Physics Department

Electricity 2022-2023
Electricity: GCSE Revision – Basic Facts, information and formulae
Charge: Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter.

Objects can have positive (+), negative (-) or zero charge (neutral).

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

Usual symbol used in equations: Q or q

Current: Electric current is the flow of charge.

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), amp.

Usual symbol used in equations: I

The size of the current is the rate at which charge flows

𝑸 𝜟𝑸
𝑰= often written 𝑰=

Lesson 1
𝒕 𝜟𝒕
Current is measured with an ammeter.

Conductors: Conductors of electricity allow current to flow through them.

Potential Difference: A potential difference is the cause of current to flow through conductors.

The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (V).

Usual symbol used in equations: V

Potential difference is often referred to as voltage.

Potential difference is measured between two points.

Potential difference is measured with a voltmeter.

Work (W) is done on a charge when it moves through a potential difference.

The size of the potential difference (V) between two points is equal to the work
done per unit charge moving between the points.
𝑾
𝑽=
𝑸

Resistance: The resistance between two points determines the size if the current that will flow when
a given potential difference exists between the points.

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm ().

Usual symbol used in equations: R

The resistance between two points is equal to the ratio of potential difference between the
points to the current flowing between the points.

𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰
Power: Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred.

The SI unit of power is the watt (W).

Usual symbol used in equations: P

𝑾
𝑷=
𝒕
Electrical power used between two points is equal to the product of the potential difference
between the points and the current flowing between the points.

𝑷=𝑽𝑰
Resistances in series: The total resistance of a number of resistors in series is equal to the sum of
their resistances.

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯
Ohm’s law: Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the conductor provided the temperature and other

Lesson 1
physical conditions remain constant.

V-I characteristics: V-I characteristics are graphs that show how the current (I) through an electrical
component depends on the potential difference applied across it.

Ohmic conductor: An ohmic conductor obeys Ohm’s law (I  V).

Further information on charge and current

For there to be electrical conduction, there have to be charge carriers that are free to move.
• In a metal the charge carriers are electrons which are negatively charged. Positive charge
carriers in a solid metal do not move.

• In ionised gases and liquids (electrolytes) current is due to movement of both negative
charges and positive charges.

• In semiconductors current is due to the movement of electrons and holes.

When discussing electric current care is needed.

Electrons actually flow from the negative terminal of a supply to the positive terminal.
We regard the flow of conventional current as being from positive to negative.
Activity 1
Add arrows to the diagrams below to show the directions of electron and conventional current.

Lesson 1
Electron current Conventional current

flow of electrons “Positive charge carriers”

Did you know that Benjamin Franklin came up with the names positive and
negative for the two types of electrical charge and guessed that positive “electrical
fluid” came out of the positive terminal of a battery he made from a collection of
charged glass plates? That’s why the convention was adopted of assuming
current flows from positive to negative.

What could be done when it was discovered that it’s really negative electrons
flowing the opposite way? There would be massive confusion if new books
disagreed with the old ones. In the end they decided it would be best to keep to
the old direction convention for current and just rename it conventional current.
Make sure if you are told the direction of electron motion that you remember the
current direction is the opposite way.

Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.
Lesson 1

Units

In the latest update of the SI units, the value of the elementary charge plays an important role.

The elementary charge is the charge of a proton and it is represented by e. The charge of an
electron is -e.

1 e is exactly 1.602176634 x 10-19 C, based on the definitions used in the SI formulation.

This means that 1 C = (1/1.602176634 x 10-19) e [or about 6.24 x 1018 e].

The AQA data sheet gives e = 1.60 x 10-19 C.

One ampere is the flow of 1 coulomb per second.

The magnitude of the total charge (Q) can be calculated from the product of the elementary charge
(e) and the number of elementary charges (n):

𝑸=𝒏𝒆
Current-time graphs

Lesson 1
If the current is not constant, we can still measure the charge by plotting a graph of the current
against time and finding the area under the graph.

Activity 2 The current through a component rises uniformly from 2 to 5 A

in 5 s and then falls steadily to zero in the next 11 s. Find the
total charge that has passed through the component.
I/A

5 Q =It
charge = area

5 16 t/s

The area under the graph is the charge transferred. You may need to find the area using the
counting squares approach if the graph is curved and not linear.

Voltage-current characteristics
You should know and understand the voltage current graphs for an ohmic conductor, a filament
Lesson 2
lamp and a semiconductor diode.
We can easily measure voltage and current and use the data to plot current against voltage graphs
(called characteristics). Be careful to note which way round the axes are.

