Educational Technology (Combined)

Educational Technology
Educational technology
Written by:
J K Talabi
Institute for Distance and e-Learning

University of Education, Winneba
© IDeL- UEW
All rights reserved including translation. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
duplication in any information storage or retrieval system, without
prior permission in writing from the Director, IDeL,
University of Education, P.O. Box 25, Winneba
Educational Technology
Published 2015 by
The Institute for Educational Development and Extension
University of Education
P O Box 25
Winneba
Tel: (0)3323 22 046
Fax: (0)3323 22 497
Email: iede@uew.edu.gh
© Institute for Educational Development and Extension, 2015

ISBN 9988-620-07-1
Credits
Graphic Design and Layout:

Emmanuel Owusu
Patricia Appiah-Boateng
Pancras Kwamena Tenteh
Word Processing:
Alice Vera Mensah
Felicity Ennin
Grace Tetteh
Printed in Ghana
U NI T
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1 CONCEPTS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 12
SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 14

Objectives of education 14
Classification of objectives 14
Types of education 16
Formal education 16
Informal education 16
Non formal education 17
Evaluation of the group practical work 18
SECTION 2 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY 20

Technology 20
Group presentation 22
History of technology in Ghana 22
SECTION 3 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 26

What educational technology is? 26
Components of educational technology 26
Analysis of some definitions of educational technology 27
SECTION 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 30

Instructional devices 30
Selected teaching methods 31
Demonstration 31
Drama 32
Laboratory 32
Field trips (Excursions) 33
SECTION 5 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES 36

Meaning of instructional techniques 36
Channels of support of instructional techniques 36
Techniques of innovation diffusion 37
Types of instructional techniques 37
Workshops 38
SECTION 6 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 42

Importance of educational technology to the student 42
Importance of educational technology to the teacher 42
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COMMUNICATION THEORY AND THE USE OF MEDIA FOR TEACHING
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2
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TENT
INTRODUCTION 46
SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION 48

Definition of communication 48
Types of communication 48
Verbal communication 48
Visual communication 49
Written (graphic) communication 49
Gesture or gestural communication 49
Complementation 50
SECTION 2 ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 52

Functions of the elements in the communication model 52
Encoder 52
Decoder (destination, student or audience) 52
Feedback 53
SECTION 3 FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 56

Factors for effective communication 56
SECTION 4 GATEWAYS TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 60

Sensation and perception 60
Sense organs 61
Functions of the sense organs 61
Sense organs and their possible perceptions 61
SECTION 5 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 64

What classification is? 64
How to classify instructional media 64
Reasons for classifying instructional media 65
Examples of classes of media 66
SECTION 6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 68

Factors of communication barriers 68
How the factors cause barriers to communication 68
Reducing the negative effects of communication barriers
in the classroom 70
UEW/IDeL v
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3 PRODUCING AND USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 74
SECTION 1 SPECIFIC VALUES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 76

Clarification of concepts 76
Illustration of concepts 76
Arousal of interest 77
Provision of variety 77
Extension of imagination and experiences 78
Retention of knowledge 78
SECTION 2 CRITERIA FOR USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 80

Relevance 80
Timing 80
Accuracy 81
Appropriateness 81
SECTION 3 BASIC STEPS IN USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 84

Basic steps in using instructional materials 84
Proper selection 84
Preparation 84
Presentation 85
Follow-up 85
Evaluation 85
SECTION 4 THE NEED TO PRODUCE LOW-COST INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS LOCALLY 88
The need to produce low-cost instructional materials locally 88
Meaning of low-cost media 88
Reasons for local production 88
Local craftsmen 90
SECTION 5 TYPES OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 92

Production techniques 92
Imitative production 92
Adaptive production 93
Creative invention 94
SECTION 6 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS AND METHODS

OF PRODUCING LOW-COST INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 98
Some instructional materials which can be produced locally 98
vi UEW/IDeL
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INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
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4
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INTRODUCTION 104
SECTION 1 USING RADIO AND AUDIO TAPE RECORDING

FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 106
Instructional radio 106
Strategies for presenting radio lectures 106
Instructional tape recordings 107
Guidelines and steps for producing instructional recordings 108
Presentation and use 108
SECTION 2 USING TELEVISION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 112

What instructional television is 112
Types of instructional television 112
Procedures for using instructional television for teaching 113
SECTION 3 USING VIDEO RECORDING FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 116

Parts of a video camera and their functions 116
Video camera 117
Types of video camera shots 118
Camera movements 118
Taking colour pictures 119
SECTION 4 USING COMPUTERS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 124

What a computer is 124
Component parts of a computer 124
The hardware 124
The processor 125
Principles of computers 125
Applying computer technology to teaching and learning 126
SECTION 5 USING PROJECTORS AND GRAPHIC DEVICES

FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 130
The overhead projector 130
How to use the overhead projector 131
Graphic devices 132
Preparation of graphic devices 132
SECTION 6 MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 136

Storage and maintenance of electronic equipment 136
Methods of maintenance and storage 136
The importance of maintenance 137
UEW/IDeL vii
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY COURSE INTRODUCTION
Hello, and welcome to this course. Educational technology is one of the

series of courses which you have to take and pass for you to graduate in
your current study. Educational technology is important for you, your
students and this nation for many reasons.
Look around your environment, such as your house, classroom, office or

nearby street. What do you find? You will find relics and evidences of
technology such as electric lights, table or ceiling fans, radio receivers,
television sets, clocks, gas and electronic cookers, refrigerators, computers,
fax machines, telephones, farm and industrial equipment and toys. The
homes and environments of our colleagues and relations who lived about
one hundred years ago were not as sophisticated or advanced as ours today.
This means that we live in a rapidly advancing civilisation and society
which depends on the culture of technology for survival.
The school, as an important agent of education must make students aware

of this culture of technology, by using it to teach in the classroom. Failure
to do this will render classroom learning unmotivating, dull and
unproductive. Such a situation will breed truancy, failures and dropouts
among students. We must avoid this.
The school is meant to develop pupils and students to live and work
successfully in the larger society. Therefore, the ideas and products of
technology must be used for classroom teaching, in order not to create
unnecessary gaps between our rapidly changing society and the school as an
agent of education and change.
Children today are introduced to various types of electronic toys, animals,

vehicles, computers and machinery as play objects right from their earliest
stages in life. This type of exposure continues throughout the child's school
days. When the child graduates from school and gets employment, he or
she is faced with electronic-based or technology-based work in banks,
factories, hospitals, farms, supermarkets and other places of business where
almost all activities are digital [i.e. computer-based].
Digital-based activities mean that the school must not continue to depend
on outdated traditional teaching methods for imparting knowledge on
students. Modern teaching methods coupled with relevant teaching
equipment must be used to enable students learn, understand and remember
what they have learnt faster and more effectively. This is the essence of
educational technology.
The purpose of this course, therefore, is to enable you as a professional

teacher to understand and be able to use these methods and gadgets to
impart concepts in mathematics, science, languages, social studies and other
subjects to students.
The entire course is divided into four units. Each unit is further divided into
six sections. This is aimed at making your work easy for you to go through.
To ensure your active participation in studying this course, a number of
viii UEW/IDeL
EDUCATIONAL
Course introduction TECHNOLOGY
simulated exercises have been included in each of the sections. You are
encouraged to find answers to them. There are also a few assignments and
problems whose answers and solutions you are expected to submit for
evaluation. Your evaluated answers will be returned to you as soon as
possible.
After completing this course, you should be able to:

· define and explain the concept of educational technology.
· list and explain at least seven essential factors of an effective
classroom communication.
· select and manipulate some teaching materials and equipment for
specific topics in your subject area.
· produce some instructional materials with the use of local raw
materials.
· list and explain at least five precautions for the storage and use of
instructional materials and equipment.
I am sure that you will find this course material useful both as a student and
as an educational practitioner in the field.
UEW/IDeL Ix
EDUCATIONAL
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY COURSE PLANNER
TECHNOLOGY
Use this page to make your course planner. Write in the dates by
which you expect to complete each unit in this course. When you
have actually completed each unit, write in the date you completed it.
This will help you to monitor your own progress through the course.
Planned completion date Actual completion date
Unit 1: Concepts in Educational

Technology
Unit 2: Communication Theory and

the use of Media for
Teaching
Unit 3: Producing and using

Instructional Materials
Unit 4: Instructional Equipment and

Materials
x UEW/IDeL
U NI T EDUCATIONAL
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1 TECHNOLOGY
ON S
TENT
CONCEPTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

SECTION 1 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 14
SECTION 2 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY 20
SECTION 3 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 26
SECTION 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 30
SECTION 5 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES 36
SECTION 6 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 42
the adinkra symbol used in the UEW crest

Mate masie I have heard what you have said
UEW/IDeL 11
SCIENCE UNIT 1
EDUCATION Unit xx,CONCEPTS
section xx: TheINquick
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
brown fox, jumped over the lazy dog.
Hello, welcome to unit 1 of this course, dealing with concepts in educational

technology. The whole unit is divided into six sections.
The sections and the topics in each of them are:

Section 1 – The concept of education
Section 2 – The concept of technology
Section 3 – Components of educational technology
Section 4 – Instructional devices and methods of teaching
Section 5 – Instructional techniques
Section 6 – Importance of educational technology
After completing this unit, you should be able to:

 define and explain the concept of educational technology
 identify instructional devices
 define instructional techniques and instructional methods
 list at least three reasons for the importance of educational technology
Now turn to section 1 of this unit and study the concept of education.
12 UEW/IEDE, Dip Inservice

EDUCATIONAL
This page is left blank for your notes TECHNOLOGY
UEW/IEDE, Dip Inservice

13
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 1 CONCEPT
Unit 1, section 1: TheOF EDUCATION
concept of education
Education is the process by which people acquire knowledge, skills, habits,

values, attitudes and moral behaviour.
Education involves both learning and teaching. Sometimes people learn by

teaching themselves or with the help of parents, friends and teachers.
Education helps people to become useful to themselves and their society by

helping them to acquire skills and knowledge. The skills and knowledge
will enable people get good jobs, manage their businesses and adjust to
social changes in the society.
A good education helps to free a person and society from ignorance,

superstition poverty disease and underdevelopment.
Activity 1.1
a. Define education in your own words
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
b. Why is education so important to an individual?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
c. List three qualities which education should inculcate in a person.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
d. Why is education useful to a country? (List three reasons).
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Objectives of education
From the definitions of education, it is clear that people receive education
for different reasons. Some just want to know how to read and write (that is,
literacy and numeracy), while others want to acquire skills to be able to
perform some manual, physical or vocational task, while yet others want to
acquire all the necessary knowledge, skills and values which education can
give.
Classification of objectives
It must be emphasized that educational objectives can be classified into
three areas or domains. These are
1. cognitive domain
2. affective domain
3. psychomotor domain

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 1, section 1: The concept of education TECHNOLOGY
1. The cognitive domain

The cognitive domain aims at increasing a person’s knowledge and mental
or intellectual abilities only. The cognitive domain tries to improve the
human ability to think and reason logically. Most aspects of human learning
fall into this domain. When a teacher who is teaching concepts in science,
mathematics or other subjects encourages the students to memorise, recall,
show understanding and apply the concepts, such an education is operating
mainly in the cognitive domain.
2. The affective domain

The affective domain deals with feelings, values and appreciation. It aims at
enabling the learner to develop appropriate and generally acceptable moral,
spiritual and emotional attitudes so as to fit properly into the society he or
she lives in.
3. The psychomotor domain.

The psychomotor domain aims at developing a person’s muscular or manual
abilities. It makes use of the hands, legs, wrists, tongue and other motor
organs to manipulate objects or carry out functions such as manual labour,
running, jumping and singing. Vocational, technical and other physical
activities also belong to the psychomotor domain.
A good education should not teach any of the objectives of the domains in
isolation; the three domains should be taught to students in an interrelated
manner.
Activity 1.2
a. Why should you have objectives of education?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
b. List and describe the three main domains in any teaching-learning

process.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
c. Fill in the blank spaces with the correct words.

i. A boy who memorises some mathematical formulae and tries
to recite them is operating at the ………………………. level
of education.
ii. A teacher who coaches his students in various sporting

activities such as running, jumping, swimming and basketball
techniques is operating at the ………………………………..
level of educational objectives.
15
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 1: The concept of education
See the end of section 1 for the answers.
Types of education
Education can be classified into three types – formal, informal and non –
formal.
Formal education
Formal education is the type of education that is organised and provided by
teachers in a school setting. Formal education takes place through various
processes such as schooling, training and adaptation.
Formal education is always planned, funded and controlled by government

policy, usually through legislation. It is guided by a definite national
philosophy, goals and objectives. It is usually funded and provided by
government (public schools or institutions) and sometimes by private
individuals, bodies or organisations.
Formal education has quality control methods through constant reviews,

planned curriculum, syllabus and prescribed textbooks, up-to-date teaching
methods, regular funding and a central administration.
Students in a formal education system are often required to undergo

prescribed processes of admission, training and certification.
There are also strict regulations on staff recruitment, retention, training and
promotion.
Fig 1.1: Formal education in progress.
Informal education
This is the same thing as socialization. It is the getting of desired values,
lifestyles, habits and other behaviours which enable some one to live
successfully in a society.

EDUCATIONAL
Informal education is received from parents, friends, religious organizations,

the mass media, teachers, community leaders and the government, among
others.
Informal education has no definite source of control, funding or curriculum.

It continues throughout one’s lifetime.
Non – formal education

The term non-formal education refers to any form of education which a
person receives in order to learn a skill, craft or vocation through the
apprenticeship system; it is usually aimed at helping a person to earn a
living. This type of education was very common in traditional societies.
In modern times people get non-formal education to supplement or upgrade

their main jobs, so as to improve their standards of living. This is necessary,
because of rising costs of living and the rapid educational and technological
changes in the world which renders a person outdated too often. Every
enterprising person, therefore, needs to improve or supplement his or her
skills so as to maintain his or her relevance in the job market.
Many students, teachers, medical doctors, legal practitioners, and others

spend their holidays and leave or other free periods to acquire new skills in
order to either improve their skills or supplement their income base. They
acquire skills in such areas as computer technology, poultry keeping,
business administration, electronic engineering, hair dressing, internet
cyberspace, and other fast-selling crafts and services.
Non-formal education has no definite standard curriculum or government

control.
Fig 1.2: An apprentice A dressmaker
Note: non-formal education is aimed at the acquisition of some functional

skills for the improvement of one’s standard of living.

17
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 1: The concept of education
Activity 1.3
Group work and practical class presentations
 Break yourselves into groups of five.
 Select a group leader for your group.
 Each member of a group should provide the following information to
the group leader for him or her to write them down:
 Your name
 All the formal education institutions you have attended since you
were born, starting from the pre-school primary school to the
present day, including the qualification you obtained from each.
 All the non-formal education or skills you have undergone since
you were born and the skills you learnt from each.
 How you now use your non-formal education to supplement your
formal education earnings. All the values, ideas and behaviours
which you have learnt from your informal education
(socialization) agents such as your mother, father other relations,
friends, enemies, teachers, pastors imams, co-workers etc.
Evaluation of the group practical work

 Let each group leader come to the front of the class and read out the
records he or she has made for each member of the group including
that of him or herself.
 After each presentation students can ask the leader questions of what
they do not understand about any of the report. They should then clap
for that group and another leader to come out and repeat the exercise.
The class teacher will act as the coordinator.
Summary
In this section you have learnt some definitions of education, such as: “it is a
process for the acquisition of knowledge, skills, habits, values attitudes and
moral behaviour”.
You also learned in this section that there are three main domains objectives
of any educational process. These are the cognitive domain affective
domain, and psychomotor domain. A good education combines the three
domains for the individual’s overall development.
Answers to activities
Activity 1.1
a. (i) Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, habits,
values, attitudes, and moral behaviour.
(ii) It enables the individual to get a good job and live
successfully in a society.
(iii) It helps to reduce ignorance, poverty, disease and
underdevelopment in a society.

EDUCATIONAL
b. It helps the individual to acquire functional skills and values with

which to live and adjust to what society experts of the individual.
c. i Skills, for doing work or performing

ii Values, for judging what is right or wrong
iii Good habits, to be able to live peacefully with others in
society.
d. Education is very useful to a country because it helps to reduce

i. ignorance
ii. disease
iii. superstition
iv. poverty
v. underdevelopment.
Activity 1.2
a. Your answer should state the main reason why a person would want
to be educated or why a teacher is educating some one.
b. Cognitive domain involves intellectual skills

Affective domain involves emotional development
Psychomotor domain involves physical and manual training.
c. i. Cognitive
ii. Psychomotor

19
EDUCATION
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 2 THE CONCEPT
Unit 1, section OF
2: Concept of TECHNOLOGY
technology
This section of Unit 1 deals with technology. When most people hear the
word, technology, they start thinking of great engineering works and
projects such as aeroplanes, spacecrafts, dams and bulldozers. Yes, they are
partly correct, but those are not the only things that can be described as
technology.
Technology can sometimes be more or less than those great engineering

wonders of man. Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of Ancient
Greece once said man is a tool maker. By this, he meant that the human
being is naturally a technological being. Of all known animals in the
universe, only human beings can make tools. This is why humans have been
able to develop a very advanced civilization.
When a person designs a simple instrument to help him or her accomplish a

task, that instrument is a form of tool, and a product of technology. An
orange seller who uses a razor blade to peel oranges for sale is more
technological than one who uses her or his bare hands. The one using the
blade will peel the oranges faster and neater than the other using her/his
hands.
Technology is with us everywhere and at anytime. So long as you and I can

think hard and come up with new ideas to develop new ways, methods and
tools to solve our social and physical problems, we are engaged in
technology.
This section will give you many ideas about the meaning of technology.
Later in other sections, you will be asked to apply the ideas to solve
problems in your work of teaching.
After completing this section you should be able to:

 define technology
 list at least five products of technology in your home
 explain why humans try to develop tools to solve problems.
Technology
Technology is the using or applying of human senses and abilities to
perform tasks. This definition shows you that we will be helpless in our
environment without one form of technology or the other. The telephone,
for instance, is an extension of the human being’s ability to hear sounds
coming from long distances. Similarly, the telescope enables human beings
to see things located in long distances.
According to Davis and Hartley (1972) “technology is that complex of

human activity which is concerned with using the findings of art and science
to solve problems”. This definition indicates that useful ideas in art, that can
help solve problems, can be termed as technology. It also means that any

EDUCATION
Unit 1, section 2: Concept of technology TECHNOLOGY
useful ideas, devices, procedures, methodology, hardware and software are

all forms of technology.
Technology may also be defined as “the application of the arts, sciences,

processes, ideas, tools and machines to solve human problems”. Technology
enables us to change our environment to suit our needs. It is mainly
concerned with “making things happen” or overcoming problems or
difficulties.
All the above definitions show that the sole aim of technology is the finding
of solutions to problems that face humans. Try to develop two other
definitions based on this idea.
Fig: 2.1: A simple agricultural technology in use – hoe and cutlass.
Fig 2.2: Combine harvester

21
EDUCATION
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 2: Concept of technology
Activity 2.1
Do this activity with your study group.
The group must break into five subgroups.
Each subgroup should select a group leader. He or she will organise the
group members to develop points and ideas to explain and illustrate the
topic to be discussed and to record the group report in a note book. The
groups are assigned to work as follows:
Group 1: Technology as an idea.
Group 2: Technology as a method of carrying out a task.
Group 3: Technology as a tool for solving problems
Group 4: Technology as an extension of human ability to perform
tasks.
Group 5: Technology as a culture of civilisation and a way of life
Some materials you can use for developing your points are your own
personal experiences in everyday life, in the school, home, industry and
society as a whole. You can also study diagrams in books.
Group presentation
After a thorough deliberation and discussion by groups to develop points to
support their topic, each group leader, will prepare a detailed list of the
points and present the subgroup’s report to the whole group. A group leader
will chair the presentation of a group other than his or her own group.
After each presentation, members of the whole group should be allowed to

contribute to what has already been presented. They must be given the
opportunity to ask questions which may be answered by members of the
subgroup presenting the report. Each group should add from other groups,
relevant points accepted by all, but missing in their own report.
History of technology in Ghana
Activity 2.2
In the table below are six technologies, including Agriculture and Housing.
Write (in your jotter) an outline history of each technology in Ghana from
ancient times to modern times. Use the following format.
TECHNOLOGY ANCIENT TIMES MODERN TIMES

1. Agriculture ……………………………… ………………………….
…………............................. ……………………………… ………………………….
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
2. Housing (Architecture) ……………………………… …………………………..
…………………………… ……………………………… …………………………..
………................................. ……………………………… …………………………..
3. Transportation ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
…………………………… ……………………………… …………………………..
…………………………… ……………………………… …………………………..

