of instruction that can
be used to teach any content.
(Eisner & Vallence, 1974;
Vallence, 1986). Curriculum
technologists believe that
learning is preplanned and
that goals, standards,
expectations and objectives
should be predetermined.
The content, lesson plans,
learning outcomes,
assessment measures must
align with these elements. (McNeil, 2006; Orstien & Hunkins, 2009) It helps the learner see what’s expected
of them and where they can improve (McNeil, 2009). Through this conception you focus more on the
organization and presentation of materials to the learner. Everything is decided before children come into
the classroom (Eisner & Vallence, 1974). Note: also called systemic, behavioural, social efficiency and
managerial.
Humanistic conception: focuses on the individual and the
individuals needs and interests (Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Schiro,
2008). A curriculum should be student oriented and child centred
meaning children can pursue their individual choices. This lens
helps the learner discover and construct learning for themselves.
(Eisner & Vallence,1974; Schiro, 2008; Sowell, 2005) It sees
education fully supporting an individual's life and development
(Eisner & Vallence, 1974; Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Pratt, 1994;
Sowell, 2005). Everything in the curriculum should bring personal
meaning to each individual that relates to experiences unique to
the learner. This can allow the individual to learn ways on how to
manage things of personal significance. (McNeil, 2006; Pratt,
1994; Sowell, 2005) This conception is truly about developing the child’s fullest potential where the
curriculum should be responsible for developing a child identity, individuality, personal freedom and
autonomy (Eisner & Vallence, 1974; McNeil, 2006; Orstien & Hunkins, 2009; Schiro, 2008). Notes: also
called self actualization, individual fulfillment and learner centred.

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CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

A curriculum as a planned sequence of learning experiences should be at the heart and mind of every
teacher. Every teacher as a curricularist should be involved in designing a curriculum. In fact, it is one of the
teachers' roles as a curricularist. As such, you will be a part of the intellectual journey of your learners. You
will be providing them the necessary experiences that will enable the learner what you intend them learn.

As a curriculum designer this task was not given much attention in the past. Every single day, a teacher
designs a lesson or utilizes a curriculum that has been made and was previously written. Designing a
curriculum is a very challenging task. It is here where the style and creativity of the teacher come in. Thus,
this learning guide will provide the necessary concepts and activities that you as a teacher can refer to as
you prepare yourself to be a curriculum designer.

Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing

Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it would be of great importance to connect to the fundamental
concepts and ideas about the curriculum mentioned in Modules 1 and 2. Every curriculum designer,
implementer, or evaluator should take in mind the following general axioms as a guide in curriculum
development (Oliva, 2003):

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was stated that one of the
characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the
changes that occur in schools and in its context. Societal development and knowledge revolution come
so fast that the need to address the changing condition requires new curriculum designs.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about
by current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge, and
educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A revision in
a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out,
thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers who will implement
the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a
curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should
design and own the changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of
curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a
sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any
 significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A
curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view to
support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of
evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and
improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of
learners change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum
must change.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a
"piecemeal". A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish
intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should equip teaching staff
pedagogically.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum design
is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references, set

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of procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a
matrix.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and designers
should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher
who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by identifying its
components. For most curricula the major components or elements are answers to the following questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)

2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter) 3. What
learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods) 4. How will the
achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus, or a lesson plan.
Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the common
components for. all of them are almost the same. However, some schools, institutions or departments may
add other minor parts or trimmings to the design.

Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. For a lesson plan or teaching guide includes (1)
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) was formerly labelled as
behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods, and (4)
Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components or elements is described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student's point of view; it is desired learning outcome that is to
be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the
teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be
achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are expressed in
action words found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003) for
the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, the taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for
the psychomotor domain by Simpson.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result oriented and Time bound.
For a beginner, it would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of
Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes.
 For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in the
desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the end
of the lesson.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after
completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to:

❖Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example, rather
than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why... it should be: 'Students must have
explained the reasons why...' This helps students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning. It
will also help curricularist devise appropriate assessment tasks.
❖Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts,
theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out procedures,
calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and communicating results).
In some

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contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required as
a person and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting content,
you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the content in
previous lessons:

•Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is
purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.
•Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lessor or unit. An effective curriculum is
progressive, leading student towards building on previous lessons. Contents which an too basic
or too advanced for the development levels of learners make students either bored or baffled,
and affect their motivation to learn.
•Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and
concepts.

III. References

The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been'taken. The
reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and if
possible, the publications. Some examples are given below.