In the exam you will need to be able to draw the

graphs and explain clearly why each graph has that
specific shape, commenting on shape and symmetry.
You may recall the general shapes of the graphs for ohmic conductors, filament lamps and
semiconductor diode from GCSE.

Ohmic conductor I
characteristic
IV

Lesson 2
V

An ohmic conductor obeys Ohm’s law.

Ohm’s Law:

The current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference

between its ends provided that the temperature and other physical conditions are
constant.

Fixed resistors are examples of ohmic conductors

Activity 3
On the graph above draw a line for an ohmic conductor with a higher resistance and label it.

The graph is not a straight line. As

Filament lamp
I the voltage increases, the current
characteristic gets greater but at a decreasing
rate.
The graph is this shape because the
resistance increases as the tungsten
V filament gets hotter. It is harder for
the electrons to flow through the
positive ion lattice because of its
increased thermal vibrations.
Like the graph for the ohmic
. conductor at constant temperature,
the graph is symmetrical. (It does
not matter which way round the
p.d. is applied).
To find the resistance at any point on a characteristic graph, it is important to remember that:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
∆𝑉
𝑅≠
∆𝐼
This means that if you are asked to find resistance from a V-I or I-V graph, you must select the value
of voltage and current at the required point on the graph and simply divide them. Do not calculate a
gradient.

Activity 4
Calculate the resistance of the filament bulb
when a p.d. of 3.0 V is placed across the bulb
using the characteristics graph (left).

𝑉
𝑅= = =
𝐼

Lesson 2
Semiconductor diode characteristic graph

Activity 5
Use the information on the graph to complete the text below for semiconductor diodes.
The characteristic graph for semiconductor diodes is not symmetrical.

The diode starts to conduct significantly with a ………………………… bias of about +0.6V. Thereafter, the
current …………………………….. rapidly for a small rise in voltage. The forward bias cannot exceed about
1V. For forward bias above 0.6V the resistance falls away to almost zero.

If potential difference is reversed (‘……..……..………..……… bias’), almost no current flows until the
……………………………...…... voltage is reached; this will usually end the useful life of the diode.

For an LED (light emitting diode) the graph is similar but conduction starts at about 1V and does not
exceed 2V. Breakdown on …………………..…….………. bias occurs at about -5V. The intensity of the light
output of an LED depends on the voltage applied to it.

Lesson 2
Two circuits for measuring V-I characteristics
Circuit 1: using a variable resistor

Varying the total resistance in the circuit allows a limited range of voltages across the lamp.

Range: Vmin to 12 V, where Vmin > 0 V.

You will learn more about the size of potential differences in series circuits in the section on
potential dividers.
Circuit 2: using a rheostat

Lesson 2
Sliding contact
of the rheostat

Rheostat

The full range of potential differences (0 – 12 V) may be applied across the lamp by variation of the
position of the sliding contact. This is the better of the two circuits.

Resistance and resistivity

Consider a wire of length L with uniform cross-sectional area A.

It is found that

• the resistance is proportional to the length

• the resistance and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.

Lesson 3
So we can write:
𝐿
R
𝐴

The third factor that will affect the resistance of the wire relates to the material it is made from. The
factor is called the resistivity of the material and may be introduced as a constant of proportionality
to give the equation
L RA
R=ρ or rearranging for  ρ=
A L

The resistivity is given the symbol ρ, ‘rho’ a Greek letter ‘r’.

• Resistivity is a property of the material itself.

 • It has the units ohm metres ( m). (NB: not ohms per metre)

• It is defined as the resistance of a sample of material of unit length and

unit cross-sectional area at a given temperature.

• A is the cross sectional area measured in m2

• R is the resistance measured in Ohms ()
• L is the length the current travels through the object in m
• ρ is the resistivity of the material in  m

1 metre is a reasonable length of wire, but 1 square metre is a very thick wire indeed. The diameters
of real wires are measured in millimetres or the area in square millimetres. The equation will only
work in SI units, so we must remember to convert square millimetres to square metres.