EDUCATION
4. War/Warfare (Military) ……………………………… …………………………..

……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
5. Medical (medicine) ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
6. Music, recreation and ……………………………… …………………………..
entertainment ………… ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
……………………………. ……………………………… …………………………..
Activity 2.3
a. In your own words, state three definitions of technology.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………...
b. Give five reasons why human beings invent tools or propose ideas to
solve their problems.
c. List five items in your classroom which are products of technology.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
d. List five items in your home which are products of technology.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
e. Some of the following items are products of technology, others are

natural objects or concepts. Tabulate them under technology and non-
technology concepts or products.
Items: Book, wind, sea water, clock, map, picture, sand, thunder, wild
fruits, wild animals, television, computer, plastic, mobile phone, the
internet.
Technology concepts or products Non-technology concepts or

products

23
EDUCATION
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 2: Concept of technology
Summary
This section has discussed the concept of technology. We used four
different definitions, namely:
(i) Technology is an extension of human abilities to perform tasks with
the aid of instruments, gadgets and other tools.
(ii) Technology is a human activity which uses ideas in art and science
to solve problems.
(iii) Technology aims at enabling human beings to change their
environment to suit their needs.
(iv) Technology has various forms, which include useful ideas, devices,
procedures, methodology, hardware and software.
I hope you found this section on the concept of technology very easy and
interesting. Take a break of 15 minutes and move on the section 3, where
you will learn about the components of educational technology.
Activity 2.2
a. i Technology is an extension of human ability to perform tasks
ii Technology is the use of ideas, processes and methods to find
solutions to problems.
iii Technology is the use of tools and machines to change human
environment to suit his needs
b. Human beings invent tools to:

i help them save time at work
ii help them work more efficiently
iii help them do what their natural powers cannot do.
iv help them have more time to rest, that is, leisure time.
v help them get rich
c. Globe, map, books, desks, electric bulb (and other man-made objects)
d. Electric cooker, refrigerator, table, television set, radio, (and other man-
made objects)
Technology concepts or products Non-technology concepts or

products
Book, clock, map, picture, Wind, sea water, sand, thunder,
television, computer, plastic, mobile wild fruits, wild animals.
phone, and the internet

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25
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 3 EDUCATIONAL
Unit 1, section TECHNOLOGY
3: Components of educational technology
Well done for completing Sections 1 and 2. You have already studied the
concept of education and that of technology. In this section you will be
exposed to Educational Technology.
After completing this section you should be able to

 define educational technology
 list the components of educational technology
What educational technology is?

Educational technology is the application of the principles and findings of
the physical and behavioural sciences to plan, design, develop, and
implement educational systems.
Educational technology is based on the fact that scientific knowledge should

form the basis for the development of any viable educational system.
Educational technology is very systematic. It proceeds and makes progress

in a step-by-step manner. It starts with behavioural objectives and ends with
evaluation.
Educational technology is concerned with the improvement of education

within the classroom or school system and the improvement of the whole
society through education.
Instructional technology is part of educational technology. It is the

application of the theories of psychology, curriculum and innovation to
designing, producing and using hardware and software to make classroom
teaching more effective.
Components of educational technology

Educational technology is made up of three components. These are
1. instructional devices, which are …
2. instructional techniques, that deal with …
3. instructional methods, which mean …
Each of these components will be discussed in detail in later sections of this
course.
Activity 3.1
a. State briefly three definitions of educational technology
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… ………………………………………………………………………..…..

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 1, section 3: Components of educational technology TECHNOLOGY
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b.In your own words, state five reasons why teachers and other
educational practitioners develop educational technology (Hint: Use
your ideas of the concepts of technology).
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Analysis of some definitions of educational technology

Let us now recall the meaning of educational technology and relate it to the
other subjects in the physical and behavioural sciences which we have learnt
in school. Look again at the first definition. The key words there are
application, physical sciences and behavioural sciences.
Now take each term and analyse it on its own merit. What do you
understand by the terms “application”, “physical science” and “behavioural
science”?
Application refers to the use of ideas to solve human and non-human

problems. Physical science refers to subjects like physics, chemistry and
mathematics. In physics, ideas were developed to produce electricity, lenses,
engines and electronic gadgets. Behavioural science refers to subjects such
as psychology, sociology and economics which deal with human behaviour.
From the explanation given above, you see that educational technology as
we noted under “Technology” in section 2, borrows most of its ideas,
methods and devices from other subjects such as psychology, sociology,
physics, chemistry, mathematics and electronics. It blends all of them to
embrace every aspect of society in a step-by-step (that is, systematic) way,
all in an effort to make teaching effective.
Illustrations of how educational technology applies to every aspect of

society.

27
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 3: Components of educational technology
Fig 3.1: Nursery school children are learning how to use abacus for solving
problems in mathematics.
Fig 3.2: Children reading in a library
Educational technology is concerned with the improvement of education in

every aspect of society as figs 3.1 – 3.3 indicate.
Educational technology is concerned with the improvement of education in

every aspect of society.
Activity 3.2
a) Select one of the five definitions of educational technology and
make a detailed analysis of the words and terms which make up the
definition.
b) When you finish (a) compose your own definition based on the
analysis you have made.
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EDUCATIONAL
Unit 1, section 3: Components of educational technology TECHNOLOGY
………………………………………………………………………
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Summary
Educational technology is aimed at improving education both in the
classroom and the entire society. Educational technology uses ideas from
the physical and behavioural sciences to plan, design, develop, and
implement educational processes in a systematic manner.
Instructional technology is concerned with teaching and learning processes

in the classroom and it is an integral part of educational technology.
Answers to activity 3.1

a. i. Educational technology uses ideas in art and science to develop
materials and methods for effective educational outcomes.
ii. Educational technology is concerned with the improvement of
education in the entire society
iii. Educational technology is very systematic in approach
b. i. To save time in teaching and learning.

ii To enhance productivity in teaching and learning
iii To make learning easier and less boring.
iv To make teaching less difficult for the teacher
v To make learning more effective.

29
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 4 INSTRUCTIONAL
Unit 1, section 4: InstructionalDEVICES
devices andAND METHODS
methods of teachingOF TEACHING
You are welcome to Section 4 of Unit 1. How did you find the last three
sections you studied? I hope you enjoyed them. As you progress in this
course, you will observe that each section takes you away from general
concepts into specific concepts of educational technology.
In this section, I shall discuss with you instructional devices and methods of
teaching.
After completing this section, you should be able to:

 define the concept of instructional devices.
 list at least five devices which you can use for classroom teaching.
 differentiate between hardware and software among the instructional
devices.
 describe the use of three teaching methods.
 apply the methods in your teaching.
Instructional devices
Instructional devices are the various types of instructional materials or
teaching materials which are used to facilitate the teaching-learning process
in the classroom.
Instructional devices which are commonly used in the classroom are

chalkboards (blackboards), pictures, posters, maps, textbooks, overhead
projectors, opaque projectors, radio, television sets, video equipment, and
computers.
Instructional devices may be classified either as hardware or software.

The hardware are devices such as television sets, video equipment,
computer and projectors. The software include chalkboards, maps, posters,
pictures and exercise books.
A radio is a valuable instructional device for getting information both
locally and globally.
Activity 4.1
a. What do you understand by instructional devices?
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b. List six instructional devices.

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EDUCATIONAL
Unit1, section 4: Instructional devices and methods of teaching TECHNOLOGY
c. Classify the six instructional devices you have listed into software and
hardware.
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……………………………………………………………………………
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In this section I have only introduced you to what instructional devices are
and examples of the devices. In unit 4, I shall show you, how to use the
hardware devices.
Selected teaching methods

During the introduction of this course you were informed that methods of
teaching are a vital aspect of educational technology. In this section we shall
discuss demonstration, drama, laboratory, field trips or excursions as
methods of teaching.
Demonstration
The demonstration method enables the teacher to display certain objects and
actions in the class for students to see, hear, observe, touch and learn. A
demonstration can be used at the beginning, middle or end of the lesson to
arouse and maintain attention. When the teacher is carrying out the
demonstration, the students watch his or her actions and listen to his or her
explanations. The teacher may stop at certain stages and tell the students to
practise individually or in groups what they have seen. Alternatively, the
teacher may carry out the entire procedure before asking students to
practise.
A science teacher can demonstrate the dissection of a rabbit. A physical

education teacher can demonstrate how to kick a football to score a goal. A
mathematics teacher can demonstrate how to construct angles, using a pair
of compasses, a pencil and a protractor. A home economics teacher can
demonstrate how to bake bread. These are examples of demonstration as a
teaching method.
Advantages
1. Demonstration offers practical examples to students.
2. It helps students to depend less on verbal communication.
3. It helps the teacher to arouse and maintain students’ attention.
How to improve the demonstration method

1. The teacher should not crowd the demonstration with too many
concepts at a time.
2. The teacher should not rush the demonstration but proceed gradually.
3. A good demonstration should not last too long otherwise it will
become boring and lose its motivational effect.

31
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 4: Instructional devices and methods of teaching
Drama
The drama method of teaching is mainly suitable for non–scientific subjects
such as history, social studies, Literature in English, religious instruction
and English Language. In using this method, learners are required to imitate
some behaviours so as to understand the concepts and characters they are
learning about. During dramatisation, the classroom is prepared to resemble
the environment which the students are learning about. The students (actors)
wear the dresses (costume) which look like those of the original characters.
The dramatic method is one of the most effective ways of teaching non-
science subjects.
Advantages
1. The drama method of teaching provides one of the most modern and
natural ways of learning through imitation. Students play, mimic and
behave like the characters.
2. They enjoy the lesson and are motivated to learn.
3. The drama method is very practical in approach.
How to improve the drama method

1. The teacher should ensure that all the necessary costumes, actors and
classroom arrangement are prepared in readiness before the lesson
starts.
2. The teacher should enrich the drama method with a lot of visual
instructional materials. He or she should also give some tests or
projects to students as a form of evaluation at the end of the drama
period.
Laboratory
The laboratory method is mainly used for the teaching of science subjects.
This method is useful for helping students to acquire understanding and
practical application of skills in science. Students are taken to the laboratory
and given all the necessary apparatus such as test tubes, lenses,
microscopes, computers, chemicals and reagents to work with, following
specific instructions from the science teacher. The teacher leads the
students to perform experiments, make objective observations and write
reports independently.
The laboratory method of teaching provides one of the best ways of teaching
science.
You saw illustration of a teacher and his students in a science laboratory

earlier on. Refer to Fig 1.1 of Unit 1, section 1 to refresh your memory.
Advantages
1. It helps students to discover scientific laws and principles
2. It helps students to develop the ability to work independently

EDUCATIONAL
3. It helps students to be careful in observation and experimentation

4. It also helps students to make objective analysis and reporting of
findings, following strict procedures.
How to improve the laboratory method

1. The teacher should make the guidelines and problems which need to
be solved in the laboratory clear to all students
2. All the tools needed for the laboratory work should be provided to
every student
3. The teacher should personally guide and supervise students’ work in
the laboratory
4. Safety behaviours expected in the laboratory should be made clear to
students to prevent laboratory accidents such as burns, fires and
breakages
Field trips (Excursions)

Field trips enable students and teachers to learn outside the school and
classroom environment. This gives them the opportunity to learn in new and
more relaxed conditions. During field trips students are led to make and
record their observations, collect and classify objects, data and other types
of information. Field trips can take students to places like factories,
harbours, airports, museums, stadia, trade fairs, festivals, banks, zoos,
forests and war zones.
Advantages
1. It allows students to engage in learning activities which cannot be
done in the classroom.
2. It makes learning real and practical to life
3. It provides students with interesting, first-hand experiences
How to improve field trips

(i) The teacher should first make a visit to the place to see the authorities
in charge of the venue to get permission for the trip. Such a visit will
also enable the teacher to know what dangers lie there and what
precautions to take before the students embark on the trip.
(ii) Before the trip, students should be told to take their notebooks, pens,
training kits, drinking water, snacks, appropriate dresses and other
things necessary for a successful trip.
(iii) During the trip, students should be allowed to interact with some of
the workers at the site so as to get the relevant information.
(iv) The teacher seeks permission for students to be allowed to take some
sample products or specimen objects back to their school for study or
preservation.
After the trip, students should be asked to write a full report which they will
submit to the teacher for grading, as a form of evaluation and follow–up.

33
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 4: Instructional devices and methods of teaching
Activity 4.2
Describe (in three lines each) each of the teaching methods that you have
read about in this section.
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Summary
Instructional devices are the various teaching materials used for enhancing
classroom teaching. Some types of instructional devices are chalkboards,
pictures, projectors, computers, television, computers, television sets, and
radio. Instructional devices can be classified into hardware and software.
Teaching methods such as demonstration, drama, laboratory and field trips

were also discussed.
Mark your activity 4.2 with the suggested answer at the next page. I hope
you got it right or got close to the answer.
Now, continue to section 5 for your study on instructional techniques.
Activity 4.1
a: Instructional devices are the various types of instructional materials and
equipment which a teacher uses for teaching concepts or illustrate to
students to enable them understand more easily.
b:
i. Blackboard (chalk board)
ii. Pictures
iii. Television sets
iv. Radio
v. Computers
vi. Overhead projectors

EDUCATIONAL
c:
Software Hardware
Pictures, poster, maps, textbooks Blackboards, overhead projectors
opaque projectors, television, video
equipment, computers
Activity 4.2
The demonstration method – learning by carrying out a procedure which the
teacher has performed for students to watch or observe and practise.
The dramatic method – learning through imitation of certain characters in

history, literature, religion government and other arts subjects.
The laboratory method – learning to observe, experiment, collect data and

samples, and to make objective analysis and write reports.
Field trips – learning by going away from the classroom into the field, zoos,
parks, factories and other areas where students can experience the realities
first-hand.

35
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 5 INSTRUCTIONAL
Unit 1, section 5: InstructionalTECHNIQUES
techniques
By now you must have become familiar with many of the concepts used in
educational technology. In this section you are going to learn yet another
concept. This is known as instructional techniques.

 define the term, instructional technique
 explain why teachers need instructional techniques
 state the aims of instructional techniques
 identify the channels you can use to improve instructional techniques
Meaning of instructional techniques

Instructional techniques are the skills for imparting and enhancing
knowledge through the use of workshops, seminars, conferences,
exhibitions, symposia, debates and in-service courses. These techniques
provide forums and opportunities for various people of specific fields of
study to exchange views and ideas through the presentation of papers,
publications, demonstration of skills and new products and oral discussions
among others.
The aim of instructional techniques is to help spread or disseminate new

ideas so that other people can understand, accept and adopt them. Such new
ideas are developed and generated through inventions, social change,
research, curriculum change and new scientific and technological
discoveries.
Teachers, students, businessmen and others in society need instructional

techniques because they help them to get in touch with the latest changes
and ideas in their fields of study or occupation. If they do not take advantage
and attend conferences, workshops other for a,. they will soon become
outdated in their knowledge, skills, and values.
Channels of support of instructional techniques

In order to make the public aware or publicise of exhibitions, conferences
and other forms of techniques, organisers must use some channels of
passing on information. These are:
1. the mass media such as the press – newspapers, magazines, television,
radio broadcasts.
2. mail, such as letters, e-mail, telex, fax,
3. emblems, such as vests, stickers, banners, flags which bear the logo or
message.
4. posters, handbills and leaflets.
Activity 5.1
a. What does the term “instructional techniques” mean?
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EDUCATIONAL
Unit 1, section 5: Instructional techniques TECHNOLOGY
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b. State three aims of instructional techniques.