1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and

Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD 2.
Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton
Mifflin Co. Boston MA
3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon
City
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Profession 2nd Ed. Lorimar
Publishing Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind the
teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make
them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation, competition as well 'as
individualism or independent learning among the students. For example:

❖Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn
 on their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the
learners. Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of
learning. Students learn from each other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably
enhance the curriculum.
❖Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree
of independence to. learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast
learners.
❖Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a.healthy
manner allow learners' M to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals in their adult
life are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very
competitive world:
❖The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended. Online
learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but these need to be
planned carefully to be effective.

V. Assessment/Evaluation

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Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e., when they receive information
on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this information is generated
is assessment. It has three main forms:

❖lf assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This
should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who
are appropriately reflective and self-critical.
❖Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can be
viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect.
Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other's work as reliably as staff.
❖Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback
on the student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative
(expressing a judgment on the student's achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment
tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked and returned to the student with
detailed comments.

Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps the teacher make
decisions about the progress or performance of the students.

Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work than by knowing
the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks (including unseen
examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible.

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum, similar components will
also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other curricular projects.
Based on the curriculum models we have learned; the fundamental components include the following:

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)
2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (With needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

All other additional components are trimmings that each designer may place. This additional part may be an
institutional template, suggested by other curriculum experts and as required by educational agencies like
the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional
Organizations that would serve the purposes they intend to achieve.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGNING

You have started to be familiar with the preliminaries of making a simple design through a lesson plan
components. You will further enrich your knowledge by looking into how other curricularists approach the
curriculum design. In this lesson, we will see how several examples of curriculum designs are used in the
schools and classrooms.

Types of Curriculum Design Models

There are many ways of looking at curriculum and designing one. For our own purposes, let us focus on the
most widely used examples.

1. Subject-Centered Design

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This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. The subject-centered design
corresponds mostly to the textbook because textbooks are usually written based the specific subject or
course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularists who firmly believed in this design.
As practiced, school hours are allocated to different school subjects such as Science, Mathematics,
Language, Social Studies, Physical Education, and others. This is also practiced in the Philippines,
because a school day is divided into class period, a school year into quarters or semester. Most of the
schools using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific subject
discipline content.

Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which are focused on the individual
subject, specific discipline and a combination of subjects or disciplines which are a broad field or
interdisciplinary.

1.1. Subject design. What subject are you teaching? What subject are you taking? These are two
simple questions that the teacher and the learner can easily answer. It is because they are familiar
with the subject design curriculum.
Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far, the most familiar design for teachers, parents
and other laymen. According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it is easy
to deliver. Textbooks are written and support instructional materials are commercially available.
Teachers are familiar with the format, because they were educated using also the design. In the
Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary education is fewer than in
the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree
programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum is being designed.
However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized. It
stresses so much the content and forgets about students' natural tendencies, interests and
experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are the simply the
empty vessel to receive the information or content from the teacher. This is a traditional approach
to teaching and learning.

1.2. Discipline design. This curriculum design model is related to the subject design. However, while
subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic
disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars
use to study a specific content of their fields. Students in history should learn the subject matter
like historians, students in biology should learn how the biologists learn, and so with students in
mathematics, who should learn how mathematicians learn. In the same manner, teachers should
teach how the scholars in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.
Discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the elementary or
secondary levels. So, from the subject centered curriculum, curriculum moves higher to a discipline
 when the students are more mature and are already moving towards their career path or
disciplines as science, mathematics, psychology, humanities, history and others.

1.3. Correlation design. Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate subject
designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another and still maintain
their identity. For example, English literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary
level. In the two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the
historical period are also being studied. The same is true when science becomes the core,
mathematics is related to it,as they are taken in chemistry, physics and biology. Another example
is literature as the core with art, music, history, geography related to it. To use correlated design,
teachers should come together and plan their lessons cooperatively.

1.4. Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Broad field design or interdisciplinary is a variation of the
subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate
subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another. Thus, subjects such as
geography, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and history are fused into one
subject called social studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling,
and composition.

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Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.
Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design, where a specific theme is identified, and all
other subject areas revolve around the theme.

2. Learner-Centered Design

Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative process.
This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however; more concern has been placed on the
secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content has become the
focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of
the learner in the curriculum.

Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are learner-centered.