1 mm2 = 1  (10-3)2 m2 = 1  10-6 m2

Activity 6
The cross-sectional area of a steel conductor rail is 25 cm2. What is the resistance of 1 km of the
conductor rail? The resistivity of steel = 2.0 10-7  m;

Lesson 3
Activity 7
Complete the missing words.
1. If you double the length of a wire the resistance will ………………………………………………………

2. If you double the diameter of a wire the resistance will ………………………………………………….

3. If you double the resistivity of a material the resistance will …………………………………………..

Resistivity of materials

Silver and gold are the best conductors; they have a low resistivity. They are however very
expensive. Copper has a low resistivity too, but is still quite expensive. Aluminium has a higher
resistivity, but much lower density, so is relatively cheap. Therefore, aluminium is widely used for
power cables, wrapped around a core of steel for strength.

Some typical values for resistivity are tabulated below:

 Type of material Material Resistivity @ 25 oC (m)
Metal Conductors Copper 1.78  10-8
Gold 2.42  10-8
Steel 2.0  10-7
Metal Alloy conductors Constantan 4.9  10-7
Nichrome 1.0  10-6

Semiconductors Carbon 3.5  10-5

Germanium 0.60
Silicon 2300

Insulators Glass 1013

Polythene 1014

Activity 8
1. Calculate the resistance of a 10.0 m copper wire that has a diameter of 0.60 mm.

2. A sample of unknown material is 1.0 m long and has a radius of 0.30 cm and a resistance of
124 . Calculate the resistivity and using the table above determine the unknown material.

3. Two samples are made of the same material. One sample has a resistance of 500 . The
Lesson 3
second sample is twice as long as the first; what is the resistance of the second sample?

4. Two samples are made of the same material. One sample has a resistance of 45 . The
second sample has three times the radius as the first sample; what is the resistance of the
second sample?
Superconductivity

Definition: Superconductors are materials whose resistance becomes zero

when they are cooled to or below a certain temperature, called the
transition temperature (also known as the critical temperature).

Activity 9
Read the following text and other information shown below to answer the questions that follow.

A potential difference (V) is required to keep a current (I) flowing through a conductor. This is
because electrical energy is transferred into other forms of energy when a current passes through a
conductor that has resistance (R). The potential difference required is given by V = IR. When a
current passes through the superconductor the potential difference across it is zero since the
superconductor has no resistance. Therefore, there is no heating effect and no energy is lost in
passing a current through a superconductor. A current can continue to flow indefinitely in a
superconductor without any further input of energy.

Lesson 4
Superconductors are therefore used to make high power electromagnets (which require very large
currents to produce very strong magnetic fields).

Superconducting magnets are used in MRI scanners and in the magnets directing the path of
particles accelerated in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. They are also used in “maglev” trains
which uses magnetic levitation.

Because superconductors can transfer power without wasting energy they can be used in power
cables, but the cost of keeping the superconductors sufficiently cold can outweigh the savings made.

The highest transition temperature (sometimes called “critical temperature”) for ant material so far
produced is about -123°C (150K). The transition temperature is dependent on the elements used to
make the material.

The following graph shows how the resistance of a superconductor varies with temperature.

NOTE: the drop in resistance at the critical temperature is vertical, not a slope.

Resistance/Ω Material Transition

temperature /K
Aluminium 1.2
Lead 9.2
MgB2 39
YSr2Cu3O7 62

0° Temperature / °C
C
Transition
temperature
 It would be a massive breakthrough if materials are found that
superconduct at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. There
are so many potential applications that it could be world transforming.

Questions

1. What is the effect of heating a superconducting material above its transition temperature?

Lesson 4
2. Liquid helium has a boiling point of 4.2 K and is often used to maintain materials at this
temperature. How would the conduction properties of lead and aluminium be affected by
placing samples of these metals in a flask of helium at its boiling point.

3. Give two present-day uses of superconductors.

4. Explain why more use is not made of superconductors, for example in electrical power
transmission over long distances.
Kirchhoff’s first rule
To conserve charge in a circuit we can see that:

The sum of the currents flowing into a point is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing out of that point.

𝛴 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝛴 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

In other words, the current does not disappear or accumulate at that point. Charge that flows into a
point must flow out. This is usually used to analyse current flow at junctions in circuits.
5A

Lesson 5
9A

4A
From this diagram we can see that there is a total of 9A entering the junction and 9A leaving the
junction.

Activity 10
Recall the meaning of electrical current as the rate of flow of charge as expressed in the equation

and with Kirchhoff’s first rule to answer the following questions.

1. Calculate the current if a charge of 2.4 C passes a point in a circuit every 2.0 ms.

2. Determine the number of electrons passing a point in the circuit per second if a current of
12 mA flows through a circuit.
3. One electron passes a point every 3.5 ns in an electron beam. Calculate the current flowing
in the electron beam.