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c. State three reasons why teachers need to attend conferences, workshops,

exhibitions and in-service training courses.
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d. List three channels of creating awareness when using instructional

techniques such as exhibitions, workshops and conferences.
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Techniques of innovation diffusion

The techniques of innovation diffusion are mainly concerned with the
training of selected people or agents who will later be responsible for
helping to make other people aware of the new ideas. Some groups of
people who may be invited for such training are:
1. Teachers, education planners, policy makers, education inspectors and
consultants.
2. Media specialists and directors of institutes, research centres, Ghana
Education Service (GES), and media centres.
3. Deans of Faculties, lecturers, researchers in universities, polytechnics
and vocational institutions.
4. Police and military officers.
5. Officials from ministries, radio and television stations, newspaper
editors, journalists and other officials from the mass media, political
parties and trade unions.
6. Principals, headmasters, managers in private and public establishments
and politicians
7. Students, entrepreneurs and business tycoons
8. Others who may be considered relevant by the sponsors of the
innovation.
Types of instructional techniques

In the rest of this section, you will learn more about the following
instructional techniques:
1. Workshops
2. Symposiums (Symposia)
3. Seminars

37
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 5: Instructional techniques
4. Conferences
5. In-service training
6. Exhibitions
Workshops
A workshop is organised to train participants in certain innovative skills.
Workshops are very practical and vigorous in nature. During workshops,
participants are trained on how to carry out certain skills, such as how to
operate computers, write or edit books, produce instructional materials,
conduct research into issues, design curriculums, evaluate some devices or
methods of teaching and practise educational management skills.
Well-qualified specialists serve as consultants or facilitators to instruct the

participants at such workshops while the participants are given opportunity
to practise what they have been taught. These are evaluated and, at times
prizes are given to the best achievers. Certificates of attendance may be
given to all the participants at the end of the workshop.
Workshops aim at enabling people to specialise in some innovative skills for

the improvement of their occupation.
1. Symposia
A symposium is a collection of essays, articles and other forms of papers
presented by eminent and qualified personalities on a problem or subject.
Symposia are not as rigorous or practical as workshops. They, however,
give comprehensive analyses and discussions on trends and issues on
educational, socio-economic, scientific and technological problems, with the
aim of seeking lasting solutions to them.
2. Seminars
A seminar is organized for a group of students or specialists in a subject of
specialization, to help them study a problem for discussion with a teacher or
a consultant. Seminars are mostly used in learning institutions for improving
teaching and research. They are also used for training experts in innovative
skills.
3. Conferences
A conference is a meeting of individuals called together to engage in
discussions with the aim of completing a task within a limited time. They
serve as instruments for national and international cooperation, data
gathering, innovation diffusion and research.
A conference may be modified in several ways to suit a variety of tastes and

conditions. It may bring together three or four specialists for consultation. It
may also bring together all the personnel who have permanent working
relationship to one another in organizations such as industry, hospitals,
secondary schools, universities or government bureaux.

EDUCATIONAL
It may again bring together, periodically, individuals whose different

professional interests are connected through their concern with a common
problem.
In its most general definition, a conference may bring together thousands of

delegates and observers, as for example, political or constitutional or
educational conferences. The experts gather to consider a wide range of
problems in their field of interest.
Conferences have well-defined structures. They start with registration of

delegates, the opening, objectives and order of proceedings, and election or
selection of officials, for example, chairperson, and reporters. They also
feature various sessions such as opening address, keynote speech,
deliberations and discussion of matters, plenary sessions, ad hoc committee
reports, recommendations, resolutions, final report and follow-up.
4. In-service training
In-service training courses are short or long courses which are organised for
teachers and other workers. The aim is to improve their skills and
qualifications in new methods, techniques of research, material production
and inventions.
In-service courses are very useful techniques of innovation diffusion

because the participants go back to their jobs to disseminate the new ideas
received during their training. In-service courses help to keep teachers and
other workers up-to-date in their fields of study and work, by acquainting
them with the latest developments in their areas of specialisation. This
prevents such workers from being rendered outdated by progress in sciences
and technology.
5. Exhibitions/expositions and fairs.

An exhibition is a collection of various goods for public display. Such goods
may include new educational equipment, commercial or industrial goods,
animals, plants, services and inventions. Exhibitions are sometimes called
expositions or fairs.
During exhibitions, people go to the venues to transact business or inspect

the goods and services on display. Most of the educational equipment used
in schools today were first seen on display during exhibitions. Some of such
products or services were originally produced for military or commercial
purposes but teachers later adapted them for classroom use.
Exhibitions are very useful for displaying and advertising locally-produced

instructional hardware and software. Such exhibitions will encourage local
craftsmen and teachers to use their creative abilities for producing

39
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 5: Instructional techniques
educational media with the use of local raw materials. Such products can
then be improved through research, industry and government support.
Activity 5.2
Do this work in your jotter.
a. Give an outline of how you would plan and organise a workshop on the
production of instructional materials for fifteen teachers in your locality.
The workshop will last three days and will take place only in the
afternoons. Your plan should include, among other things,
i. the instructional materials that the participants will produce
ii. timetable
iii. materials required and their quantities.
iv. materials to be provided by participants
vi. programme for opening session
vii. programme for closing session
viii. list of guests to be invited
x. detailed budget to cover cost of materials, snacks, transport and
refreshment.
b. You and one of your colleagues should swap your work and give
feedback to each other
Summary
In this section, you have learnt that instructional techniques, which are a
component of educational technology, seek to improve the skills,
qualifications and the level of awareness of people in various fields of study
through, for instance, the organization of workshops, in-service training
programmes and exhibitions (fairs).
These techniques help to diffuse innovative ideas, products, services and

processes through the exchange of views, demonstration of products, and
discussion of research findings by experts in various fields. These activities
prevent people from becoming out-dated by keeping them informed of the
latest developments in their fields and occupations. Some channels which
are used to support these techniques to improve publicity and awareness are
the mass media, posters, mail and emblems
Activity 5.1
a. i. Instructional techniques are skills which are used for imparting
knowledge to people through workshops, conferences, and
exhibitions.
ii Instructional techniques are forms of instruction which enable
people of various fields of study and occupation to become aware
of innovations in their field.

EDUCATIONAL
b. i To help diffuse innovation

ii To encourage research and inventions
iii To enhance social and educational development in society.
c. i To update their skills in teaching

ii To help them get new ideas from their colleagues from other
schools, regions and countries.
iii To keep them informed of the latest changes and new ideas in their
occupation and field of study.
d. i The mass media

ii Mail
iii Emblems and posters

41
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 1 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 6 IMPORTANCE
Unit 1, section OFofEDUCATIONAL
6: Importance TECHNOLOGY
educational technology
From all the topics you have gone through so far, you must have become
aware that educational technology is very important for the teaching-
learning process. Imagine a school system or classroom without
blackboards, maps or other instructional devices. Imagine a country where
conferences, workshops and other innovative activities are non-existent.
Such a country would be lagging behind other countries in development.
In this section you will be exposed to the importance of educational

technology.

 give three reasons why educational technology is important to the
student
 state in at least two sentences the importance of educational
technology to the teacher
Importance of educational technology to the student

Educational technology takes care of individual differences. Different
learners learn in different ways and at different rates. Some students learn
better when the teacher uses simple blackboard diagrams to illustrate
concepts. Other students prefer pictures or practical demonstrations. Once
the teacher understands this principle, he or she will be able to use different
instructional devices to satisfy different students in the same lesson, so that
every student will benefit.
Educational technology improves learning outcomes. When a teacher uses

instructional materials and suitable methods to teach, students are motivated
to learn without difficulty. Students therefore learn faster, retain or
remember what they have learnt and are able to apply what they have learnt
easily. School life becomes very interesting to students because they enjoy
their lessons. Such an enjoyment will improve school attendance and
results.
Activity 6.1
Summarise in one sentence, any one reason to show the importance of
educational technology to students.
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Importance of educational technology to the teacher

The use of the ideas and objects of educational technology for teaching
enables the teacher to have adequate control over the students. Students

Unit 1, section 6: Importance of educational technology
become controllable when their interest in the lesson is aroused. The

incidence of indiscipline is thus minimised.
It gives classroom instruction a scientific base. When teachers use various

forms of instructional devices, learning experiences become more specific
and objective. Knowledge is better diffused and evaluation of learning is
easier to monitor.
It helps the teacher to complete his/her teaching activities faster and with
less difficulty.
Educational Technology enables the teacher to teach with relative ease and
become successful because students enjoy the lesson and learn faster
through the resultant motivation.
Activity 6.2
State three advantages which a teacher derives from his or her use of
educational technology.
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Fig 6.1: A female teacher using a computer to teach a child.
Educational technology is important because it equips teachers with best

teaching skills.
The teacher in fig 6.1 is using computer instruction to individualise learning

experiences for this student.

43
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 1, section 6: Importance of educational technology
Summary
In this section, you have learnt the importance of educational technology.
You learnt that educational technology is very important to the student
because it takes care of individual differences, makes learning interesting
and improves learning outcomes.
Educational technology is important to the teacher because it enables him or

her to achieve his or her objectives faster and with less effort. His or her
teaching is more objective and he/she is able to control the class better.
Now take a rest and move on to unit 2, which deals with communication
theory and the use of media for teaching.
Activity 6.1
 It caters for individual differences
 It improves learning outcomes
 Learning becomes motivating and enjoyable.
Activity 6.2
 Teacher is able to control his or her class easily because the students
are motivated to learn
 Disciplinary problems are reduced and the teacher is able to complete
his or her teaching tasks faster
 The teaching-learning process becomes more objective and attainable
when adequate and relevant instructional materials and methods are
used.

U NI T EDUCATIONAL
C
2 TECHNOLOGY
ON S
TENT
COMMUNICATION THEORY AND THE USE OF MEDIA FOR TEACHING

SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION 48
SECTION 2 ELEMENT OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 52
SECTION 3 FACTORS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 56
SECTION 4 GATEWAYS TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 60
SECTION 5 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 64
SECTION 6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 68

UEW/IDeL 45
SCIENCE
UNIT Unit xx,COMMUNICATION
2 THEORY
section xx: The quick brown fox, jumped over the lazy dog.
EDUCATION AND THE USE OF MEDIA FOR TEACHING
Hello! You are welcome to unit 2 which has the theme, “Communication
Theory and the Use of Media for Teaching”. In unit 1, you learnt about the
meaning, components and importance of educational technology to both
teachers and students.
In this unit you are going to add to what you have already learnt by moving
to a higher level in your study of educational technology. At the beginning
of Unit 1, Section 1, you were made aware of some new (technical) words
which you would come across from time to time in this course. One of such
words is media. Media, as you were told, is the plural form of medium
which means any object, instrument or concept which a teacher uses to
convey meaning to his students.
In section 4 of unit 1, you read about various forms of instructional media

which a teacher uses for teaching. The concepts you learnt in unit 1 will
make you easily realise the importance of this unit. You will learn what
human communication is, how it is processed, why it can fail or succeed in
the purpose for which it is transmitted and why we need media to facilitate
its speed of transmission and purpose.
After completing this unit, you should be able to

 define the concept of communication.
 list the essential factors of human communication
 describe the gateways to human communication
 classify instructional media (that is teaching-learning materials)
 identify factors which cause barriers to effective communication

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47
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 1 THE CONCEPT
Unit 2, section OFofCOMMUNICATION
1: The concept ommunication
I welcome you to section 1 of unit 2. In this section, I shall expose you to

the concept or idea of communication. Your study of the concept of
communication will focus on communication among human beings. There
are other forms of communication in biology and the radio sciences but
these are outside of the scope of our study in this course.
After learning this section, you should be able to:
Definition of communication
Communication in education is the arousal of common meanings between
the teacher (SOURCE) and the learners (DESTINATION). Communication
can also be defined as the transfer of a concept or meaning from one mind to
another. Communication is sharing information through speaking, writing,
sign language, symbols, gestures or a combination of two or more of these
mediums. Communication is the transmission of information from one
person to another in order to convey or express thoughts, wishes, feelings,
opinions, emotions, facts and messages. Without communication human
society will not be able to progress or survive.
Activity 1.1
Explain what you understand by the term communication.
……………………………………......………………………………………
………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………......………………………………………
Types of communication
Human beings express themselves in many ways. There are four major
types of communication. These are
 verbal,
 visual
 written
 gestural.
Verbal communication
Verbal communication is the use of sounds, words and language. At times,
people communicate verbally through face-to-face talk and interaction. If
the verbal message is being transmitted to a person or persons located far
away, then the message can be transmitted through the air or wire to media
such as radio, tape recorders, television, telephone or the internet through
the use of a computer or any digital device

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Unit 2, section 1: The concept of communication TECHNOLOGY
Fig 1.1: Diagram of a lady speaking to somebody on phone
Visual communication
Visual communication is the use of visible symbols like drawings, charts,
maps, pictures, cartoons, data, colours, patterns, shapes, models and
specimen objects to transmit messages between or among people. They are
called visual because they are perceived through the eyes.
Written (graphic) communication

Written or graphic communication includes ideas, feelings and messages
expressed in written or diagrammatic forms. They are transmitted through
such mediums as letters, e-mail, fax and posters. Such information can be
found in, for instance, books, newspapers, computer and diskettes.
Fig 1.3: Written communication in progress
Gesture or gestural communication

This includes facial expressions, signs and other body movements and
physical demonstrations to convey meanings, feelings, shape, and size.
Gestures are also very commonly used to communicate with the hearing
impaired. Examples of gestures are movement of the fingers, frowns, smiles
and shaking of the head.

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 2, section 1: The concept of ommunication
Complementation
Complementation is the accompanying of a verbal communication with a
visual symbol or gestural communication to make the listener understand
the message better.
Activity 1.2
List four types of communication and explain how each is transmitted.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Summary
This section discussed the concept of communication. Communication was
defined variously as the arousal of common meanings, the transfer of
concepts, the sharing of information and the transmission of information
from person to person. Types of communication were also discussed. These
are verbal, visual, written and gestural communication. Without
communication human society will not be able to survive.
Suggested answers to activities
Activity 1.1
i. Verbal communication – through, for example” sounds and words
ii. Visual communication – through pictures, models, maps
iii. Written communication – through printed material eg. Letters, e-
mail.
iv. Gestural communication – through signs and bodily demonstrations.

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51
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 2 ELEMENTS
Unit 2, section IN THE
2: Elements COMMUNICATION
in the communication processPROCESS
You are now in Section 2 of Unit 2.1 am sure you enjoyed the section you
have just completed, including the activities. Well done. You are now going
to study the various elements in a communication process.
After completing this section, you should be able to

 draw and label a communication model correctly
 describe the function of each element in the model.
Fig 2.1: Communication model
Activity 2.1
Study the diagram on communication model very carefully. Identify and list
the elements of the communications process.
…………………………………………………………………………….…
…………………………………………………………………………….…
……………………………………………………………………………….
I am sure you were able to identify the following elements in the

communication process.
 Encoder
 Decoder
 Feedback
 Medium or Channel
 Barrier
Functions of the elements in the communication model

Each element plays an important role in the communication model. Let’s
now study what they do.
Encoder
This is the source of the message or communication. The source is where
the message or communication starts from. It can be the teacher or any
other person who gives out the message.
Decoder (destination, student or audience)

This is the person who consumes the message. He/She receives the message
and decodes it (that is, interprets and makes meaning out of the message it

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Unit 2, section 2: Elements in the communication process TECHNOLOGY
in his or her own way, in line with his or her experiences, age and socio-
economic background).
Feedback
Feedback consists of the responses or reactions which are made by the
student, audience or receiver of the message from the source. The response,
answer or reaction of the receiver is sent back to the teacher or encoder to
indicate if the message or communication has been received or not, or
whether there is a breakdown of communication. In such a case the encoder
replays and sends the message again to the decoder in a more effective way
or medium. In the classroom, students’ feedback can be in the form of
answers to the teacher’s tests, interviews, oral questions, and general
behaviour.
Medium or Channel
Medium or Channel is like the vehicle which carries the message from the
source to the audience. A medium or channel can be in the form of
language, diagram, demonstration or specimen object.
Barrier
Barriers is a or of noise or any distraction which tends to distort the
message. The barrier prevents the decoder or audience from getting the
message correctly. It can be in the form of deficiency from the source
(teacher) or problems with the destination (student) such as hunger. It can
also be an external factor, like ...
Activity 2.2
Describe the functions of each of the elements in the communication model.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Activity 2.3
Fill in the blank spaces with the correct word.
a. A teacher was teaching students but there was music going on in the
next classroom so the students could not pay attention to their
teacher. The music is a form of …………………………..................
b. In the communication model, the teacher is referred to as the
……………………………………………………………….............
a. The students are referred to as ………………………........................
d. The lack of attention by the students because of the music is
described as ………………………………………………………….

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 2, section 2: Elements in the communication process
Summary
This section highlighted the elements in the communication process. A well
labelled diagram of a communication model was presented to you. You also
studied the functions of the various models in a communication model.
Answers to the Activities

Activity 2.1
a. Encoder
b. Decoder
c. Feedback
d. Channel
e. Barrier
Activity 2.2
Elements in a communication model and their functions
a. Encoder – source of message or idea
b. Decoder – consumer or receiver of message or idea or concept.
c. Feedback – response from the receiver to the sender to indicate its
success or otherwise.
d. Medium or channel – the instrument or ‘’vehicle’’ which carries the
idea or message from the source to the receiver. For example, picture,
blackboard, film, language, gesture.
e. Barrier – A form of distraction which causes disruption or failure in a
communication process. It can originate from the teacher, student or
externally from the environment or other persons.
Activity 2.3
a. Barrier
b. Encoder
c. Decoder
d. Feedback

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55
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 3
Unit 2,FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE
section 3: Factors COMMUNICATION
for effective communication
In the section you have just completed, you studied the various elements in
a communication process. You also studied the communication model. The
question “Why does communication breakdown sometimes occur between
teacher and students?” may arise. In this section you will learn about the
main factors which are necessary for any communication to be effective or
successful.

 identify the essential factors for effective communication
 explain each factor briefly and precisely.
 watch and comment on a practical demonstration of a model message
from your colleague.
Factors for effective communication

Today many students complain of having too much information to learn in
every subject. This means that a teacher’s teaching in the classroom will
have to compete with those of others in order that it could be easily
understood. A message or teaching which is full of false ideas or wrong use
of language will not be easily understood by the students or intended
audience. In order to communicate effectively the teacher must make the
message or teaching:
1. Clear
2. Candid
3. Complete
4. Concise
5. Correct
6. Courteous
7. Concrete
Remember the “7C’s” as each of them begins with a “C”.
What is the precise meaning of each of the terms?
These points will be fully discussed below.
Clear
A clear message is the one which is easily understood by everybody in the
class irrespective of their background and age differences. Such a message
is not muddled up in confusion. The language, sentence wording and
illustrations of such a message are simple to understand.
Candid
The word candid means frank. A teacher who is fond of joking with
important points during his or her teaching will not make much progress
with his or her students. This is because the students will conclude that he
or she is not serious with his or her work and therefore what he or she

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Unit 2, section 3: Factors for effective communication TECHNOLOGY
presents is not worth learning. If that happens, the students will not gain
anything from the lesson.
Complete
A complete message is a message which is whole and detailed. Such a
message does not lack important details. Can you remember a time when
your teacher or friend presented an incomplete message to you? Were you
able to understand it! What was your reaction as a feedback? Did the
encoder correct that message for you later on and did you understand it
then?
Concise
When a communication or message is concise it means that it is not made
too long or congested with unnecessary facts. Only the needed pieces of
information are included in the message for the student.
Correct
A correct communication is one which contains no false information. Such a
communication is effective because it is up-to-date, useful and not
misleading or full of ethnic or religious biases.
Courteous
To make a message or communication courteous, the teacher has to behave
in a polite manner with his or her students. He or she should not use abusive
language or show any form of discrimination. A courteous interaction helps
to build good relationship with the students, who in turn, enjoy their lessons
with confidence.
Concrete
A good message must be concrete. This means that it must be illustrated and
enriched with practical experiences, actual examples and relevant
instructional materials to promote learning. Any communication which is
abstract is dull and uninteresting. Students will, therefore, not be motivated
to learn and may result in a high rate of failure among the students.
Activity 3.1
Using your subject area and your own experience as a student, narrate to
your colleagues in your study group a situation when you had a good
example and a bad example of each of the seven essential factors of
effective communication.
Your study group should discuss each member’s account.