2.1. Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau,
Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child.
The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages with his/her environment.
One learns by doing. Learners actively create, construct meanings and understanding as viewed
by the constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the teachers and the
environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select content and
do activities together. Learning is a product of the child's interaction with the environment.
2.2. Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the child-centered design. Although the focus
remains to be the child, experience-centered design' believes that the interests and needs of
learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of
the curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose
from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own
learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher. In a school where experience-
centered curriculum is provided, different learning centers are found, time is flexible and children
are free to make options. Activities revolve around different emphasis such as touching, feeling,
imagining, constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple intelligence theory blends
well with experience-centered design curriculum.
2.3. Humanistic design. The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers. Maslow's theory of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves this level is
accepting of self, others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural; is open to different
experiences; possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate among the many
others. The person can achieve this state of self-actualization later in life but has to start the
process while still in school. Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can enhance
self-directed learning by improving self-understanding, the basic attitudes to guide behavior.
 In humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate. objective of learning. It
stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the
curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

3. Problem-Centered Design

Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the
learners. Various problems are given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations,
contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others. In this curriculum, content cuts across
subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students. Two
examples are given for the problem- centered design curriculum.

3.1. Life-situations design. What makes the design unique is that the contents are organized in ways
that allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of
learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the pressing
immediate problems of the society and the students' existing concerns are utilized. Based on
Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life,
aid in rearing children, maintain the individual's social and political relations and enhance leisure,
tasks and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations increases the relevance of
the curriculum.

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3.2. Core problem design. Another example of problem-centered design is core design. It centers on
general education and the problems are based on the common human activities. The central focus
of the core design includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners. Popularized
by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to proceed using core design of a
curriculum. These are the steps.

Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.

Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping.
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.

These are some examples of curriculum designs. There are many more which are emerging and those that
have evolved in the past. The example given may be limited, however; for our purposes, they can very well
represent curriculum designs.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum based on the specific
design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find out the utilization of the example design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying
philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the curriculum
is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The curriculum is' also
built upon the learners' knowledge, skills, previous learnings and potentials.

From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us consider these principles.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner.

The child - centered approach is illustrated in the example below:

School X is anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences in all its curricular and co
curricular activities. Every classroom provides activity centers where children can learn
on their own with the different learning resource materials. Learners can just choose
which learning center to engage in with different resources. This arrangement allows
for the capacity of every learner to be honed. It also allows learning how to learn,
hence will develop independence. The teacher acts as guide for every learner. The
learner sets the goal that can be done within the frame of time.

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Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct
subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher education or vocational-technical education.
This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.

Example of subject-centered approach is given below.

In another setting, School Y aims to produce the best graduates in the school district. Every
learner must excel in all academic subjects to be on top of every academic competition. The
higher the level of cognitive intelligence Is, the better the learner. Hence the focus of learning
is mastery of the subject matter in terms of content. Every student is expected to be always on
top in terms of mastery of discipline. Memorization, and drill are important learning skills. The
school gives emphasis to intellectual development, and sets aside emotional, psychomotor and
even value development. Success means mastery of the content.

Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of
living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly
able to achieve complete or total development as individuals.

This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs:

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems, thus developing
every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation in different
activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking solutions.
Learners are problem solvers themselves.
Example of the problem7centered approach is presented below.

School Z believes that a learner should be trained to solve real life problems that come about
because of the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. Problems persistent in life and society
that affect daily living are also considered. Most of the school activities revolve around finding
solutions to problems like poverty, drug problems, climate change, natural calamities and many
more. Since the school is using a problem-based design, the same approach is used. Case study
and practical work are the teaching strategies that are utilized.. Problem-centered approach has
become popular in many schools.

We have given examples of curriculum design and the corresponding approaches. Again, the choice of the
design is influence by philosophical and psychological beliefs of the designer. It is very important that as a
curricularist, you will be able to understand the different design models and how to approach each one.

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CURRICULUM MAPPING

A curriculum design is reflected in a written curriculum either as a lesson plan, syllabus, unit plan or a bigger
curriculum like K to 12. Before a teacher shall put this plan or design into action, he/she must need to do a
curriculum map. Have you ever wondered how to pace your lesson, so that it will cover a period of time like
hours, weeks, quarters, semester or the whole year? This lesson will teach us, curricularists, an important
process and tool in curriculum development which are Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Maps.

Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum mapping is a process or procedure that follows curriculum designing. It is done before
curriculum implementation or the operationalization of the written curriculum. This process was introduced
by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book Getting Results with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This
approach is an ongoing process or "work- in- progress". It is not a one-time initiative but a continuing
action, which involves the teacher and other stakeholders, who have common concerns. Curriculum
mapping can be done by teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching the same subject, the department,
the whole school or district or the whole educational system.

Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making a map to success. There are common
questions that are asked by different stakeholders, like teachers, colleagues, parents, school officials and
the community as well. These questions may include:
1. What do my students learn?
2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, cover the same content? Achieve the same
outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connections between my subjects and other subjects
within the year? Next year? Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions above.
Furthermore, mapping will produce a curriculum map, which is a very functional tool in curriculum
development.

Curriculum Mapping Process

There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome one needs to produce. This is also true
with curriculum mapping. However, whatever outcome (map) will be made, there are suggested steps to
follow.

Example A.
 1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet.
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one year) This should be
dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum that was written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved at the end of the
teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks, module next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning outcomes, content
areas, and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.

You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-Inspired syllabus for the higher education. However, this
can be modified for basic education to serve the specific purpose as you will see in some laps.

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Example B (For a degree program in college)*

1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.

2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd, or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd, Prof. Ed, and Major for BSEd) 4. List the
subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or chronological order. 5. List the degree
program outcomes along the horizontal cell (use code as .PO1, PO2...if outcomes are too long to fit in
the cell) PO means Program Outcomes
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine if such subject accomplishes the outcomes as
either Learned (L), Performed (P) or given Opportunity (0). Place the code in the corresponding cell. 7.
Fill up all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers teaching the course for students to
complete the degree in four years.

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to be achieved, contents, skills
and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used, and the overall student movement towards
the attainment of the intended outcomes. Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by
individual teacher, a department, the whole school or educational system. A map is geared to a school
calendar.

Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain excellence, efficiency and
effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction and maintain quality of education that all stakeholders
need to be assured.

Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: "Why is my friend's son studying decimals
in Mr. Bernardo's class and my own son is not studying the same in Miss Julia's class when they
are of the same grade level?" or "Why do some of my students recognize the parts of speech
while others are totally lost?"

Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the curriculum map to see that
intended outcomes and content are covered. A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for
pacing, and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies
and misalignment. Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly assess the mastery
of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid unnecessary reteaching.

Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as "pacing guide", will make all teachers, teaching the same subject
in a grade level follow the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning outcomes. This is necessary
for state-mandated, standard-based assessment that we have in schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it
that concept development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but building from a
simple to more complicated concepts and skills. Alignment, either vertical or horizontal, will also develop
interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students, between and among courses. Teachers can
verify that skills and content are addressed in other courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more
relevant.

A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enables the teacher or the curriculum review team to
create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good information for modification of curriculum, changing of
standards and competencies in order to find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

Example of a Curriculum Map

Here are two examples of a curriculum map. Sample A is for Basic Education and Sample B is for a College
Level.

Example A: Excerpt from DepEd Curriculum Guide for Science 3 shows a sample of a map for Quarter 1
and 2 . A column for Code was not included.

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ELEMENTARY SCIENCE GRADE 3

Note: For Quarter 2, there are still major content which are 3. Living Things 3.1 Plants and 4.
Heredity: Inheritance and Variation
Content Content Standard Performance Learning Learning
Standard Competency Materials

Grade 3 – Matter
FIRST
QUARTER/FIRS
T GRADING
PERIOD
1. Properties The learners The learners The learner should Learning Guide in
1.1 demonstrates should be able be able to… Science & Health:
Characteristics of understanding of…. to… Mixtures
solids, liquids,
gases ways of sorting describe the BEAM-Grade 3
materials and group common different objects Unit 4 Materials
describing them objects found at based on their LG-Science 3
as solid, liquid home and schools characteristics (e.g. Materials Module 1
or gas according to solids, Shape, Weight,
based on liquids and gas. Volume, Ease and
observable Flow)
properties

Classify objects
and materials as
solid,
liquid and gas
based I some
observable
characteristics.

Describe ways on
the proper use
and
handling solid,
liquid and gas
found at
home and in school.

Grade 3 – Living
Things and their
 Environment
SECOND
QUARTER/FIRS
T GRADING
PERIOD
1. Living Things The learners The learners The learner should
1.1 Humans demonstrates should be able be able to…
1.2 Sense understanding of…. to…
Organs
parts and functions 1. describe the
of their sense practice healthful parts and
organs of the habits in taking care functions of the
human body. of the sense sense organs of
organs the human body;

2. enumerate
healthful habits to
protect the sense
organs;

2. Living Things parts and functions enumerate ways 3. describe the BEAM-Grade 3-
2.1 Animals of animals and of grouping animals in their Unit 2 Animals
importance to humans animals immediate DLP
based on their surroundings; Science 3 DLP 19
structure and Beam-Grade 3-
importance Unit 2 Animals
DLP Science 3
31-32
Learning Guide in
Science and
Health: The
Body Guards

4. identify the parts

and functions
of
animals;

5. classify animal
according to
body
parts and use;

6. state the
importance of
animals to
humans;

7. describe ways of
proper
handling
of animals.