4. Determine the missing current in the part of a circuit shown below..

Lesson 5
5. The graph below shows the current flowing from a capacitor as it discharges. Find the total
charge that leaves in 180 s.

5
current/mA

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time/s
Conservation of energy in electric circuits

• Charge carriers gain electrical potential energy when passing through a cell or power
supply.
• Charge carriers lose electrical potential energy when they pass through components
that do work using the electrical potential energy, e.g. resistors, motors, light bulbs.

The electrical potential energy of each separate charge carrier (e.g. electron) is extremely
small at any point in a circuit. A more useful measure is the electrical potential energy per
unit charge at any point, which is called electrical potential at that
point, usually shortened to potential. The SI unit of potential is the
joule per coulomb, better known as the volt.
Consider conventional current and the flow of a “unit charge” (one
coulomb) made of many, many positive charge carriers in a simple
circuit (we will explore negative charge carriers in Electric Fields).
Cells: potential is higher at the positive terminal of a cell/power supply
than the negative terminal because a unit charge gains energy in passing through the cell.
Resistors: potential is higher at positive terminal of a resistor than the negative terminal
because a unit charge loses energy in passing through the resistor.

To analyse potential in circuits:

• Wires have the same potential at all points (assume wires are perfect conductors)
• IF a circuit includes an earth, the potential will be fixed at zero volts at the earth.
• If there is no earth, the negative terminal of cell/power supply may be assigned a

Lesson 5
relative potential of zero volts and used to calculate other potentials relative to this
value.

Electromotive force and potential difference

• The differences in potential between two points equals the work done per unit
charge as the current flows between the points.

Definition:
The electromotive force (emf, ℇ) of an electrical supply is the work done per unit
charge on the charge carriers flowing through the supply.

Note: emf it IS NOT a force, it is measured in volts!

Definition:
The potential difference (pd, V) between two points is the work done per unit
charge by the charge carriers flowing between two points.
 Potential difference is measured in volts and is often referred to as just “voltage”.

• Remember: emf is the electrical energy per unit charge given to the charge carriers
by the supply and pd is the electrical energy per unit charge transferred from the
charge carriers.

The volt

Definition:
1 volt is the potential difference (p.d.) between two points if 1 joule of electrical energy is
transferred to other stores of energy for each coulomb of charge that passes between the points.

• V is the potential difference (“voltage”) measured in volts (V)

• W is the work done (or energy transferred) measured in joules (J)
• Q is the charge that passes measured in coulombs (C)
• One volt is one joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 JC-1)

Activity 11: See the diagram below. 4C of charge passes through the bulb entering with
an electrical potential energy of 12.6 J and leaving with 3.4 J. What is the
potential difference across the bulb?

Lesson 5
Current

12.6 J 3.4 J

Students sometimes find p.d. or voltage a little abstract. It may

help to replace the word “volts” or “V” by “joules per coulomb”
whenever you see it. That will remind you, for example, that if you
are told the p.d. across a lamp is 3 V it’s just letting you know that 3
joules of energy are converted per coulomb of charge flowing
through the lamp, and that’s all it means.
Kirchhoff’s second rule
Energy has to be conserved in any circuit.
This implies that the energy supplied by the power supply in a circuit must be transferred to other
stores by the components in the circuit.

From this it can be shown that conservation of energy in a circuit requires:

The sum of the electromotive forces around any loop is equal to the sum of the
potential differences around the same loop.

∑𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 ℇ = ∑𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑉

This means

• potential difference across parallel branches of a circuit are equal

Lesson 5
• potential differences across components in series add to give the total across the series

Combining resistors in series

I
R1 R2 R3

V V V

V1 V2 V3

1. As current passes round the circuit it has only one path to take so the current is the same at
all points in a series circuit (by Kirchhoff’s first rule).

2. Energy must be conserved. As the electrons only have one path to take round the circuit the
potential difference across each resistor must add up to the potential difference of the
supply (by Kirchhoff’s second rule).

Therefore: Vtot = V1 + V2 + V3
 Vtot = V1 + V2 + V3 The current is the same at
Now we know that V = IR from earlier all points in a series circuit
so the I’s cancel out
 IRtot = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3

This is true for any number of resistors in series.