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 2, section 3: Factors for effective communication
Summary
In this section, you have learnt about the seven essential factors for effective
communication. Each factor was thoroughly discussed and contrasted with
other undesirable examples. The factors indicate that a teacher must take
time to plan and present his or her teaching properly in order to enhance
students understanding.

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59
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 4
Unit 2,GATEWAYS TO HUMAN
section 4: Gateways to humanCOMMUNICATION
communication
In section 3, you read about the essential factors for effective

communication. It is important to remind you that no matter how clear,
candid or concrete your communication may be, it will be useless if the
decoder or audience cannot receive it due to one form of disability or
another. Such a disability is a form of barrier which blocks or prevents the
message from getting to its destination. In this section you will learn more
about how communication signals are received by the decoder or audience.

 differentiate between sensation and perception
 identify the sense organs used for communication
 state the function of each of the sense organs used for communication.
 state some possible perceptions which are associated with the sense
organs
Sensation and perception

Human beings generally receive and transmit communication signals
through the sense organs. Every teacher should try to involve as many of
their children’s sense organs as possible in every teaching-learning process.
This will enable the children to learn more effectively.
The gateways to human communication are the main sense organs of

sensation by which we get a message or communication signal from an
external source. When we see, hear, touch (feel), taste, or smell an object, it
means that we have received (or sensed) a sensation.
The sense organs then transmit the signal to the brain which analyses and
interprets it. This process of analysing and interpreting the signal received
by the brain is called perception. A correct perception leads to an effective
learning.
Activity 4.1
What do you understand by the term “sensation”.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Explain the term “perception”.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Activity 4.2
Classify the following concepts into sensation and perception by filling in
the box below: see, hear, triangle, round shape, the sound of a bell, smell,
the smell of a delicious stew, the smell of kerosene, touch, feel, a soft cloth,
a hard surface, a hot pot, a sweet orange, a sour grape.

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Sensation Perception
……………………………… …………………………………
……………………………… …………………………………
……………………………… …………………………………
……………………………… …………………………………
……………………………… ………………………………….
……………………………… …………………………………
Sense organs
The receptors or organs which receive external communication signals are
known as the gateways to human communication. Some students in a class
cannot learn properly because some of the gateways are either not
functioning or are damaged and are therefore malfunctioning. Such children
need the assistance of specially trained teachers who can teach them
properly with the relevant teaching devices. The gateways are the eyes, ears,
nose, mouth, skin and muscles.
Now that you know what the gateways to communication are, let’s find out
what each sense organ does.
Functions of the sense organs

The following are the functions of the sense organs:
Eyes – sight, vision, to see or seeing
Ears – hearing, audition
Nose – smell, olfactory
Mouth and tongue – talk, taste
Body or Skin – feeling, touch
Muscles (that is, motor organs) - kinesthetic (movement or locomotion)
Sense organs and their possible perceptions

Eyes (sight): colours, shapes, movements
Ears (hearing): sound, loud, soft, echo, music
Nose (smell): sweet smell, rotten smell
Mouth and tongue (talk, taste): shout, sweet, bitter, sour.
Body or skin (feeling): smooth, rough, hot, cold.
Muscle: (kinesthetic): energy, tension, push, pull, throw, weight.
Activity 4.3
Outline how you would identify students with the following problems in
your class:
i. Hearing difficultly
ii. Colour-sightedness or colour-blindness

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 2, section 4: Gateways to human communication
iii. Short-sightedness
iv. Long-sightedness
v. Visual impairment
Summary
In this section, you have learnt about the gateways to human
communication. You learnt about the organs which receive external
messages as sensation and transmit them to the brain for analysis and
interpretation as perception. You also learnt of the different functions of the
organs and their possible perceptions.

Activity 4.1
Sensation is the receiving of a signal by any of the the sense organs.
Perception occurs when the signal is transmitted to the brain by that organ
for correct interpretation.
Activity 4.2
Sensation Perception
See, hear, smell, touch, feel Triangle, round shape, sound of a
bell, the smell of a delicious stew,
the smell of kerosene, a soft cloth, a
hard surface, hot pot, sweet orange,
sour grape.

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EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 5 CLASSIFICATION
Unit 2, section 5: ClassificationOF INSTRUCTIONAL
of instructional Media MEDIA
Well done for completing Section 4 of Unit 2. In this section you are going
to learn how to classify instructional media.

 classify instructional media.
 state the reasons why a teacher needs to know how to classify
instructional media.
 give examples of instructional media according to their classification
What classification is
“Classification according to perceptual functions is concerned with how the
medium will stimulate the student to learn. The medium may function as
visual, audio or audio-visual material.
The functioning of the medium as visual means... as audio means ... and a
audio ...
OR something better or similar that will agree with the sub-heading or type
of classification.
At the end of ‘4’ we may state something like :In all cases, the teacher is
interested in the classifications because he or she will have to decide which
type to use in order to achieve the greatest effect on his or her students”.
How to classify instructional media
Criteria for classify instructional media

Generally, instructional media are classified into four groups. These are:
1. Classification according to their perceptual functions
In perceptual function, the teacher is interested in how the medium
will stimulate the student to learn. The medium may function as
visual, audio, or audio-visual
2. Classification according to physical properties

In classifying according to physical properties, the teacher is
interested in whether the medium is hardware or software.
3. Classification according to power consumption:

In classifying according to power consumption, the teacher wants to
find out whether the medium is electronic or non-electronic, that is,
whether the medium can be operated with or without the use of
electricity.
4. Classification according to their physical dimensions.

In the physical dimension classification, the teacher wants to know
whether the said medium is a two-dimensional medium, a three-
dimensional medium or a four-dimensional medium of instruction.
(Please, explain “two-, three- and four-dimensional medium”.)

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Unit 2, section 5: Classification of instructional media TECHNOLOGY
Activity 5.1
a. Into how many groups can a teacher classify instructional media?
……………………………………………………………………....
b. Describe each classification group in two words only.

………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Reasons for classifying instructional media

A person who wants to communicate with an audience does not just grab
any medium for that purpose. He or she will have to consider many things
before deciding which medium to use to facilitate the communication
process.
A teacher needs to know the various classifications of media in order to be

able to make the correct choices of instructional media to use for his or her
students.
The classification of instructional media helps the teacher to take informed

decisions.
i. What subject do I want to teach?
ii. What is the topic?
iii. What is the average age and the background of the students I want
to teach?
iv. What medium or group of media do I want to choose for the teaching?
v. Will the medium or media be suitable for the subject and age of the
students?
vi. Will I need electric power to operate it? If yes, does the school have
the necessary electrical facilities, including the sockets and regular
power supply?
vii. Will the school have a qualified technician to operate and repair the
electronic medium, if there is a sudden technical fault during the use
of the medium?
These, and many more questions will help the teacher to select and use the
relevant medium for effective teaching.
Activity 5.2
a. Media classification is important to teachers because
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

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b. List five factors which a teacher should consider before deciding

what medium or group of media to select from the various
classification groups.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Examples of classes of media
Perceptual functions
Visual media: pictures, maps, charts, diagrams objects, data and cartoons
Audio: radio, tape recorders (recorded sounds).
Audio–visual media: television, films, computers
Physical properties
Hardware: television set, radio, computers, projectors, cameras
Software: maps, pictures, colours, posters, books, chemicals
Power consumption
Electronic media: radio, television, computer, film projectors, overhead
projectors, opaque projectors, tape recorders.
Non-Electronic media: maps, globes, pictures.
Physical dimensions
Two–dimensional media: Media with only length and breadth, for
example,. flat pictures, maps, diagrams.
Three–dimensional media: Media which have length, breadth and depth

(or height), for example, television set, radio, computer, tape recorder,
telephone.
Four–Dimensional media: These are media which combine time, space,

change of events and movement to enable people to understand concepts,
e.g. computer.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt about classification of media. Media
classification is useful for the teacher to be able to make informed decisions
on which medium to use for teaching a particular audience. Such an
informed choice helps to make the lesson successful. Media can be
classified as visual, audio and audio-visual. They can also be classified as
software and hardware, electronic or non-electronic and finally according to
their physical dimensions.

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Unit 2, section 5: Classification of instructional media TECHNOLOGY
Answers to the activities

Activity 5.1
a. Four groups
b. Perceptual functions
Physical properties
Power consumption
Physical dimensions
Activity 5.2
a. It enables the teacher to make informed decisions as to what
medium to choose for a particular topic and students
b. Factors!
 Nature of subject
 Age of students
 Socio-economic background of students.
 Whether or not there is power supply for the medium if
electricity is needed for it.
 The relative cost – whether it is affordable.

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UNIT 2 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 6 BARRIERS
Unit 2, section TO which
6: Factors EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
cause barriers to effective communication
Well done for completing Section 5 of Unit 2 successfully. You have now
begun to understand why you must learn a lot about communication. One of
the reasons for this emphasis is that almost all human interpersonal activities
depend on effective communication. The causes of all conflicts in the
school, home and society can be attributed largely to a failure of the
communication process. In this last section of Unit 2 you are going to learn
about some of the factors which cause problems in the school, home or
entire society by forming barriers between the encoder (teacher) and
decoder (student) that is, the communicator and the consumer of the
communication.
After completing this section, you should be able to :

 list the factors which cause barriers to effective communication.
 explain how these factors constitute barriers to the communication
process.
 explain how the teacher can reduce the negative effects of these
barriers to improve classroom learning by students.
Factors of communication barriers

The factors which cause barriers to effective communication are mainly
those which affect the learner. These factors are as follows:
 Age
 Socio-economic background
 Education
 Health
 Heredity
 Interest
 Language
How the factors cause barriers to communication

Age:
The age of the learner can constitute a barrier to effective communication if
the learning experiences are too advanced for the child to understand. Also,
the concepts being taught may be too abstract and difficult for the child to
understand.
Socio–Economic background
Students from low socio-economic backgrounds generally lack the required
facilities such as up-to-date books, equipment and parental counselling and
support which will facilitate their understating of concepts learnt in the
school. Most students from low socio-economic backgrounds may not have
enough medical care and adequate nutrition for a good mental development
and learning in the school.
Education
Different forms and levels of education from different institutions give rise
to differences in the quality of knowledge among students. Students whose

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Unit 2, section 6: Factors which cause barriers to effective communication TECHNOLOGY
parents are able to fund high quality education send their children to very
good schools and also provide them with extra lessons after school.
Children whose parents cannot afford such inputs may not be able to
understand what the teacher teaches.
Health
Health affects the body and all the organs of sensation which are used for
learning through perception. A student who is ill will not be able to
understand the teacher’s teaching due to pain and distraction. Such a student
may sleep in class or absent himself or herself for a long time in order to
receive treatment. All these will adversely affect his or her academic
progress in school. Without good health the student will not be motivated to
learn, so there will be communication breakdown between him or her and
the teacher.
Poor health among students can be a barrier to effective communication in

the classroom.
Only healthy students can communicate properly and learn effectively.

Some of the students in the above class sleep in class while their mates
work. Parents should provide adequate medical care and nutrition to their
children before sending them to school.
Teachers should send all sick students home to their parents for the
necessary care.
Heredity
This affects intelligence which is used for all academic work and
communication. If a student inherits low intelligence from his or her
parents, such a trait will prevent him or her from being very brilliant in class
no matter how well the teacher communicates. The Intelligence Quotient
(IQ) inherited from parents cannot be altered.
Interest
Interest in school subjects motivates a child or student to learn. A student
who is eager to learn will be ready to communicate well with the teacher in
class, through active participation. However, a student who has no interest
in academic work will not take active part in class work and so will
deliberately hinder himself or herself and even his or her classmates during
classroom learning. Such a student may be indisciplined, a truant or a bully
Lack of interest in class work can be a barrier to effective communication in

the classroom, because the student does not see the relevance of school
work to his or her life.
The teacher should relate school work to student’s interests and needs

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Language
A student who is very weak in understanding a language will have problems
with information given in that language. This will occur either because he or
she cannot understand the expressions of the teacher or the student cannot
express him/herself well to others verbally.
Activity 6.1
List and explain four factors which cause barriers to effective
communication in the classroom.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
Let us now examine how we can reduce the negative effects of

communication barriers.
Reducing the negative effects of communication barriers in the

classroom
It is not enough to be able to identify the factors which cause
communication breakdown in the classroom. You must find ways and
means to reduce their negative effects on students’ learning. The following
are some of the ways to reduce them:
Age
You should relate your teaching to the age of the students. Your use of
language, illustrations and practical work should not be too high or too low
for the age of the students. Your methods of teaching and the media you use
should be suitable for the age of the students.
Socio – economic background

Learning experiences should be diversified to benefit all levels of student
socio-economic background. Where possible, students from high socio–
economic backgrounds should work and share experiences and resources
with those from low socio-economic backgrounds.
Education
Students with low educational backgrounds should be given remedial
courses after classes. They should also be grouped with the high achievers
of the class for group work. These measures will help improve their
confidence and academic work to enable them catch up with the rest of the
class.
Health
Students who are sick should be sent home from school to their parents for
medical care. The school may give First Aid treatment before sending sick

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 2, section 6: Factors which cause barriers to effective communication TECHNOLOGY
students home. Such students will be able to communicate and work

effectively when they recover.
Heredity
As a teacher, you should enrich learning experiences in the classroom
through the use of good media, methods and practical work. You should
also develop good rapport or interpersonal relationship, with the students.
Students with low I.Q. in academic work should be given opportunities to
express their creative talents in other domains such as the psychomotor and
affective. They should not be discriminated against or disgraced in the class
because of their low I.Q.
Interest
You should arouse students’ spontaneous interests in class work. You
should also relate class work to students’ needs in life.
Language
You should use simple verbal expressions which students can understand. A
lot of visual illustrations should be used to supplement verbal
communication in the class.
Activity 6.2
Write all the factors which have at one time or the other caused a barrier to
the communication process in your studies. State what measures you took or
have taken to reduce the negative effects of two of the factors to improve
your communication process.
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Summary
This section highlighted the factors which cause barriers to communication.
You learned that some factors such as age, background, interest, heredity
and education can act as barriers to communication. You also learned about
measures for reducing the negative effects of there factors.
You have done well by completing Unit 2. You are already half-way
through this course! I hope you will find the other half also interesting. Just
continue to strive hard and you will succeed in the end.

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EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 2, section 6: Factors which cause barriers to effective communication
Now, you are ready to study Unit 3 which is about producing and using
instructional materials. Go ahead to it. Happy study time.

Activity 6.1 – Read text for answers.

U NI T EDUCATIONAL
C
3 TECHNOLOGY
ON S
TENT
PRODUCING AND USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

SECTION 1 SPECIFIC VALUES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 76
SECTION 2 CRITERIA FOR USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 80
SECTION 3 BASIC STEPS IN USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 84
SECTION 4 THE NEED TO PRODUCE LOW-COST INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS LOCALLY 88
SECTION 5 TYPES OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 92
SECTION 6 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS AND METHODS OF PRODUCING LOW-

COST INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 98

UEW/IDeL 73
SCIENCE UNIT 3
EDUCATION Unit xx,PRODUCING
section xx: The AND USING
quick brown fox,INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
jumped over the lazy dog.
Hello, you have just completed unit 2 which dealt mainly with the concept
of communication. From that unit, you realised how important it is for every
human being to understand the guiding principles, types and barriers to
human communication. These are important for any teacher who wants to
use or produce instructional media for teaching.
Like the previous units, unit 3 is divided into sections which contain a
number of activities. Of particular importance are the practical activities.
These are important because they give you practical information. Remember
that educational technology is practical in nature.
After completing this unit you should be able to:

 state the specific values of instructional materials
 state the criteria for using instructional materials
 state and explain the basic steps for using instructional materials
 explain the reasons for embarking on the production of low-cost
media
 identify types of techniques used in the production of instructional
media
 list at least five sources and types of raw materials for production of
instructional materials

EDUCATIONAL
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TECHNOLOGY

75
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 1
Unit 3,SPECIFIC VALUES
section 1: Specific OFofINSTRUCTIONAL
values instructional materialsMATERIALS
You are most welcome to this section. Whatever you do in life must have
some values in it, hence your desire to do it. In educational technology the
specific values of media are many as will be discussed here shortly. You
should be ready to create new values and relate them to your teaching.

 identify and explain at least, four specific values of instructional
materials
 relate the values to your teaching
Specific values of instructional materials

Instructional materials are of special value to the teacher in many ways.
Instructional materials help to clarify and illustrate concepts, arouse interest
and provide variety. They also help learners to extend their imagination and
experiences and to retain knowledge.
Let us now take each of the values we have identified and learn more about
them. We start with how instructional materials help to clarify concepts.
Clarification of concepts
Instructional materials are very useful because they enable the teacher to
clarify concepts. In many instances, the teacher may be faced with the
problem of explaining some difficult ideas with which students are not very
familiar. If the teacher has no instructional materials to use, he or she may
resort to various unhelpful means to explain it. For instance, the teacher may
try to use the local dialect to call the name of the concept so as to make
students understand. However, such a method of using one dialect to explain
a concept in a class of many students with different dialects will not be very
helpful. In such a difficult situation, the most professional way to solve the
problem is to use instructional materials, for example a diagram on the
blackboard or a specimen of that concept. This will help clarify the concept
and promote effective communication. Students will understand and make
progress in their work.
Illustration of concepts
Instructional materials are valuable for illustrating concepts. In a situation
where, for example, a mathematics, science or language teacher tries
unsuccessfully to teach a concept through verbal communication, students
who have no adequate experience in that subject may run into difficulty. If
the teacher has no instructional materials to use, he or she may even confuse
his or her students by trying to use crude and irrelevant examples to explain
the concept to the students. The safest and most professional action to take
to help the students is to use an illustration where other means are not
possible. Thus, the teacher can, for instance, show students the diagram or
picture of a pyramid to mathematics students when solving problems on
pyramids, or a picture of a ball and socket joint to biology students, or a
picture of a concave lens to physics students. A single picture is better and

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 1: Specific values of instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
more effective in explaining or illustrating a concept or point than several

words of verbal communication. The pictures or diagrams of illustration
used by the teacher constitute a visual means of communication.
Arousal of interest
Instructional materials enable the teacher to arouse interest among students.
In the last section, you learnt that one of the factors which cause barriers to
effective communication is lack of interest in class or school work. Students
may not be interested because the learning experience is too abstract and
vague, so they find it difficult to understand, grasp or make a mental picture
of it. Once the teacher uses instructional materials such as models,
specimens, sketches on the blackboard, diagrams or even graphic symbols
on flash cards or cardboard paper, students’ interests are aroused. Such an
interest propels students to learn and enjoy the lesson, and to better
understand and apply what they have learnt.
Provision of variety
Instructional materials enable the teacher to create variety in the classroom.
Variety occurs when the teacher brings and uses different types of
instructional media for teaching a single lesson. For instance, in language
teaching, a teacher may use a film or video illustration, flash cards, black
board demonstrations and real specimen objects to teach the students. All
these variety or different types of media will create eagerness and interest in
students to desire to learn. If the teacher uses a single medium all the time,
students soon become bored and fed up with the teacher or the lesson due to
monotony.
The variety of media also combine to make meanings, definitions or lessons

clearer.
Hello! Let us pause a little and briefly reflect on what we have done so far
on the specific values of instructional media.
Activity 1.1
1. Try to recall some occasions when your teacher did not use instructional
materials to teach.
a. What were your feelings and those of your colleagues toward:

i. the teacher?
ii. the subject?
iii. the school in general?
b. Did you start developing hatred for the teacher and his or her
subject?
c. When a test or assignment was given to all of you in the class after
the boring lesson did you and your colleagues score high marks?
Jot down your answers to the questions in your note book and discuss
with your friends.