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Sample A1 - Science Curriculum Map Showing the Sequence of Domain for the Year per Quarter\
Qtr G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10

1 Matter Matter Matter Matter Matter Force, Living Earth and

Motion, Things and Space
Energy their
Environment

2 Living Living Living Living Living Earth and Matter Force,

Things and Things and Things and Things and Things and Space Motion,
their their their their their Energy
Environment Environment Environment Environment Environment

3 Force, Force, Force, Force, Force, Matter Earth and Force,

Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, Space Motion,
 Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy

4 Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Living Force, Matter
Space Space Space Space Space Things and Motion,
their Energy
Environment

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Sample B – Curriculum Map for Bachelor for Elementary Education

(Professional Education Courses)
Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8
Sample Subjects

Child Development P L L O L O O O
Facilitating Human P P L O L O L O
Learning

Social Dimension P L L O O L O

Teaching Profession P P P P O P P
Principles of Teaching P P P P L O P O
Assessment of Learning P P P P L O P O
Educational Technology P P P P L O P O
Curriculum P P P P O P P
Development

Developmental Reading P P P P O O P O
Field Study P P P O P P P

Practice Teaching P P P P P P P P

Legend:
L – Learned Outcomes (knowledge, skills, values)/outcomes achieved in the subject
P – Practiced the learned outcomes (knowledge, skills, values)
O – Opportunity to learn and practice (opportunities to learn and practice knowledge, skills and values but
not taught formally)

Note:

1. Not all professional subjects are entered in the matrix.

2. Desired outcomes for the professional courses are:

PO1 - Applied basic and higher 21st century skills:

PO2 - Acquired deep understanding of the learning process.
PO3 - Comprehended knowledge of the content they will teach.
PO4 - Applied teaching process skills (curriculum designing, materials development, educational
assessment, teaching approaches).
PO5 - Facilitated learning of different types of learners in diverse learning environments PO6 - Directed
experiences in the field and classrooms (observation, teaching, assistance, practice teaching) PO7 -
Demonstrated professional and ethical standards of the profession.
PO8 - Demonstrated creative and innovative thinking and practice of alternative teaching approaches.
 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Directions: With the reporting group members, work on the following:

1. Make a curriculum mapping in Physical Education and Health for grades level between Grades 3-10 using
Example A using the Curriculum Guide in Physical Education and Health used by the Department of
Education for 1st grading only.
2. Make a curriculum mapping in Physical Education or Health for grades 3-10 using sample A1 showing the
sequence of domains for the year per quarter.
3. Make a curriculum mapping for Bachelor of Physical Education using five (5) sample major subjects indicated
in PE Teacher Education Curriculum; The CHED Memorandum Order No. 80, Series of 2017.

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ASSESSMENT RUBRIC
CATEGORIES Poor Below Average Above Excellent
1 Average 3 5 Average 7 10

Effort Student’s Student put Student gave Student Student

work shows for minimal effort to the spent a lot went above
little effort. Has a project. Met of time and beyond
preparation, few errors all the working to the
creativity or and could expectations make sure assignment.
effort. Lots of have added . the Did extra
errors and more to the Didn’t go presentation research and
sloppy presentation. above and was well work.
handwriting. beyond. done. Got
help and
asked for
feedback.

Understandi Didn’t Understood Student Student Student

ng of incorporate a few of the understood understood mastered
Concept concepts into concepts, concepts the concepts the
project. but still left and and did concepts
Misundersto out pieces completed more than and even
od the ideas and parts of all the tasks what was added more
and the in the expected of to the
principles. assignment. assignment. him/her. principles.

Correctness Most or all of Half of the Student got Student got Student got
of Entries the entries entries were most of the every entry every entry
were incorrect. entries correct. correct, with
incorrect. correct with exceptional
only a few outcome.
errors.

ASSESSMENT

Quiz.

REFERENCES
Prepared by:

SHERILLE LOVE B. ASEQUIA

Asst. Professor II
PE Department
College of Education
Central Mindanao University

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