Remember:
• Adding a resistor in series to others always increases the total resistance
• When combining resistors in series the total resistance will always be
higher than any one of the single resistors in the arrangement

Lesson 5
Combining resistors in parallel
V0 Itot
A

R1
I1
Itot

R2
I2

R3
I3

• In this parallel circuit, the current splits along the three branches. The same potential
difference is across each branch because all the branches are connected to the same two
points ( in the diagram). It does not matter which resistor an electron passes through, it
will give up the same quantity of potential energy.
In a parallel circuit the sum of the currents through each branch of the circuit add up
to the total current in the circuit (by Kirchhoff’s first rule)

Itot = I1 + I2 + I3
 Itot = I1 + I2 + I3
V
From I =
R Note: The potential difference is
V0 V0 V0 V0 the same across all branches of a
 = + + parallel circuit and all the V’s, equal
Rtot R1 R2 R3
the cell voltage, V0 , and so cancel
out.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +...........
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

This is true for any number of parallel resistors.

Remember
• adding a resistor in parallel to others always decreases the total
resistance
• When combining resistors in parallel the total resistance will always be
lower than the smallest single resistors in the arrangement

Identical resistors in series and parallel

The formulas for the total resistance when the individual resistors are identical are particularly
simple.
• For N resistors, each of resistance R, combined in series the total resistance is N x R

Lesson 5
• For N resistors, each of resistance R, combined in parallel the total resistance is R/N

Take care: sometimes resistors can look like they are in series but they are not.

Example

Here the two resistors at the top look like they are connected in series but they are not. The resistor
at the left is connected in series with the parallel combination of the other two resistors.

Sometimes resistors can look like they are in parallel but they are not.

Example
Above, the two resistors on the right look like they are connected in parallel but they are not. The
resistor at the bottom is connected in parallel with the series combination of the other two resistors.

Activity 11:
In the following questions find the total resistance of the combination shown.

(a)
5 7 3

(b)

Lesson 5
24

8

16


12 12
(c)

14

18
Activity 12
Three resistors are arranged in series and parallel as shown in the circuit below. They are connected
to a battery of negligible resistance whose terminal voltage is 12.0 V. The questions that follow are
organised so that you can build up information about the circuit.

TIP: Update the diagram to show the current and pd at each stage as you calculate it.

12 V

24 

20 

36 

Lesson 5
1. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit

2. Calculate the total current in the circuit

3. Calculate the potential difference across the 20  resistor and use the answer to find the
potential difference across the parallel pair of resistors.

4. Calculate the currents in the 36  and 24 W resistors

Take care with such problems:

• Make sure the currents in the parallel parts of the circuit add up to the
supply current (Kirchhoff’s 1st rule).
• Make sure that the voltages across each path through the circuit add up
to the supply voltage (Kirchhoff’s 2nd rule).
• If they don’t, go back and check what you’ve done wrong!
The resistance of ammeters and voltmeters
Ammeters
Ammeters are connected in series with the component they are measuring the current through.
The current through the ammeter and the component will always be equal according to
Kirchhoff’s first Rule.
A perfect ammeter should not interfere with the current flow in the circuit. Therefore, an ideal
(perfect) ammeter has zero resistance so that it does not reduce the current in the circuit.
A real ammeter can be thought of as an ideal ammeter in series with a resistor of very small
resistance.

Lesson 5
• Unless you are informed otherwise, you may assume ammeters shown in circuit
diagrams are ideal.

Voltmeters
In any electrical circuit a voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the component it is
measuring the potential difference across. An ideal (perfect) voltmeter should not interfere
with the current flowing in the circuit. Therefore, it should have infinite resistance to stop any
current bypassing the component and increasing the current in the other parts of the circuit.
A real voltmeter can be thought of as an ideal voltmeter in parallel with a resistor of very large
resistance.

• Unless you are informed otherwise, you may assume voltmeters shown in circuit
diagrams are ideal.
Cells in series and parallel
Series
Potential differences in series add togeter to give the potential difference across the whole series.
The same is true for emf values. We can easily find the total emf of a supply that’s made up of cells
connected in series simply by adding them together.
• Remember that emfs have a direction (taken as positive going across the cell from the
negative to posative terminal). For cells facing in opposite directions, one direction must be
assigned a negative value.
Example
The three cells in the diagram below each have an emf of 9V which gives a total emf of 9 + 9 + 9 = 27
volts. If one of the cells is reversed the total emf is 9 + 9 – 9 = 9 volts

Lesson 5
Parallel
At A level we need only consider cells with identical emfs connected in parallel.
Activity 13
Each of the cells in the diagram below has an emf of 9V. Bearing in mind that a charge carrier can
only pass through one cell to gain energy, determine the emf across the parallel combination.