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EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 1: Specific values of instructional materials
2. Now try to reflect again on another occasion when another teacher was
teaching you. This teacher used a lot of illustrations and practical work
to enable you understand the concepts.
Now ask yourself the same questions as in “1” and jot down the answers in
your notebook. Now compare the answers of “1” and “2”. Which teacher
did you prefer? A teacher who does not use any instructional materials for
teaching but just talks is likely to get some of his or her students not
listening but sleeping and disturbing their classmate?
Extension of imagination and experiences

Instructional materials help the teacher to extend students’ imagination and
experiences far beyond the classroom. When a teacher shows a picture or
film of the concepts and events of the topic he or she is teaching, students’
imagination go outside the classroom to other places or situations where
certain experiences were gained or took place. This gives them a better
advantage of understanding and recalling over students in another class who
were not exposed to such media experiences.
Instructional materials enable the teacher to show the inter-relationships

among the parts of a complex whole. For instance, a teacher who is teaching
concepts of engineering to students in a polytechnic will find it difficult to
make students understand if he depends on verbal communication only. The
same thing applies to a biology teacher teaching the nervous, skeletal or
circulatory system or a chemistry teacher trying to explain the concept of
chemical reaction in an experiment to students. If a good visual or audio-
visual illustration is used the students are likely to understand such concepts
better.
Retention of knowledge
The uses of instructional materials help students to retain the knowledge
they have acquired during the lesson. Students tend to remember more of
what they see, hear and touch. Once they are able to apply more than one
sensation and perception to learn, they will be able to retain such knowledge
longer, because of the multi-media exposure.
Activity 1.2
Select a topic from a subject of your own choice. List the instructional
materials which you will use in teaching your topic to your Primary 6
students. Explain clearly how you would use your instructional materials to:
 create interest
 clarify difficult concepts
 create variety in the lesson
 extend students imagination and experiences
 help students remember and retain what they have learnt on your
subject.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 1: Specific values of instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
 apply at least four out of the seven gateways to human communication

listed in Section 4 of Unit 2 which you have earlier done.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt about the specific values of instructional
materials. Instructional materials enable the teacher to clarify concepts. This
means that ideas become clearer to students if instructional materials are
used to explain them. Instructional materials enable teachers to illustrate
concepts thereby arousing student’s interests. When a lot of media are used
in one lesson, varieties of ideas are created and students are able to
understand the interrelationship among complex wholes.
Instructional materials aid students’ retention of knowledge.
Congratulations for having completed your study of section 1.
Let us now move on to section 2 where we shall study the criteria for using
instructional materials effectively.

79
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 2 CRITERIA
Unit 3, section FORforUSING
2: Criteria INSTRUCTIONAL
using instructional materials MATERIALS
Hello and welcome to section 2. In the last section you worked on the
specific values of instructional materials to the communication process. In
this section you will study the criteria for using instructional materials. I
encourage you to do all the activities in this section.

 list and explain the criteria for using instructional materials
 relate the criteria to your teaching
Criteria for using instructional materials

The following criteria are important making instructional materials effective
in teaching:
Relevance
Instructional materials should be selected and used only if you, as the
teacher are convinced that they will contribute significantly to the objectives
of the lesson. This means that instructional materials should not be used just
for the sake of using them. If they are not relevant or necessary for students’
motivation and learning they should be avoided completely.
Instructional materials should be current, not outdated or too old, or worn-

out. They must contain just the necessary details.
Timing
Instructional materials should always be timely. This means that they should
be used at the most critical or important time when they are needed most,
during the lesson. Some instructional materials are best used at the
beginning of the lesson to introduce and set the tone of the lesson. Some
instructional materials are best used in the middle of the lesson to round up
the points already made. Others still are best used at the end of the lesson to
revise and conclude the lesson. You should use your professional
knowledge to judge and decide when best to use instructional materials so
that they will have the maximum or best effects on students’ understanding.
Activity 2.1
Try to recall from your secondary school or training college days, occasion
when a teacher was using instructional materials that
 were unnecessary
 were not relevant
 were not up-to-date and
 had defects or missed out important details
a. Record your experiences in your note book. In each of the four cases
identify the instructional material concerned, and for which lesson, and
state why it was either not necessary, or not relevant, or not up-to-date
or defective.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 2: Criteria for using instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
b. Suggest what could have been done by the teacher concerned to correct
the problem you have observed.
Discuss your answers with your study group members.
Accuracy
Instructional materials should be accurate. Teachers should avoid using
diagrams, pictures, charts, models and television programmes which have
errors. The teacher must inspect and preview all media before using them. If
there are no other media to use apart from the incorrect ones, the teacher
should improvise some other ones for the lesson.
The fact is that if a teacher goes ahead to use the incorrect medium and later
tells students to correct the error, they would still likely remember the
wrong things later on.
Appropriateness
Instructional materials should be free from bias. Some films, pictures or
diagrams are politically, socially or religiously biased against a particular
group of people, race, region, occupation or religion. Such media should not
be used because they can mislead students.
The choice and use of instructional materials should be appropriate for the
age, lesson topic, culture and socio – economic levels of the students. You
learnt in the last unit that certain factors form barriers to effective
communication. Therefore, you should be on the watch to ensure that these
barriers never come into your use of instructional materials.
Activity 2.2
Identify and briefly explain two criteria for using instructional materials.
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Summary
In this section, you have learnt about the criteria for using instructional
materials. Instructional materials should be used only if they will contribute
meaningfully to students’ understanding of the lesson. They should be
timely in order to achieve the maximum positive effect on students’
understanding. Instructional materials should be accurate and appropriate
for students’ age and background.

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EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 2: Criteria for using instructional materials

Activity 2.2
i. They should have a purpose. This means that they should not be used
just for decoration or fun.
ii. They should be timely. This means that they should be used at either
the beginning, middle or end of the lesson, depending on when they
will be of maximum advantage to students understanding.
iii. They should be appropriate. This means that they must not be out of
date or contain errors.
iv. They should not be biased politically or socially and they should be
suitable for students’ age and background

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EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 3 BASIC3:STEPS
Unit 3, section IN USING
Basic steps INSTRUCTIONAL
in using instructional materials MATERIALS
Welcome to Section 3. In this section you will learn more about the use of
instructional media. However, this time, you will learn the step-by-step
procedure for using them to achieve maximum positive results. Brace up
yourself for more activities. They are vital for your long term understanding
and practice in the teaching profession.

 identify the basic steps in using instructional materials
 explain and illustrate each step
Basic steps in using instructional materials

When you have planned your lesson and are ready to go into the class, you
must ensure that you will use an appropriate medium during the lesson. The
following are the basic steps you should follow:
Proper selection
You should be familiar with the device you want to select for use. This
means that if the device is software, you must know how best to handle it so
that it does not cause any damage during the lesson. If the device you
choose is electronic, you must ensure that adequate electrical facilities are
available in the school for its effective use. If the use of maps or pictures is
appropriate, you the teacher, must get them ready and inspect and preview
them carefully before the lesson starts.
The following are other principles to guide you to ensure proper selection:
i. the selected materials must be suitable for your students’ age and
education level.
ii. The cost of acquiring and using the materials must be affordable to the
school. If one medium is very suitable but too expensive you should
look for a cheaper one which can serve the same purpose.
The achievement of the objectives of the lesson must also be considered

when making a choice of instructional materials. For instance, if a particular
device is very attractive, easy to use and cheap to acquire, but will not lead
to the achievement of the lesson, it should be abandoned for a more suitable
one.
Note that an appropriate selection and use of instructional material is

important and necessary for a successful lesson
Preparation
After selection, the materials must be gathered and put in order. The
classroom must be arranged, ready for the type of medium to be used. For
instance if it is going to be an educational film then the doors and windows
need to be closed or covered with dark paper or cloth to facilitate the film
presentation.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 3: Basic steps in using instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
Other types of instructional devices such as computer, television and

projectors will need special tables, cables and other items which you must
get ready to prevent any failure during presentation.
The time schedule must also be considered. If the time available is too short
for the presentation, you can make special arrangement with the teacher who
is expected to use the next period, if you teach the class according to
subjects. You should prepare a teaching guide on the equipment to be used.
Presentation
Each instructional device may require different presentation procedures.
You should take adequate measures to follow these procedures. The
students who are expected to benefit from the instructional device should be
instructed to prepare for that purpose. For instance, the students have to be
told what the device is, whether or not to take down notes during the
operation, and what other forms of participation may be required from them
during or after the presentation.
Students should be guided on what to do so as to benefit from the media

presentations
Follow-Up
After the presentation of a picture, chart, television programme,
demonstration, computer simulation or film you need to make a follow-up.
The follow-up is a discussion of what the students have heard, seen or
performed during the presentation. From the follow-up you will be able to
learn about peculiar problems which some of the students encountered
during the presentation. Such knowledge will help you to improve future
presentations, with the same device. During the follow-up, students should
be allowed to ask questions on the points they did not understand.
They should also be guided on what activities to perform so as to apply the
concepts they have learnt for problem solving.
A follow-up of any media presentation is essential for enhancing students

understanding as the above picture shows
Evaluation
The final step in media presentation is the evaluation. This affects both the
students and you, the teacher. Evaluation should be conducted to find out
the effectiveness of the instructional material for achieving the objectives of
the lesson. You should give the students assignments, projects tests or
practical group work and class presentations. Results from students’ work
will help to indicate the success or failure of the presentation.
An evaluation is necessary to gauge the success or failure of any media

presentation

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 3: Basic steps in using instructional materials
Activity 3.1
List and explain the basic steps required for using instructional materials.
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Summary
This section discussed the basic steps which you, the teacher must take in
using instructional materials for effective classroom learning. The first step
pertains to proper selection. The relative cost, time factor, convenience of
use and the physical and technical quality and administrative feasibility
must be considered before the medium or media are selected for use.
The second step pertains to adequate preparation of the classroom or venue

for the presentations where items like tables, chairs, window blinds,
electrical sockets, cables must be kept ready or workable to avoid any hitch
and failure during the presentation. Students should be informed of what to
expect and their role and activities during the presentations.
The third stage is the presentation. Here the students should be involved as
much as possible. You should use your study guide to help in the pacing and
other activities.
The fourth stage, which is the follow-up, is aimed at discussing the work
and to enable students react through questions, observations and other inputs
to help you to know if they have understood your lesson.
The final stage, the evaluation, is meant for students’ projects, tests and
other assignments to gauge students’ achievement.

Activity 3.1
Proper selection: based on adequate cost, time factor, relevance to
students’ age and background and the attainment of the objectives of the
lesson.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 3: Basic steps in using instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
Preparation: the presentation room, furniture and other objects and

facilities to be used must be put in place for the presentation to succeed.
Presentation: students must be fully involved and not be allowed to be

passive onlookers. Taking down notes, answering questions and carrying
out other relevant activities during the presentation are very necessary at this
stage.
Follow-up: The teacher discusses the entire presentation with the students
to ensure that they have understood.
Evaluation: students are given tests, projects or other assignments to be

marked and graded by the teacher.

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EDUCATIONAL THE NEED TO PRODUCE LOW-COST INSRUCTIONAL
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 4
Unit 3, section 4: Reasons for producing low-cost instructional materials
MATERIALS LOCALLY
Hello and welcome to section 4 of unit 3. Hope you found it interesting.

How did you find the last section? Well, I hope you will find this section
also interesting and challenging. Of paramount importance are the activities
built into some of the sub-sections. Please, ensure that you carry them out
because they are carefully designed to give you first-hand experiences. In
this section emphasis will be placed on the production of instructional
materials locally and using local materials as much as possible. Why does a
teacher need to embark on this venture? The reasons are many and are the
focus of discussion in this section.

 list three reasons why teachers should produce instructional materials
locally.
 Identify and mention some of the locally available craftsmen who can
assist the teacher in producing low-cost instructional materials
 explain the word low-cost
The need to produce low-cost instructional materials locally

It is inspiring to note the huge amounts of money which the government is
spending on education each year. The greatest part of the money is used to
buy imported instructional materials and equipment for the various primary,
secondary and tertiary institutions in Ghana.
Meaning of low-cost media

The word low-cost, as used here, means material that is not expensive but
of good quality. In our case, it refers to inexpensive but quality
instructional materials. Most people think that low-cost materials are
inferior to expensive ones. This assumption may not be applicable to every
situation. For instance, some goods in Ghana are cheap yet they are of
higher quality than imported ones because of the relatively cheap labour and
the use of local raw materials to produce them. Also the government may
help to subsidise such a local production and not impose custom excise
duties on them.
Reasons for local production

The reasons why teachers in schools in Ghana should produce instructional
materials locally are:
i. Insufficient money to continually import instructional materials.
ii. Local production will help to develop local raw materials and skills,
thereby creating jobs for willing Ghanaians.
iii. The foreign exchange or money saved from not importing
instructional materials can be used on other essential imported items.
iv. Locally-produced instructional materials are easier to adapt to local
needs, conditions and the curriculum than imported ones.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 4: Reasons for producing low-cost instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
These points will now be explained fully.
The government of Ghana spends huge amounts of money annually on

imported instructional materials for schools
If teachers embark on producing some instructional materials locally,

local talents and raw materials will be developed to create new jobs
for Ghanaians.
v. Such locally produced media are cheap and easy to get and flexible to
adapt to local needs.
vi. With the growth of population and the establishment of more
schools in Ghana, the amount of money that will be needed to
buy and maintain imported instructional materials will rise
very sharply from year to year, and the economy may not be able to
sustain it.
vii. Ghana is full of vast reserves of human and material resources. The
largest part of the money used for importing some hardware and
software instructional media can be used to locally develop such local
resources for producing low-cost media for schools.
viii. Another reason for local production of instructional materials is
that spare parts of imported media are expensive and at times
unavailable due to change in models of the media. It is possible
that changes in the models may be to increase efficiency and
reduce cost of production in the producing country, spare parts
for the earlier models may no more be manufactured. With the
changes, hardware instructional materials purchased by the
government may become obsolete or outdated before delivery
or within a short time after delivery due to lack of spare parts
and accessories. The government will then have to order
new models all the time or run the old ones at very high cost.
The old ones in the store may be dumped at a corner to waste
or rot.
ix. If local production of some instructional media is embarked

upon, the financial wastage due to constant replacement or
neglect will be stopped. In addition, the accessories and spare parts
may be produced in Ghana by Ghanaians themselves
because of cheap local labour and materials. Through practice,
research and experience, such locally-produced instructional materials
can be improved upon and refined.
Activity 4.1
a. Check from your school store, and list in your notebook, the names of
all the imported hardware and software instructional materials which
you can find.
b. How many of such media are functioning or usable at present?

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TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 4: Reasons for producing low-cost instructional materials
c. How many are not functioning or usable?

d. Find out what specifically is wrong with the non-functioning and
unusable ones.
e. Which ones can easily be replaced with locally-produced ones?
f. How will the replacement be done?
g. Why is the situation as you found out?
h. What are your recommendations?
i. Based on your findings should the importation of learning media
continue for all items? Why?
j. Do you agree, or not, that Ghana should start local production of
some, instructional media, at least, on a small scale, starting with the
simpler ones? Why?
Local craftsmen
There are many talented men and women in every community who can
assist teachers to produce cheap media for teaching. Some of them include
graphic artists, sculptors, weavers, potters, photographers, electricians and
welders.
Most of these craftsmen and women can, at times, be invited into the school
to teach, at workshops, how to design and produce low-cost media, with the
use of their skills and local materials. Photographers, for example, can help
produce pictures which can be glazed or laminated for school use.
Electricians can maintain most of the school’s electronic media and even
produce simple individualised learning devices like battery holders.
Graphic artists can help produce low-cost visual software like diagrams of
all kinds and for all subjects.
The various polytechnics in the country can also devote some units of their
institutions and personnel to assist local craftsmen and teachers to plan,
design and produce local instructional media.
Activity 4.2
a. In your own words, explain the term low-cost media.
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b. State why it is necessary for teachers to embark on the production of
low-cost materials for their own use.
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EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 4: Reasons for producing low-cost instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
c. List the names of local craftsmen who can assist teachers in producing
low-cost media for schools and what each craftsman does.
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Summary
This section has discussed the reasons why teachers should produce low-
cost instructional materials for teaching. The rising cost of education in
general, the rising cost of imported educational media, lack of spare parts
and lack of qualified personnel to maintain these media are some reasons
given for local production to commence. Such a venture will boost local
talents, develop a demand for local raw materials and create jobs. Teachers,
graphic artists, sculptors, electricians and other talented craftsmen in the
community can work with teachers for such a local production.

Activity 4.1
Compare your answers with that of other members of your group. Note the
trend and suggest how you can help improve your skills in producing local
materials for teaching
Activity 4.2
For (a) and (c), discuss your answers with your study group members.
(b)
(i) To reduce the huge loss in importing educational media annually.
(ii) To develop local talents
(iii) Locally made media are more flexible to adapt to the curriculum and
students needs.

91
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 5
Unit 3,TYPES
section OF PRODUCTION
5: Types TECHNIQUES
of production techniques
Welcome to Section 5. In section 4 you studied reasons you why should

embark on the local production of some low-cost instructional materials for
your school. You also identified some of the personnel who can be used
locally for the job. In this section you will learn of different techniques of
producing instructional media. Such a knowledge will enable you take
decisions on what technique you should use for a particular production.

 identify the three techniques of producing instructional media
 explain the various production techniques
 apply any of the production techniques for producing low-cost
instructional materials for your own use
Production techniques
The techniques of producing any instructional material or product can be
divided into the following categories:
 imitative production,
 adaptive production and
 creative invention
Imitative production
Imitative production technique adapts and uses the models and techniques
which other producers have used for producing and testing their own
products. This technique often obtains the medium to be imitated and
dismantles it into its constituent parts. Each component part is measured,
weighed and analysed to find out what sort of material it was made of.
Having studied the arrangement, size, weight, and composition of the
component parts the producer then reassembles the whole device. All the
details already studied are recorded at the appropriate points in the process.
The next stage is to produce models of the component parts already studied,
according to their sizes, weights, and composition. Models are
representations of the real product or medium being imitated. The
models may be fibres (e.g. cotton, wool) paper, metal or any other
convenient material. Once this is completed the model is compared again
with the original product to see if they are similar. Adjustments are made
where necessary until a satisfactory model of the original medium is
produced.
The last stage is to go through all the processes, to produce the real medium,
using the correct metals and sizes and other details. If the test proves
successful then the medium is reproduced several times for use. Workshops
are then organised to train more people to acquire the required skills for
reproducing the medium and even improve on it.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 5: Types of production techniques TECHNOLOGY
Activity 5.1
Define imitative production.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
List the stages involved in any imitative production technique.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
Adaptive production
Adaptive production technique requires the creation of new forms of
products from an already existing one. The reason for adapting the
medium is that the original one may not suit the purpose of the adaptor
so he or she has to alter some of its component parts and functions to
suit his or her needs. For instance a technician might want to produce a
gadget which shows motion pictures, stores information and receives signals
from television, radio stations, and the internet. Certainly this type of
instructional medium does not exist at present.
The technician might therefore study some of the various instructional

media which have some of these functions separately. At last, the technician
can have an idea. He or she buys a radio, television and a computer. He or
she then dismantles each of these media, studies them carefully and records
his or her observations. He or she then produces a model machine which
combines all the functions of the three machines put together, that is, the
radio, television and computer. After several attempts and failures of
producing the models, the teacher then uses the real objects to produce the
original medium and comes up with a medium which combines the
functions of the three machines into one single medium. He or She has
produced the new medium through the adaptive production technique.
This same principle can be used to produce any other hardware and
software. Most of the electronic and non-electronic media which we import
from advanced countries today are nothing but adaptations from various
existing devices. The new devices may be different in shape and functions,
but the various functions were borrowed from other media. For instance,
television was originally produced for commercial enterprises. Later,
teachers adapted them for educational use by introducing educational
programmes into them.
Similarly computers were first produced for military uses during the Second
World War. They were developed by the German Forces to store data which

93
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 5: Types of production techniques
could not be leaked or monitored easily by enemy forces as were radio

signals. The new machine was accidentally captured from the Germans
during the battle for Poland. After the war, it was adapted for commercial,
educational and industrial uses. This adaptation of the computer is still
going on today.
Ideas from radio, telephone, television and other telecommunication devices

have been adapted into the computer to make it the most advanced device in
use today.
Activity 5.2
Using your own words, explain adaptive technique of media production.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Creative invention
This involves the ability to define and solve problems in original ways
without too much dependence on other people’s guidelines or products. To
invent means to create or design a new thing which no one has done
before. Invention leads to new products, ideas, tools or devices which can
lead to socio-economic innovations. Creative invention uses initiative and
originality to develop new educational media which have completely new
functions.
Creative inventions may arise either by chance or through several years of

research, experimentation, trial and error. The rich cumulative experiences
so gained may then give some insight or sudden idea to the inventor to
develop a new product.
In the school, teachers and talented craftsmen should always pool their ideas
together to solve common problems.
They should also conduct researches, experiments and practical explorations

into new ideas and use them for solving problems, for example, the
production of new instructional materials or the development” of new
teaching methods. When a new teaching method is developed or
instructional device is invented, it should first be pilot-tested on a small
group of neutral students to determine its effectiveness. This pilot test will
enable the teacher (that is, the initiator) to improve on the quality.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 5: Types of production techniques TECHNOLOGY
Once it becomes refined, teachers in other schools can be exposed to its

value and classroom use through training at workshops, conferences and
inservice courses. After such exposure and training the teachers can go back
to their schools to implement the educational innovations.
Activity 5.3
a. Explain using your own words, the creative invention technique of
producing instructional media.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
b. When of a new instructional medium is invented, how can teachers

become aware of the new idea so that they can use them in their own
schools?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Summary
In this section, you have learnt about the three main techniques of producing
instructional media.
Imitative production pertains to copying completely what others have

produced. This is done by first producing models of the original device and
later using this experience to produce the real device for use.
In the adaptive production technique, the teacher or technician uses some of

the ideas in the original device or product but alters (that is adapts) some of
its functions to suit his or her own new needs.
In the creative invention the producer uses his or her own creative ideas,
research findings, experiences, insight and initiative to develop a new
product or device hitherto unknown. Such an innovation is then made
available to other teachers to use in their schools by way of training in
workshops, seminars, conferences and in-service courses.

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EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 3, section 5: Types of production techniques

Activity 5.1
a. Imitative production technique attempts to copy an instructional
medium in totality. The producer first produces models of the original
device and later produces the device using the real materials.
b. The stages involved in imitative technique of media production are:
 observation of the original device
 dismantling of the original device
 production of models of the original device
 adjustment and final production of the device being imitated
 pilot-testing and trying out of the new device
Activity 5.2
In the adaptive technique of producing an instructional device the producer
tries to copy all the characteristics of the original devices but alters some of
its functions and shape, to make it suit his or her own needs. Most of the
ideas in the original device may still be replicated in the adaptation.
Activity 5.3
a. The creative invention technique of production is the use of one’s
original ideas, tools, initiative, experiences and intuition to develop a
completely new instructional device, hitherto unknown to anybody.
When such an invention occurs a new product which helps to improve
teaching comes into being.
b. Such an innovation is made available to teachers who are made aware
through their participation in workshops, seminars conferences and in-
service courses. After such training, they go back to their schools to
implement the innovation.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 3, section 5: Types
This of
page
production
is left blank
techniques

97
EDUCATIONAL Unit 3,SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS
materials and AND METHODS
of producingOF
UNIT 3 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 6 section 6: Sources
PRODUCING
of raw
LOW-COST
instructional
methods
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
materials
low-cost
Hello and welcome to the last section of this unit. I admire you for your
persistence which has brought you this far. If you observe carefully, you
will notice that right from Unit 1 Section 1, to this last section of unit 3,
your topics and learning experiences have been so arranged that you have
been progressing step by step from purely simple definitions of the concepts
of education, and educational technology to communication theory, the
more complex work or techniques of producing the real instructional
devices.
In this section you will be required to apply all the concepts you have learnt
so far to produce some media for your teaching. This is the ultimate goal of
every educational technology course anywhere in the world. No true and
functional technology course in education or industry will limit itself to
mere theories of concepts and utilisation of other people’s products only.
You must learn to produce, through imitation, adaptation and creative

invention. Like previous sections and units, this section is again full of
activities and, in fact, a submission of some completed projects of your own
making. So please brace yourself and be ready for work.

 apply all the ideas you have acquired in this course to actually
produce, at least, three instructional materials which you can use to
teach your students
We now turn our attention to instructional materials that can be made

locally.
Some instructional materials which can be made locally
S/No. Instructional Raw materials Sources Those who Suggested

materials suggested can make ways of
them making them
1 Stencil and Wood (planks), Forest, Carpenters, Cut out from
lettering sets card-boards, bookshops, Sculptors, wood, plastic
clay plastic ceramic Students, or ceramics,
industry Teachers, mould out
Ceramic letters from
Technicians. clay, cast
letters from
steel
2 Projection White-washed Wall of Painters, Paint the

screen wall, white building, tailors, desired part of
cloth (with iron shops and students, wall with white
rods or sticks to textile teachers, paint, use of
be used as industry white cloth
stands)

Unit 3, section 6: Sources of raw materials and methods of producing low-cost EDUCATIONAL
instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
3 Projection Wood (planks) Forest, plank Carpenters, Cut out desired

tables and or wood teachers, parts from
storage sellers students plants, use
nails and
hammer to fit
parts together.
Cut out the
desired
dimension with
saw or cutting
knife.
4 Display easels Wood (planks) Forest, Carpenters,
and cardboards bookshop students, and
teachers
5 Diagramas Local dye, Local dyers, Students, Painters to use
crayon, paper textile artists, teachers different
and cloth industries colours
6 Models Clay, card- Clay, Teachers, Mould
board, plants bookshops, students artists, carve and cast
and plastic forest, plastic sculptors
factories
7 Globes Plastic bowls, Forest, Teachers, Carve, cast,
(model) steel bowls and bookshops, students, paste
disc, transparent plastic and cartographers, transparent
paper or soft metal sculptors paper, draw of
blank sheets, industries, the desired
crayons, water local dyers maps, colour
colours, pencils, papier maché
markers
8 Painting brush Sponge, reeds, Forest, Teachers, Tie one end of
fibres from shops, textile students, artists the fibres to a
grasses and industries wood or iron
trees, handle. Use the
cotton wool and loose end for
fleece painting
9 Colours and Dyes, water, Clay, glue, Artists, Dyes can be
mobiles glue, cotton, chalk, tree, students, obtained from
string, rubber tree, teachers local cloth
cardboards, local dyes, dyers,
polythene textile chemists,
industries, textile and
bookshops paint
industries. Mix
dye of desired
colours with
water and a bit
of glue. Dilute
as desired
10 Flat boards, Cardboard, Paper mills, Carpenters, Cut out the
bulletin paper, planks, bookshops, students, various parts of
boards, nails trees teachers, and the table or

99
EDUCATIONAL Unit 3, section 6: Sources of raw materials and methods of producing low-cost
TECHNOLOGY instructional materials
planning and tinkers board to your

presentation desired
tables dimension. Fix
parts together
with nails.
11 Films and Transparencies Film Film and slide Industrial
slides industries, industries process.
photo-
graphers
12 Video Plastic Cassette Industrial
industries process.
13 Charts, maps, Cardboard, Bookshops, Students, Draw, sketch,
flat pictures paper white, cloth sellers, teachers, snap, develop,
cloth, cow-gum, paper mills, artists, print, enlarge,
rubber, cement textile mills cartographers, frame and
photographers glaze,
laminate.
Activity 6.1
Instructional materials which can be produced locally.
 Study the table above on some instructional materials which can be
produced locally.
 Produce your own list of instructional materials, raw materials, in the
same order or pattern as presented in that table.
 Now prepare a list of not less than ten materials which can be
produced locally. Your items should differ from those in the table.
Summary
In this section, you have learnt of some raw materials and how to produce
low-cost but good instructional media for teaching. A list of sources of raw
materials and how to use them have been provided.
Now start reading the final unit of this course. Have a happy reading time.
Assignments
Practical projects.
 Identify three topics you want to teach your students.
 State three types of instructional materials which you would like to
produce locally for teaching the topics.
 Indicate whether your locally-made materials are, for example,
hardware or software, electronic or non-electronic.
 Ensure that the devices you produce are either three-dimensional or
four-dimensional ones. (No two-dimensional devices, like flat
pictures, charts, or diagrams will be accepted because they are too
common and have been over used by students, so they are no more
motivating).

Unit 3, section 6: Sources of raw materials and methods of producing low-cost EDUCATIONAL
instructional materials TECHNOLOGY
 Now state the objective for producing each device

 What is the name of your device? Give a name to each.
 Produce a sketch or drawing or plan of each of the three devices.
 Look for relevant talented community craftsmen who will help you
with the production of these devices.
 Discuss with them to identify the raw materials needed for production.
 Now estimate the cost of production.
 Procure the items required and then produce each device.
Attach the following information to each device.

Name of device: ……………………………………………………………
Topic for use: ………………………………………………………………
Objective of use: ……………………………………………………………
How to use (operate) this device……………………………………………
Name of producer ………………………………………………………….

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EDUCATIONAL Unit 3, section 6: Sources of raw materials and methods of producing low-cost
TECHNOLOGY This page is left blank for your notes
instructional materials

U NI T EDUCATIONAL
C
4 TECHNOLOGY
ON S
TENT
INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

SECTION 1 USING RADIO AND AUDIO TAPE RECORDING FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 106
SECTION 2 USING TELEVISION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 112
SECTION 3 USING VIDEO RECORDING FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 116
SECTION 4 USING COMPUTERS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 124
SECTION 5 USING PROJECTORS AND GRAPHIC DEVICES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 130
SECTION 6 MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 146

136

UEW/IDeL 103
SCIENCE UNIT 4
EDUCATION Unit xx,INSTRUCTIONAL
section xx: The quick EQUIPMENT AND
brown fox, jumped overMATERIALS
the lazy dog.
I welcome you to the last unit of the course on educational technology. In

the last section of unit three, you learnt a lot about the production of
low-cost instructional media. You did some practical work and class
presentations on how to produce and use these materials. In this unit you are
going to learn how to use electronic instructional media. These are modern
gadgets which have special operational procedures. If some of these
procedures are ignored, the gadgets get damaged or they may become
dangerous to use.
These media also have special regulations for storing and maintaining them
in order to prolong their lifespan.
After completing this unit, you should be able to

 define and use instructional radio and tape recordings to teach your
class.
 use instructional television for teaching
 operate the video camera for producing television pictures for
classroom teaching
 use the computer for teaching and learning
 operate the overhead and opaque projectors for teaching
 identify and observe precautions when carrying out practical
maintenance of any electronic teaching equipment.

EDUCATIONAL
This page is left blank for your notes TECHNOLOGY

105
EDUCATIONAL USING RADIO AND AUDIO TAPE RECORDING FOR
UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 1
Unit 4, section 1: Using radio and audio tape recording for teaching and learning
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Welcome to section 1 of unit 4. This section discusses how you can use
radio and recorded sounds for teaching. It gives you some step by-step
procedures for producing clear recorded audio instructions. Please, pay
particular attention to the guidelines, and follow them faithfully.
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

 define instructional radio
 present a radio lecture to students
 state what an audio recording is
 produce a recorded audio material to teach a topic of your choice
Instructional radio
Instructional radio means organised transmission of radio programmes to
supplement other information from textbooks and the teacher. Some tertiary
institutions or schools in Ghana are allowed to establish their own FM radio
stations to help supplement other instructional media. Such FM radio
stations enable teachers to give students radio lectures.
Instructional radio can be used to teach almost every subject in the school
curriculum. The greatest advantage of radio over textbooks and projected
materials is that radio can be used for live coverage of educational events.
This means that it can be used to cover such events as Presidential visits,
National Day celebrations, drama, the commissioning of new scientific,
social and industrial projects as they occur, and relay them live to students.
Instructional radio is very suitable for teaching learners who live and work
far away from their school.
Instructional radio helps students to develop listening skills. Such skills are
transferred to other learning experiences.
Strategies for presenting radio lectures

 Make the students aware of the times and dates for their radio lectures
so that they can assemble at the agreed venues or tune their radio
receivers to get the lectures.
 State the objectives clearly in behavioural terms.
 Prepare the script of the radio lecture and rehearse it well ahead of
time, to be sure of when to stop and ask students questions during the
lecture and when to tell students to perform some activities. Note that
the script for the radio lecture, being the plan which will guide your
presentation, deserves to be given adequate thought, time and effort.
 The radio lecture should proceed gradually in a conversational style,
as if you were talking to the students face to face in the lecture room.
 At times you should go into the radio studio with about three to five
students from the class receiving the lecture. Such students will ask
you some questions, react by making comments or answer some of
your questions. (All these will be heard by their colleagues at their

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 4, section 1: Using radio and audio tape recording for teaching and learning TECHNOLOGY
various listening venues. They will therefore enjoy the radio lecture as
if they were in a hall with the lecturer.)
 After the lecture, summarise the points and give students assignments
to do and references for further reading.
Activity 1.1
a. State and briefly explain three advantages of instructional radio.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
b. State five guidelines for presenting an FM radio lecture to students.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Fig 1.1: A radio lecture in progress.
Radio lectures are very useful for instructing distance learners, making live coverage and
developing students listening skills.
Instructional tape recordings

Instructional tape recordings are audio recordings which teachers produce
for teaching their students. They are used for supplementing the actual
learning experiences in the class. For instance, a biology teacher teaching
about some animals, can record the sounds of such animals on audio tape
and replay them to students during the lesson to make it more real and
interesting.
Similarly, a teacher can make audio tape recordings of an interview with

some specialists in his or her subject area or some activities in a market,
factory or other relevant sounds in his or her subject area to supplement his
or her lesson. In some schools where there is acute shortage of teachers in

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EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 4, section 1: Using radio and audio tape recording for teaching and learning
some subjects, audio recordings of lectures in those subjects can be brought

and replayed to students to supplement the information they have read from
books.
Students may buy personal copies of the audio tape recorders and play them
at their own leisure time.
Guidelines and steps for producing instructional recordings

You need guidelines to assist you produce instructional recordings. I have
listed and explained them below.
Planning. In planning to produce instructional audio tapes the following

steps are necessary:
 Consider the audience who will use the instructional tapes. Ensure that
you meet their interests, age, educational background and level of
understanding
 Set out the objectives for the audio instruction in behavioural terms.
 Prepare an outline of the content.
 Develop a step-by-step explanation and description of the content and
concepts to be taught. This is called the script and it should indicate
where you will need a change of voice or the use of music as an
interlude.
Production Ensure that you use high quality audio cassettes. For
motivational reasons, you may want to use more than one voice. In such a
case you may need a different speaker to do the introduction and another to
do the real presentation.
 Recordings should be clear, loud and free from any form of or
external unwanted noise.
 A recorded lesson should not be too long. It should last about ...
minutes
Presentation and use

 Decide on the activities to be performed by the students during and
after the instruction
 Give explicit instructions for participatory work.
 Indicate correct responses for immediate feedback.
 Plan a variety of learning experiences and pace the activities.
 When the recording is complete, edit the work and make the final
recording on a master tape.
 Make duplicate copies.
 Prepare supplementary printed materials, for example, pamphlets
containing the index of the cassette, brief notes and guides on how to
use the recorded material, summary, illustrations, quizzes, reference
materials and projects.