In general, for cells with equal emf values

connected in parallel, the combined emf is

……………………………………………………...........................

………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………
Combined emf = ……………………………….

Activity 14
Question

The circuit opposite is constructed of identical

cells, each of 1.5 V emf. Calculate the total
emf of the circuit.

…………………………………………………. V
Battery-powered devices often have multiple parallel cells. This is not to increase the emf of the
supply but has the following advantages

Lesson 5
• The maximum current that can be supplied is increased.
• Less current is taken from each cell, increasing the lifetime of the cell before needing to be
replaced.
• There is reduced power loss in the supply and less heating of the cells .

Potential dividers
Although it is simple, the potential divider is a very useful circuit. In its simplest form it is two
resistors in series with a supply voltage Vs across the ends. An output voltage V2 is obtained across
either of the resistors. In the example below, we have chosen to take the voltage across R2 and it is
labelled V2.

High potential

Lesson 6
R1

Medium Medium
Vs
potential potential

R2 V2

Zero potential
Zero potential

From Kirchhoff’s rules

In a series circuit you must remember that for each of the two resistors;
• The same current (I) flows through the two resistors.

• The sum of potential differences across the resistors (V1 + V2) is equal to Vs.
• The total resistance is sum of the two resistances (RTotal = R1 + R2)
Since the same current flows in all parts of the circuit there are three expressions for its value

𝑉𝑠 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐼= 𝐼= 𝐼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2

Equating the three expressions for I

𝑉𝑠 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
=
𝑅1
= 𝑅2
You will see that the potential is shared across the two resistors in the same ratio as the resistances,
i.e.
𝑉1 𝑅1
𝑉2
= 𝑅2

and from to Kirchhoff’s Second Rule:

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
I(R1 + R2) = IR1 + IR2
and for resistors in series:

Lesson 6
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The potential differences across the individual resistors may be written

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Neither of these formulae are provided on your

data sheet. Rather than attempting to memorise
them, it is more useful to remember what they’re
doing: simply multiplying the input voltage by the
proportion of the overall resistance represented by
the resistor we’re interested in.

These equations hold for any number of resistors in series. The important point is that 𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the
sum of all the resistors in the series: 𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ……

The potential divider equations may be used in circuits containing parallel components provided we
calculate their equivalent resistance as part of a series circuit.
Example
To find the p.d. across the lamp in the circuit below given the data shown in the diagram

12 V

40 
36 

60 
Firstly, we find the resistance of the lamp and the 60  resistor parallel combination. You should be
able to show that is 24 .

The total resistance is 60 . The p.d. across the parallel components is

24
𝑉 = 12 x = 4.8 𝑉
60

Lesson 6
This is the p.d. across the lamp.

Activity 15 Exam question

 Lesson 6
Activity 16
The circuit diagram below is an alternative format. It is equivalent to a circuit where a 12 V battery
links the two terminals on the left, creating a potential difference of 12 V.

What is the output voltage Vout of this potential divider, and the potential difference across the 6300
 resistor?

12 V

6300 

Vout

3700 

0V 0V

………………………… V
Variable Resistors and potential dividers

Thermistors
A thermistor (negative temperature coefficient or ntc) is made from a special type of material that
when heated releases more free electrons into the material. This increases its ability to conduct
electricity, i.e. resistance is reduced.
Thermistors are widely used in temperature sensing circuits. Normally, this would involve measuring
the potential difference across the thermistor in a potential divider circuit, and using this output to
control a switch (in an oven, for example).
The graph below shows the variation in resistance with temperature for a typical ntc thermistor.

Example
Lesson 6
As the temperature rises the
output voltage shown in the
circuit diagram opposite will
also rise. This is because R2
becomes a bigger proportion
of the total resistance of the
series and will take a larger
proportion of the supply
voltage.
Light dependent resistors (LDRs)

LDRs, like thermistors and diodes, are also made from semiconductors. As the light intensity
(brightness) increases more charge carriers are released and their resistance falls.

In the previous examples, we used two fixed value resistors. There is no reason why one or both of
the resistors should not have a variable resistance.

The following circuit consists of a potential divider made up from an LDR and a fixed resistor R2.

Lesson 6
Activity 17
Complete the missing words

1. In the light the resistance of the LDR 4. In the dark the resistance of the LDR

is …………………………. is ………………………….

2. The LDR will therefore receive a 5. The LDR will therefore receive a

……………… share of the voltage ……………… share of the voltage

3. The output voltage will therefore 6. The output voltage will therefore

be………………. be……………….
If the output voltage was connected to a computer circuit it could be used to trigger a light. When
the voltage level rises above or drops below a certain value this could be used to turn on or turn off
a light. This creates a simple light sensor.
The same circuit could be set up with a thermistor instead of an LDR to act as a temperature sensor.

Activity 18
Calculate the output voltage in the above circuit when
i) the LDR is in the light and its resistance is 200Ω and R2 = 1000Ω
ii) the LDR is in the dark and its resistance is 2000Ω.

Lesson 6
i) Calculate Vout when the LDR is in the light

ii) Calculate Vout when the LDR is in the dark

iii) If the output is connected to a motor with a resistance of 1000 , how does effective value of
R2 change?

iv) Calculate the values of Vout in the light and in the dark when the motor is connected to the
output
Activity 19
The graph below shows the resistance of a NTC termistor that is part of a potential divider circuit
used to switch on a small greenhouse heater if the temperature falls below freezing point to prevent
frost damage to the plants

NTC Termistor Resistance v Temperature The other component in the

potential divider is a resistor
18000 box with a choice of setting
16000 Resistance/ for the resistance:
14000
10 k, 12 k, 15 k,
12000
10000 20 k, 25 k, 50 k
8000 A 12 V supply is connected
6000 across the the potential
4000 divider. The voltage across
2000 the thermistor is is taken as
0
the input for the heater
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 swiching circuit which needs
Temperature/oC a minimum of 3 V to cause
the heater to turn on.
Which resistor value is best to use? Explain your reasoning.

Lesson 6
Activity 20
1. Determine the unknown potential differences in the right-hand diagram below. The supply
emf is 9.0 V. The p.ds. across two resistors are shown in the diagram.
2. The total charge of 1.2 mC passes through a resistor, across which a potential difference of
3.0 V sits.
(a) Calculate the work done by the current.

(b) State the energy transfer this work performs: FROM ………………………… TO ………………………

3. (a) Use Kirchhoff’s Second Rule to find the

missing potential differences shown on
voltmeters A and E.

(b) Find the potential at points B and D, and use

these to find the voltmeter reading C.

Lesson 6
4. The following questions relate to the circuit below.

(a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.

 (b) Calculate the current supplied by the cell.

(c) Calculate the potential difference across the 12  and 6  resistors.

Lesson 6
(d) Calculate the potential difference across the 30  resistor.

(e) Calculate the current through the 20  resistor.

5. Which resistor in the circuit below dissipates the most power. Show your reasoning
EMF and internal resistance

Batteries (or more strictly speaking cells) convert chemical energy into electrical energy. In doing so,
they keep the negative terminal with an excess of electrons and the positive terminal with a
deficiency of electrons. A battery uses chemical energy to do work in pumping the electrons from one
terminal to the other.

Definition: Electromotive force (emf) of a supply is the energy converted into electrical
energy per unit charge passing through the power source.

Lesson 7
This is similar to the definition for potential difference that we saw before, except that it describes
the conversion to electrical energy, rather than the conversion from electrical energy. It represents
the total energy per coulomb that can be supplied to a circuit. No circuit is 100 % efficient. Some
energy is dissipated in the wires and, more importantly for this topic, in the power source itself. We
can relate the emf to the energy with a simple formula:

• ε is the emf of a power supply measured in volts (V) or (JC-1)

• E is the total energy transformed into electrical potential energy in the
supply, measured in joules (J)
• when total charge Q, measured in coulombs (C), passes through the supply.

Terminal voltage and emf

The terminal voltage of a supply is the p.d. measured between its terminals

The terminal voltage of a cell depends on the current being drawn from the cell. The larger the
current drawn from the cell the lower the terminal voltage. When no current is being drawn the
terminal voltage is at its maximum value which is equal to the emf of the cell.
A situation where no current is drawn from the cell is often referred to as open circuit. An ideal
voltmeter (i.e. having infinite resistance) connected to a cell which is not connected to anything else
will measure the emf of the cell.
We can say the emf of a cell is equal to its terminal p.d. in open circuit but this is NOT the definition
of e.m.f. which you need to remember for the exam (see above).