EDUCATIONAL
 Label and package each unit or set of materials according to subjects,

classes and lessons.
 Plan for distribution of the material to the intended students, classes or
schools.
Activity 1.2
a. What do you understand by instructional tape recordings?
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
b. Why are they necessary in schools?
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
c. What broad headings will guide the teacher in the

production of instructional audio tapes?
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Activity 1.3
Practical individual work
Do this activity in your jotter
 Identify a topic to be taught to a P5 class.
 Set your objectives for teaching it.
 Prepare a script to contain the step-by-step procedures you will use for
teaching it through recorded audio tape.
 Exchange your script with your class or course mate.
 Make a critique of each other’s script by suggesting ways for
improving it (if necessary)
 Now use your script to produce an audio-tape lesson on a cassette for
submission to your tutor, who will use the guidelines for audio tape
production to evaluate and grade your recorded tape.

109
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 4, section 1: Using radio and audio tape recording for teaching and learning
Summary
Section 1 of unit 4 dealt in detail with the concepts of instructional radio and
tape recordings. Radio is a verbal medium of communication. It is important
because it can be used to make live coverage of events for students to learn.
It is also very valuable for distance learners. Most schools and higher
institutions have their own FM (frequency modulated) radio transmitters on
their campuses. Such facilities enable teachers to present radio lectures to
their students at specific periods.
Radio lectures should be well planned, well paced and delivered to give
students maximum motivation and understanding.
Instructional audio tape recordings are recorded audio materials of animals,

objects, events and people which have educational significance. They are
valuable for supplementing other forms of classroom instructions.
Instructional audio tape recordings must be well planned, well produced and
well presented. A good audio tape instruction should be clear, loud, well
paced, relevant to the lesson topic and free from external noise.
Activity 1.1
a. Three advantages of instructional radio
 Radio is very good for teaching distance learners.
 It helps to improve students listening skills.
 Instructional radio is very good for giving students up-to-date live
coverage of events.
b. Guidelines for presenting FM radio lectures to students

 Students should be made aware of the date, time and topic of the
lecture. Those who have no personal radios should have a central
listening venue where there is a powerful radio.
 The objectives of the radio lecture should be well stated in
performance objectives.
 The teacher should prepare a detailed script of the radio lecture to
guide him.
 A good radio lecture should be clear, loud, well paced and full of
student activities. It should have a summary at the end.
 Reference materials should be given to students after the radio
lecture.
Activity 1.2
a. Instructional audio tape recordings are audio recordings which are used
for teaching.

EDUCATIONAL
b. They are useful for supplementing classroom instruction. At times

where subject specialists are lacking, audio tape recordings can be used
for students to supplement what they have read from their text books.
c. Three broad headings which will guide the teacher in the production of
audio tapes are:
 planning
 production
 presentation

111
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 2 USING2:TELEVISION
Unit 4, section Using televisionFOR TEACHING
for teaching AND LEARNING
and learning
Hello and welcome to this section of unit 4. Section 3 dealt with

instructional radio and audio recordings. You might have observed that both
of them are verbal media of communication which use only one gateway
(i.e. the ear) for teaching and learning. In this section you will be introduced
to two gateways to human communication (that is,. the ear and eyes). Such
an instructional medium is called audio-visual medium.

 explain instructional television
 list the procedures for using instructional television for teaching.
What instructional television is

Instructional television refers to television programmes which are designed
to teach certain subjects to students. Instructional television can serve as one
of the best media for teaching any subject in the school because it uses
pictures and sounds. It is therefore more motivating to students than audio
media.
Types of instructional television

There are two types of television programmes. These are the open-circuit
(OCTV) and closed-circuit television (CCTV). The open circuit television
broadcast is the type which governments use to transmit to a whole nation or
region. The television signals are relayed to the audience via cables and at
times satellites.
The closed circuit television programmes are designed mainly for a group of
people. Here, the producers have a specific objective to convey to the group
or audience in mind. Such a CCTV cannot be received by any television set
except those which are connected to the television studio through cables
which can receive the signals. This means that a CCTV system can be
designed for a school for teaching various subjects to students of the school.
In such a case, there will be a CCTV studio where the lectures are presented
and where video cameras relay the presentation to students in special halls
or common rooms where the required cables are connected to some
television sets from the studio.
Fig 2.1: close circuit television

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Unit 4, section 2: Using television for teaching and learning TECHNOLOGY
Activity 2.1
What are the two main types of television programmes used for instruction?
Briefly describe each.
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Procedures for using instructional television for teaching
Before the television lesson

Step 1: Provide a guide for each of the series which you want to use for
each programme. Let the students be aware of the programme you intend to
use in advance.
Step 2: Ensure that you understand the course and the television
programme. Prepare a short guide to help you.
Step 3: Consider the age, educational background and experiences of the

students and ensure that you relate the content of the TV programme to
them. State your objectives in behavioural terms.
Step 4: Use a good introductory material and activity to motivate the

students
During the television lesson

Step 5: Encourage audience participation by, for example, letting your
audience answer some questions aloud, writing down some answers or
performing some activities. Let all your demonstrations be clear and
concise. Make liberal use of teaching aids.
After the lesson

Step 6: Summarise the important points you have discussed during the
programme
Step 7: Give students short assignments which will be discussed and

corrected at the beginning of the next telecast.
Activity 2.2
 Select a topic to be taught in P4
 Use this topic to develop a detailed television lesson based on the
guidelines you have already studied
 Practise presenting the television lesson to one of your study mates
making sure that you follow the guidelines very strictly in order to
produce a good television lesson.
 Ask your colleague to give you feedback and then reverse your roles.

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Summary
In this section I have defined instructional television and explained how it
can be used for effective teaching. Instructional television is the
transmission of television pictures for teaching and learning. It is very
motivating to students because it combines audio and video communication
to teach concepts.
The closed-circuit television transmission is the most commonly used form

of television transmission for teaching because it can be installed and
controlled within a limited area for students’ use.
In instructional television, the teacher must set his or her objectives for the
lesson very clearly in behavioural terms. He or she must also prepare the
television instructional scripts which will indicate the pace of the lesson,
voicing and the various activities which students are expected to perform
during the television lesson.

Activity 2.1
 The Open-circuit television (OCTV): is the form of transmission
which uses cables or satellites to beam television programmes all over
a country to viewers, through the open air. Anybody who has a
television set with the correct antenna or satellite dish can receive the
television signals.
 The closed-circuit television (CCTV) is more suitable for
educational purposes because it is easier to relay and control within a
limited space such as a school or a classroom. Reception can only be
obtained through special cables connecting the television studio and
the television monitors located in the reception centres where students
can assemble and learn from the telecast.

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UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 3 USING3:VIDEO
Unit 4, section RECORDING
Using video FOR
recording for TEACHING
teaching AND LEARNING
and learning
Hello, how did you find the last section on instruction television? I hope that
you have enjoyed it. In this section you will learn about the use of the video
camera. Once you are acquainted with its use, it will be easier for you to
produce your own television (video) pictures or films for domestic or
classroom use. Please pay particular attention to the practical work in the
activities.

 identify at least five component parts of a video camera and explain
their functions
 explain types of video camera shots and their uses
 explain types of video camera movements.
 produce video pictures for classroom use
Fig 3.1: video camera
Parts of a video camera and their functions

The following are the parts of a video camera and their functions:
1. The focus ring

The focus ring is used for directing and controlling the lens onto an
image to make it clearer to see.
2. The lens
The lens is a transparent object made of glass or plastic, which
allows the user to see the image being recorded.
3. The zoom lens switch

The zoom lens switch helps to control the zoom lens which is used
for extending the image in focus farther away or bringing it nearer to
the user.
4. The microphone
This is a built in device which helps to record all the audio signals
which are produced by the scene or object being recorded into the
video camera.

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Unit 4, section 3: Using video recording for teaching and learning TECHNOLOGY
5. The view finder

It is an opening through which the user sees the events or objects
being recorded through the lens. It helps the user to edit unwanted
materials away from the video recording.
6. The display tube

The display tube is a glass tube like a small bottle which collects all
the images being recorded, through the lens, and displays them for
the cameraman to see whether or not they are clear enough.
7. The video tape cassette.

The video cassette is the device which is used to record and store all
the images which enter the camera through the lens. The images are
recorded on a magnetic tape inside the cassette.
8. The head drum

This is like a rotor which helps to operate the video cassette to
record images.
9. The Video circuit board

It is the device which distributes electrical power to the various parts
of the camera to function properly.
10. The charge-coupled device.

The charge-coupled device is an electrical device which is very
sensitive to light energy. It helps to convert the colour images
coming through the lens, into electronic video signals.
Activity 3.1
List five component parts of a video camera and explain the functions of
each of them.
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Video camera
A video camera is a device that captures images and converts them into
electrical signals for viewing on a television set. The images can be
transmitted directly to the set or recorded on a video tape for later playback.

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Today, there are many types of portable video cameras, generally known as
Camcorders, with built-in video tape recorders to enable families, teachers,
students, industrial and business establishments make and enjoy their own
movies (films). A camcorder uses a light sensitive mechanism called
a charge-coupled device to convert the colour images into electronic video
signals. The signals then travel to the recording head for storage on a
videotape. In the display tube, a tiny TV screen shows the image that is
recorded.
Types of video camera shots

i. Close-up shots are powerful shots that are taken in a way to make the
object or people appear very big. They are taken for concentrating the
interest of the audience (viewers) on an important object, scenario,
activity or concept in focus. Close-ups help to draw the attention of
viewers to their reactions, responses and emotions which might have
been overlooked or unnoticed in long shots. Close-ups should not be
held for too long or used for irrelevant details.
ii. Long shots are taken to cover a wider space or long distance and
recorded for revealing locations, establishing moods, showing
interrelationships or following an action. A long shot is used to give a
feeling of surveillance of the televised scenery to the audience. It
provides the viewers with an overall assessment or impression of the
scenery or activity in focus.
Camera movements
1. Panning.
Panning is the movement of the camera head to follow or track a
movement or action. It helps viewers to see the spatial relationship
between two objects, events or areas. There are four types of panning,
namely;
a. Following pan
b. Surveying pan
c. Interrupted pan
d. Whip pan
(a) Following pan

The following pan is used to follow an object as it moves.
(b) Surveying pan

In surveying pan, the camera slowly searches the scene, such
as a crowd, landscape or forest and allows the audience to
look round at choice. Panning can be done as a restful
anticipatory action but it must provide something interesting
for the viewers.

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The surveying pan is also used to provide dramatic scenes

with high expectancy from the audience, for example,
panning an accident scene and then spotting an ambulance. It
can also be used to build up an anticlimax situation. For
instance, a criminal escaping from the police looks back to
see if he is being pursued, only to see his beloved wife
running after him and weeping.
(c) Interrupted pan

An interrupted pan is a long smooth movement which is
suddenly stopped or sometimes reversed to provide visual
contrast to viewers. It is used to link a series of isolated
subjects, create comic effects or provide dramatic
applications on the subjects.
(d) Whip pan.

The whip pan is a fast pan which turns rapidly from one
subject to the next and usually produces a dynamic
comparative change to give a transistory importance to the
viewer. It can also be used for changing centres of attention
from one area of concentration to another for comparison and
contrast, and for showing cause and effect.
2. Zooming
Zooming involves operating the lens of the video camera to move into the
camera or toward the subject. It gives the psychological impression to the
audience that they are going to look, explore, meet or inspect the subject so
as to satisfy their curiosity. Forward zooming gives a very strong
exploratory impression while dollying backward is usually a weak move.
3. Tilting the video camera

Tilting the camera is used to show objects at different heights and angles.
An object or event can be made to be domineering, weak, forceful, elegant,
impressive or significant depending on the angle or height at which the
camera takes it. Such angles or heights affect the emotions of the audience.
The ways to achieve camera heights include stooping low to take shots,
raising the camera up or climbing a tower to take the shot, for example, an
aerial view of a river or the sea or a crowd of dancers or a herd of cattle.
Low angle positions are good for sporting events, high mountains or thick
forests to emphasize their strength and suspense.
Taking colour pictures

The best colour pictures can be obtained using the following guidelines:
 In order to maintain proper focus during zooming, it is advisable to
first zoom in before focusing on the object. Shooting should be
performed while zooming.

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 For a clear focusing, turn the focus ring until the picture in the
viewfinder is clear.
 Macro shots are convenient for close-ups such as those of small
details in objects, still pictures and printed words and others.
 Try to provide a lighting system to uniformly light up the scene or
surroundings where you intend to shoot. To this end try to avoid
shadows, beams or gleams which tend to spoil pictures due to too
much contrast between light and shade.
 One way to give a three-dimensional effect to the object you are
shooting is to throw a spotlight on a portion of the object and then
shoot carefully.
 Try to use the white balance switch to adapt to the different lighting
conditions which you may have to encounter in multipurpose shots.
This is important because of the different colour temperature
properties present in different lighting conditions.
 Avoid aiming your camera lens directly at very bright light sources.
This can disable the vidicon tube.
 All servicing and camera repairs should be referred to a qualified
technician. Do not subject the camera to chemicals, moisture,
excessive heat or colds, shocks, vibrations or magnetic fields such as
antennas, aerials and magnets.
Activity 3.2
a) Describe two types of video camera shots and explain their uses.
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b) List THREE types of video camera movements and explain their

uses
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Activity 3.3
i. Study the parts of a video camera and their functions again, including
how to use the camera
ii. Now get a video camera – you can borrow from the university or rent
one from a photographer and video camera users all over the town or
elsewhere. Each member of a group can contribute a token amount,
put all together and rent a video camera for an hour or two for
practice.
iii. Use the video camera, following the operational rules you have learnt,
to film any event or object of interest to the group. It may even not
relate to teaching this time.
iv. Ensure that there is a video cassette inside the video camera before
you start filming the event or objects.
v. Now obtain a video equipment and a television set. Take out the
cassette from the video camera and fix it into the video equipment to
display the pictures you have recorded.
vi. If your recordings are blurred and shaky you have not obeyed the rules
of using the video camera so you should try another filming.
Summary
In this section you learnt how to use the video camera for filming objects
and events. Camera shots may be close-up or long shots. Close-up shots are
for concentrating attention of viewers while long shots are useful for
revealing locations to viewers.
Cameras can be moved in different ways. Panning is used for tracking a

movement. Zooming involves operating the lens of the video camera to
move into the camera or toward the subject.
The video camera can also be tilted high or low and at different angles to
create moods and impressions of certain objects in the minds of the
audience.
Activity 3.1
The lens: A transparent material which bends light rays into the video
camera and so enables the user to see the events being recorded.
The focus ring: For adjusting the lens so as to make images clearer to see.
The zoom lens: For extending images further away or drawing them nearer.
Display tube: For showing the images being filmed on a small screen.
Charge-coupled device: For converting colour images into electronic
signals.

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Activity 3.2
a) i Close-ups – For concentrating attention
ii Long shots – For revealing locations.
Panning – For tracking movements
Zooming – For drawing objects closer or away from the
observer.
Tilting – For creating moods and impressions of objects or
events.

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UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 4 USING4:COMPUTERS
Unit 4, section Using computersFOR TEACHING
for teaching AND LEARNING
and learning
In section 3 you learnt how to use the video camera for filming events and
objects. As you continue to practise, try to film concepts which are relevant
to your subject and show it to your students. In this unit, you will learn
about computers, and how to use them to enhance teaching and learning.

 describe a computer
 list three types of computer and their functions
 explain five principles of computers
 explain what a computer-assisted instruction is
 use computers in teaching
What a computer is
A computer is any of the various automatic devices like a calculator, that
solve problems by processing data according to instructions. This definition
means that a computer can be instructed to teach a concept in a specific
subject area by using specific methods and instructional materials.
Computers can also be instructed to perform various graphic, mechanical
and verbal tasks for educational and industrial purposes.
Fig 4.1: parts of a computer
Component parts of a computer

A computer has two different components – the hardware and the
software. The hardware components include the processor, memory,
input/output devices such as a keyboard, mouse and monitor and storage
devices such as floppy and hard disk drives.
The hardware
The hardware of any computer can perform many tasks but it receives its
commands or instructions from the software component of the machine.
The software is the electronic instructions, which are written into the
computer to tell the hardware what to so. The software is usually kept in the

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Unit 4, section 4: Using computers for teaching and learning TECHNOLOGY
storage. A set or package of such commands or instructions is called a

programme. Without a programme, a computer can do nothing.
The processor
The processor of the computer is the brain of the computer. It receives raw
data and other information and then interprets and executes instructions
contained in the programme. The memory of the computer retains
information while the processor is working upon such information. The
input/output devices are the sections which enable the computer to interact
with the user or with other machines to which it is connected. The input is
the data or instructions which are fed into the computer. The output devices
reply by sending back processed information. It is a form of feedback. The
storage of the computer helps to file or store up any data or information,
which is not being used at the particular point in time, when the machine is
being operated. Information in the storage is quickly transferred into the
memory whenever instructions in the programme call for it.
Principles of computers
We use input devices to feed data into computers. The computer terminal
is one of the commonest devices. It is similar to a typewriter keyboard and a
television screen. Information which is typed on the keyboard appears on
the screen. This same information also goes into the memory, where the
instructions which tell the computer what to do with the data (that is the
programme) are stored. The processor then manipulates the data in line with
the instructions and command or programme. The processed information is
sent to an output device which presents it on the screen for the user. file
storage devices are used to save the information for future use. At times,
the user may want a printed copy of the data on the screen. He then uses a
printer which is another output device to print as many copies as needed,
either in colour or black and white.
All data, words, symbols, sounds, letters, diagrams and pictures enter the
processor in the form of digits. Computers commonly use digits of the
binary numeration system, which comprises only two digits: 0 and 1
Activity 4.1
Mention three things a computer does.
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What do you understand by the binary numeration system.?