Internal resistance

We have already considered energy being transformed in resistors, bulbs and other components in
the circuit. However in a circuit energy is also transformed in the power supply and the wires as well.
The amount transformed in wires is generally so small that we can consider it to be negligable but
the energy tranformed in the power supply itself may need to be considered.
The key point to remember is that the total chemical energy transformed in a battery is NOT
just equal to the total energy transformed in the other components alone in the circuit. The
energy transformed into other forms inside the battery itself needs to be included in the
energy balance.
This is because all power supplies dissipate heat internally when giving out a current, due to
internal resistance.
A perfect battery would have no internal resistance, but unfortunately there is no such thing as a
perfect battery. Nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries have very low internal resistance, and we
can sometimes regard these as almost perfect. You may need to know where the internal resistance
arises from;
1. In a battery the as charge carriers pass through the chemicals in the battery they encounter
resistance and so dissipate heat.
2. In a power pack like we use in the lab the electrons flowing through the wires, resistors and
capacitors in the power pack itself encounter resistance and so dissipate heat.
Suppose we connect a cell to a high resistance voltmeter as shown below. The voltmeter will read
the emf, the true chemical energy converted into electrical energy in the power supply. For example
lets say 12V

Lesson 7
I

12V
V

Suppose we now add a load as shown below. We will assume the wires have negligible resistance.

I
12 V

R
This time we find that the reading on the voltmeter drops, in our example to lower than 12V. This
tells us that not all of the chemical energy transformed in the battery is being transferred to the
outside circuit. Some of it has been lost due to the internal resistance of the battery itself which will
have lost energy due to heat.

Energy per unit Energy per unit charge Energy per unit charge
charge generated by transformed in the lost to heat due to
the cell components of the internal resistance
= circuit outside the cell
+ inside the cell

emf = terminal p.d. + “lost volts”

Lesson 7
So we represent a circuit with internal resistance as shown below.

So we can treat a real cell as an ideal perfect

ε r cell (of emf, ε) in series with an internal resistor
(of resistance, r).
I You cannot open up the battery to find the
internal resistor; it is part and parcel of the
battery.
V

R
We can now treat this as a simple series circuit and we know that the current, I, will be the same
throughout the circuit. We also know the voltages in a series circuit add up to the battery voltage.

Mathematically: ε = terminal p.d. + “lost volts”

We also know that terminal p.d. = IR and lost volts = Ir: ε = IR + Ir

Which can be simplified to: ε = I(R + r) or ε = V + Ir

• ε is the emf of a power supply measured in volts (V) or

(JC-1)
• I is the total current flowing in the circuit measured in amps
(A)
• R is the total resistance in the circuit outside of the power
supply measured in ohms ()
• r is the internal resistance of the power supply measured in
ohms ()
• The product of IR is referred to as the terminal pd
• The product Ir is the ‘lost’ volts in the power supply
Activity 21
A high resistance voltmeter reads 1.5 V when it is connected to a cell in open circuit. It reads 1.2 V
when the cell is supplying a current of 0.30 A through a resistor of resistance R.

ε = 1.5 V
r

0.30 A

V = 1.2 V
V

Lesson 7
R

(a) What is the size of the potential difference lost due to internal resistance

(b) What is the internal resistance, r?

(c) What is the value of the resistance of the resistor, R? This is one of the assessed practicals so it is
important that you understand the theory and method well.
Practical: Finding the emf and internal resistance of a cell
We can use the apparatus in the following circuit to determine the internal resistance of a cell.

Lesson 7
• We adjust the variable resistor so we can record a range of voltages and currents.

• We use the switch to avoid flattening the battery, and preventing the variable resistor from
getting too hot.
• We plot the results on a graph of terminal pd, V, against current, I

The exam board have set this investigation as one of their assessed
practicals and there have been lots of questions on it in past exams.
Make sure you fully understand the experiment, the results and how
the emf and internal resistance are found from the graph of V against I
shown next.
Results graph

Graph of the terminal p.d. as a function of

V
current supplied

The graph is a straight line, of the form: y = mx + c

Lesson 7
We can make the equation for terminal pd: V = -rI + ε

Activity 22

By comparing the straight-line equation above with the terminal pd equation and
thinking about which quantity is on the y-axis, and which is on the x-axis determine
what the following three quantities from the graph tell us:

1. The intercept on the y-axis tells us the…………………………………………………………………..

2. The intercept on the x- axis tells us the …………………………………………………………………

3. The negative gradient tells us the ………………………………………………………………………….

Activity 23
A cell is connected to a 4Ω resistor, and a voltmeter across the terminals reads 1.2V.
The same cell is then connected across a 2 Ω resistor and the voltmeter reads 1.0V.
What is the emf and internal resistance of the cell?