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Kinds of computers
Computers vary in speed size and ability to perform varied functions. They
are of three main types: digital, analogue and hybrid computers.
Digital computers
Digital computers are the most common types of computers in use today.
They can be programmed to perform a lot of varied tasks. Governments and
businesses make extensive use of the digital computer’s ability to organise,
store and retrieve information by setting up huge data files. Digital
computers have the capacity to control machines and laborations; they can
also be used for classroom teaching.
Analogue computers
The analogue computer operates on data which are of different quantities
and provides a physical analogy or description of the mathematical
problems to be solved. It is able to solve ordinary differential equations and
it is well suited for use in systems engineering.
Hybrid computers
The hybrid computer combines the characteristics and advantages of
analogue and digital systems. It offers greater precision than the digital and
more control capability than the analogue. Hybrid computers are very useful
in simulation studies.
Activity 4.2
What advantage has a hybrid computer over
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a) a digital computer
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b) an analogue computer
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Applying computer technology to teaching and learning

A computer can be instructed (i.e. programmed) to teach a subject, use
specific teaching methods and instructional materials. Aside from teaching,
computers can also be instructed to perform various graphic, mechanical
and verbal tasks for educational, domestic or business purposes.
Computer-Assisted instruction (CAI) is an example of the use of

computers for teaching-learning purposes. CAI is a programme of

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 4, section 4: Using computers for teaching and learning TECHNOLOGY
instructional materials presented by means of a computer or computer

systems.
Instructional computers are basically used in one of two ways – they either
provide a straightforward presentation of data or they fulfil a tutorial role
where the student is tested on his or her comprehension.
If the computer has a tutorial programme, the student is asked a question by

the computer, the student types in an answer, and if he or she gets the
answer correct, the student is routed to more challenging problems. If the
answer is incorrect, various computer messages will indicate the flaw on
procedure, and the programme will bypass more complicated questions until
the student shows mastery in that area.
Advantages of using computers in educational instruction

There are many advantages to suing computers in educational instruction.
Examples include:
i. They provide one to one interaction with a student, as well as an
instantaneous response to the answer elicited, and allow students to
proceed at their own pace.
ii. Computers are particularly useful in subjects that require drill, freeing
the teacher from some classroom tasks so that a teacher can devote
more time to individual students.
iii. A computer programme can be used diagnostically.
iv. Once a student’s problem has been identified, it can then focus on the
problem area.
v. Because of the privacy and individual attention afforded by a
computer, some students are relieved of the embarrassment of giving
an incorrect answer publicly or of going more slowly through lessons
than other classmates.
Fig. 4.3 : Students learning with computers

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Activity 4.3
a. Explain what you understand by computer-assisted instruction.
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b. Why is it a very useful form of instruction?
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Summary
A computer is any form of various automatic devices that solve problems
programmed into it.
There are three main kinds of computers. Digital computers are very
suitable for calculations, controlling machines and classroom teaching.
Analogue computers are more suited to differential equations, systems
engineering or any other problems which are varied in quantity.
Hybrid computers combine the functions of the other two kinds, and are
very suitable for simulations.

Activity 4.1
A computer is any of the various automatic devices that solve problems by
processing data according to instructions.
The binary numeration system is the process where computers process data
with only two types of digits: 0 and 1
Activity 4.2
a) The hybrid computer offers greater precision than the digital computers
b) The hybrid computer has more capability than the analogue computer.
Activity 4.3
a. Computer–Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a form of teaching
method in which computers are programmed to teach
concepts to take students through drill, demonstration,
simulation or role play.
b. (i) It individualises learning.
. (ii) Students proceed at their own pace
(iii) Leaves the teacher free to devote more time to
individual students
(iv) Affords privacy and individual attention to student-
users

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EDUCATIONAL Unit 4,USING
sectionPROJECTORS
5: Using projectorsAND GRAPHICdevicesDEVICES
for teachingFOR
UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 5 TEACHINGlearning
AND LEARNING
and graphic and
Welcome to this section. Section 4 dealt with computers, their kinds,

principles and application to learning. I hope you enjoyed it. In this section
you will learn about the use of overhead projectors, opaque projectors and
graphic devices for teaching.

 identify four component parts of an overhead projector and their
functions.
 practise the use of the overhead projector using the guidelines
 define and identify graphic devices
 list four guidelines for preparing graphic devices for use.
The overhead projector

The overhead projector is one of the teaching machines that are used for
visual communication in the classroom. The overhead projector can be used
to perform almost all the functions of the chalkboard.
However, only special coloured markers, felt pens and coloured pencils are
used for writing or drawing on the transparencies or overlays which are used
for presenting the visual information on the glass plate or stage.
Most of the transparencies that are used on the overhead projector can be
made locally from glass, polyester and old unwanted X-ray films (which are
cleaned with a piece of cloth soaked in kerosene). Practically any type of
visual information, including models, can be presented on overhead
projectors provided such visuals are transparent.
Owing to the special qualities of the overhead projector, visual presentations

can be shown at short distances from the screen. The advantage of this is
that the teacher can stand in front of the class to make his or her presentation
while, at the same time, facing the class and even demonstrating an action,
or writing on the clackboard.
Fig 5.1: overhead projector

Unit 4, section 5: Using projectors and graphic devices for teaching and EDUCATIONAL
learning TECHNOLOGY
How to use the overhead projector

The focusing mechanism is built in the arm of the projector. The raising or
lowering of the projector head helps to focus the visual image on the stage
(or glass plate). When a clear visible picture is reflected on the screen, it
means that the focus is good. But when the image on the screen is blurred or
hazy, it means that the focus is bad and therefore needs readjustment.
There is a fan inside the overhead projector which helps to cool the machine
when the switch is on. Too much heat can damage the tungsten-halogen
bulb and other delicate internal parts of the projector. The user should leave
the fan to operate for about 20 minutes after use, to ensure proper cooling.
The teacher should make sure that all students have a clear view of the
screen during any visual presentation. The overlays should be clearly
labelled and neat. Additional information can be written on fresh overlays or
on the chalkboard. In areas where the teacher cannot get manufactured
screens, white-washed walls or white cloth should be used. Software
instructional materials such as charts, maps, recorded sounds, models,
specimens, and practical activities should be used to supplement concepts
taught with the aid of an overhead projector.
Opaque projectors are used for projecting visual materials which are not
transparent. The functions and use of the opaque projector are similar to
those of the overhead projector, but only opaque materials such as
photographs, pictures and diagrams from books, magazines newspapers,
cartoons, cardboard papers and others including objects like models and
specimens can be projected from the opaque projector.
Fig 5.2: opaque projector
Activity 5.1
a. What is an overhead projector?
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TECHNOLOGY learning
b. What are the four component parts of an overhead projector?

Explain their functions.
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c. What is the difference in function between an overhead and an

opaque projector?
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d. List five visual materials which can be projected on an opaque

projector.
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Graphic devices
Graphic devices are such visual media as posters, cartoons, maps, diagrams,
sketches and drawings. Graphic devices are very good for teaching because
they are easy to use at any time of the lesson. A lot of graphic devices can
be produced locally by teachers and students.
Preparation of graphic devices

A lot of time and care are needed for producing graphic devices. Guidelines
that can assist you to prepare graphic devices include the following:
i. They must be attractive
ii. They must be big, bright and bold to see.
iii. They should not contain too many words or long sentences.
iv. The lettering should be neat and legible

learning TECHNOLOGY
v. A good graphic device should be limited to only one major concept at

a time. This means that too many concepts should not be crowded in a
single poster or chart.
Fig 5.3: West African map showing vegetation
Activity 5.2
List four qualities of good graphic devices.
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Summary
An overhead projector and an opaque projector are operated in the same
way. The former projects transparent graphic materials while the latter
projects opaque materials. Graphic devices are visual presentations like
maps, pictures or charts. Most of them can be produced locally by the
teacher. Graphic devices should be attractive, big, bold and bright. They
should not be crowded with too many concepts.

Activity 5.1
a. An overhead projector is an electronic hardware which is used for
projecting transparent graphic materials onto a screen and which can
help students’ learning.
b. (i) The mirror reflects images from the stage of the projector onto a
screen for viewing.
(ii) The focus knob is used for adjusting the mirror which serves as a
lens to produce clear images on the screen
(iii) The stage is used for mounting or displaying visuals.

133
EDUCATIONAL Unit 4, section 5: Using projectors and graphic devices for teaching and
TECHNOLOGY learning
(iv) The fan vent – this helps to rotate the built – in fan which helps
to cool the projector during and after use.
c. The overhead projector is used for projecting transparencies while the

opaque projector is used for projecting opaque graphic materials.
d. (i) Maps
(ii) Pictures
(iii) Cartoons
(iv) Sketches
(v) Newspaper clippings
Activity 5.2
A good graphic device must be: (Any 4)
(i) attractive
(ii) big, Bright and Bold
(iii) legible and Neat
(iv) must not contain too many details at a time

This page is left blank for your notes
learning TECHNOLOGY

135
EDUCATIONAL
UNIT 4 SECTION
TECHNOLOGY 6 MAINTENANCE
Unit 4, section OF
6: Maintenance of ELECTRONIC
electronic equipment EQUIPMENT
Well done for getting this far. I welcome you to the last section of this
course. In section 5 you learnt about overhead and opaque projectors while
in section 4 you learnt about computer hardware and how to use them for
teaching and learning. A common feature about both the projectors and
computer hardware is that they are all electronic media. In this section you
are going to learn how to store and maintain them and prevent them from
getting damaged or malfunctioning.

 store properly electronic instructional materials.
 explain the purpose of maintenance
 explain and apply two types of maintenance techniques.
Storage and maintenance of electronic equipment

In an earlier section of this course we observed that most of the electronic
equipment now lying waste in many of our schools are in such state because
of inadequate storage and maintenance strategies.
Storage means the safe keeping of any device in order to prevent loss or
damage. The purpose of storage is to keep materials and equipment in a
good, workable and orderly condition so as to make them safe and easy to
retrieve for use.
Maintenance means taking care of the device through cleaning, lubricating

and repairs.
Methods of maintenance and storage

Most instructional materials normally must be kept in a dust-free air-
conditioned rooms. Different types of instructional materials, however, have
their own storage requirements.
Photographic chemicals, for instance, are best stored in refrigerators.

Despite this, it is important to inspect the materials from time to time to
identify and remove decaying or expired chemicals. If this is not done, the
bad ones will contaminate the others.
All storage facilities should be kept away from insects, rodents and
unskilled persons. All equipment should be regularly cleaned.
Expired bulbs and other spare parts should be replaced in the case of
breakdowns or damage while all repairs should be referred to qualified
technicians only.
All wall charts, maps, pictures and transparencies should be stored in

envelopes, albums or drawers.

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 4, section 6: Maintenance of electronic equipment TECHNOLOGY
Films are best stored in large tin cans and kept on large vertical racks and
shelves. The films should be inspected and cleaned often. All containers
used for storing materials should bear the identification numbers and titles
recorded on them.
The lenses of cameras and projectors should be cleaned with cloth wipers
and not with bare hands.
The importance of maintenance

Without proper maintenance no educational equipment can be expected to
complete its designed lifespan. Timely maintenance of educational
equipment is crucial because the effects of faults are both local and
widespread: local because a single functional part is affected and
widespread because an educational equipment is not an isolated unit, but a
machine whose parts are inter-connected and inter-related in structure and
function. This is why, for instance, a problem in the exciter lamp of a 16mm
film projector will affect other parts of the equipment.
Maintenance prospects should be considered when selecting educational

equipment. The school authorities should ask themselves some questions,
“Do we have the expertise to maintain it within the school or the town?”
“Are the necessary tools and spare parts for maintenance available
locally?” “Can we afford the cost of the necessary storage facilities?”
Most of the educational equipment now in use in some institutions were

imported. In most cases, only the manufacturers can provide the correct
spare parts and training facilities for proper maintenance of their equipment.
In institutions where the technical staff is always moving to other sectors of

the job market, in search of better pay, this expensive training can be a
repetitive exercise. The reason is because those who resign to enter new jobs
will have to be replaced by newly recruited ones who will have to go for the
training already acquired by their predecessors who have resigned.
In cases where dependency on the manufacturers is inevitable, the provision

of training should be negotiated and assured in the purchase of equipment
contract. This last point is very important for the radio, computer and closed
circuit television sectors of the media centre, where large, complex and
expensive equipment are being purchased and replaced with new models
from time to time. If such an initial training and also a guarantee of long-
term programmes are provided, such skills can be transferred to other local
technicians in other centres in secondary schools, polytechnics and
universities.
However, since lengthy training programmes at manufacturers premises

abroad can be very expensive, regions should step up their own local
production. Such local productions will reduce costs, improve maintenance

137
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 4, section 6: Maintenance of electronic equipment
and the availability of tools and spare parts. A local production programme,
as advocated here, has to be backed up by government support in terms of
finance and manpower supplies. Although perfection will not be gained
overnight in such a venture, progress will inevitably be achieved through
research and exchange of ideas by teachers and production engineers.
Technicians should adapt preventive maintenance strategies in all the media

centres in the country. Preventive maintenance (also called precaution
maintenance) is the clearing of fault hazards before faults actually
develop. Preventive maintenance involves routine checking, lubricating and
clearing of educational equipment. Faults that are not corrected through this
method may be brought to the attention of the maintenance staff by users’
complaints. Once a fault has been so detected, the equipment should be
handled by qualified staff and corrected instantly.
The method, whereby educational equipment is handled by staff when

faults exist, is termed controlled maintenance and should be used to
supplement preventive maintenance. However, since controlled
maintenance depends on accurate fault diagnosis, the essence of recruiting
well qualified technicians for every media centre becomes important here.
Every technician should be familiar with the model’s internal structures and
operating performance of the educational equipment he or she is dealing
with. This is important because such knowledge is essential in determining
the nature and location of faults in any educational equipment.
Activity 6.1
a Explain the term “storage”?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
b What do you mean by “maintenance”?

………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
c The purpose of maintenance is ...

EDUCATIONAL
Unit 4, section 6: Maintenance of electronic equipment TECHNOLOGY
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
d List four instructional media and state their storage and maintenance
strategies.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
e List two types of maintenance

………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Summary
Storage means the proper keeping of media for its safety and maintenance to
good condition. Maintenance means the care, cleaning, lubrication and
repair of instructional medium. Both storage and maintenance enable
instructional materials to generally complete their lifespan.
Most photographic chemicals should be kept in refrigerators. They should

also be inspected often in order to detect any faulty or expired medium and
take necessary preventive measures.. Decaying or expired chemicals should
be isolated to prevent them from contaminating others. Expired bulbs and
spare parts should be replaced.
Most films are best stored in tin cans and kept on high racks or shelves.
Maps, pictures and charts are best kept in envelops and drawers.
All repair work should be referred to qualified technicians only. Unskilled

people should not be allowed to play or tamper with electronic equipment.
Cloth wipers should be used to clean the lenses of cameras and projectors.

139
EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Unit 4, section 6: Maintenance of electronic equipment

Activity 6.1
a Storage is the proper keeping of a device to prevent loss or damage.
b Maintenance means the care, cleaning, lubrication and repair of

electronic media to enable them complete their lifespan.
c Maintenance is done to keep media in good condition for our regular

use.
i Photographic chemicals should be kept in refrigerators and
inspected often to isolate expired ones.
ii Films should be kept in tin cans and stored on racks or
shelves.
iii Maps, charts and pictures should be stored in envelopes,
albums and drawers.
iv Dry cloth wipers should be used to clean the lenses of
cameras and projectors.
v All electronic devices should be stored in a dust-free air-
conditioned room.
d Preventive (precaution) maintenance is the cleaning, oiling

and care of electronic devices to prevent them from damage or
malfunctioning.
Controlled maintenance is the repair of faulty devices.

EDUCATIONAL
EDUCATIONAL
References Unit 4, section 6: Maintenance of electronic equipment TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY
Berlo, D. K. (1960): The Process of Communication. New York: Holt &

Rinehart
Bloom, B. S, Krathwohl, D. R. and Berthram, B. M. (1964). Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives: the Classification of Educational Goals.
Hand Book II, New York: Longman
Mangoon, R.A. and Garrison, K. C. (1979): Educational Psychology: An

integrated view. Ohio: Charles Merill
Mills, S. R. (1992) Education. New York: Macmillan
Tock, A. and Maclean, N. N. (1962): ‘’Media learning and Evaluation’’

Communication Review 2, 4, Jan.

141
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Graphic Design and Layout:

SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 14

SECTION 2 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY 20

SECTION 3 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 26

SECTION 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 30

SECTION 5 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES 36

SECTION 6 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 42

SECTION 1 THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION 48

SECTION 2 ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 52

SECTION 3 FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 56

SECTION 4 GATEWAYS TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION 60

SECTION 5 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 64

SECTION 6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 68

SECTION 1 SPECIFIC VALUES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 76

SECTION 2 CRITERIA FOR USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 80

SECTION 3 BASIC STEPS IN USING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 84

SECTION 4 THE NEED TO PRODUCE LOW-COST INSTRUCTIONAL

SECTION 5 TYPES OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES 92

SECTION 6 SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS AND METHODS

SECTION 1 USING RADIO AND AUDIO TAPE RECORDING

SECTION 2 USING TELEVISION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 112

SECTION 3 USING VIDEO RECORDING FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 116

SECTION 4 USING COMPUTERS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 124

SECTION 5 USING PROJECTORS AND GRAPHIC DEVICES

SECTION 6 MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT 136

Hello, and welcome to this course. Educational technology is one of the

Look around your environment, such as your house, classroom, office or

The school, as an important agent of education must make students aware

Children today are introduced to various types of electronic toys, animals,

The purpose of this course, therefore, is to enable you as a professional

After completing this course, you should be able to:

Planned completion date Actual completion date

Unit 1: Concepts in Educational

Unit 2: Communication Theory and

Unit 3: Producing and using

Unit 4: Instructional Equipment and

CONCEPTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

SECTION 2 THE CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY 20

SECTION 3 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 26

SECTION 4 INSTRUCTIONAL DEVICES AND METHODS OF TEACHING 30

SECTION 5 INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES 36

SECTION 6 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 42

the adinkra symbol used in the UEW crest

Hello, welcome to unit 1 of this course, dealing with concepts in educational

The sections and the topics in each of them are:

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

12 UEW/IEDE, Dip Inservice

UEW/IEDE, Dip Inservice

Education is the process by which people acquire knowledge, skills, habits,

Education involves both learning and teaching. Sometimes people learn by

Education helps people to become useful to themselves and their society by

A good education helps to free a person and society from ignorance,

14 UEW/IEDE, Dip Inservice

1. The cognitive domain

2. The affective domain

3. The psychomotor domain.

b. List and describe the three main domains in any teaching-learning

c. Fill in the blank spaces with the correct words.

ii. A teacher who coaches his students in various sporting