(Combined PDF) - Chemical Bonding

CLASSIFICATION OF BONDS
IONIC BOND
Ionic bond is formed by the transference of one or more electrons from one
atom to the other.
The bond formed as a result of electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions is called ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
FORMATION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE
Conditions for the Stable Ionic Bonding
The conditions for the stable ionic bonding are:

(a) Ionization enthalpy of cation forming element should be low;
(b) Electron gain enthalpy of anion-forming element should have high negative value.
(c) Lattice enthalpy should also have a high negative value.
Factors favoring Ionic Bonding
(a) Ionization energy : Amount of energy required to remove an electron from the
outermost orbit of an isolated gaseous atom to form the + ve ion or cation,
(energy absorbed) Lesser Ionization energyGreater tendency to form cation.
Ex. Na+ > Mg+2 > Al+3
Cs+ > Rb+ > K+ > Na+ > Li+ } Cation formation tendency
(b) Electron affinity : Amount of energy released when an electron is added to an
isolated gaseous atom to form -ve ion (anion) energy released.
Higher electron affinity  Greater tendency to form anion
Ex. Cl– > F – > Br – > I –
F – > O –2 > N–3
(c) Lattice energy : (Energy released): The energy released in the formation of 1g
mole electrovalent compound from isolated gaseous ions is called lattice energy
(U) of that compound.
Higher lattice energy —> Greater will be the stability or strength of ionic
compound.
 Factors affecting lattice energy

Magnitude of charge  U a z+z– (Ionic charge)
Lattice energy a Magnitude of charge
NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3
Na+ Mg+2 Al+3
------------------------------------------------->
- Charge on cation increases.
- Size of cation decreases.
- Lattice energy increases
Born Haber Cycle
Thus S+ I.P+ D/2 – EGE – U = DHf
here S = heat of sublimation of Na(s)
I.R = ionisation potential of Na(g)
D = bond dissociation energy of Cl2
EGE = electron gain enthalpy of Cl(g)
U = lattice energy
DHf = enthalpy heat of formation of NaCl(s)
If lattice is MgX2(s) then
S + (IP1 + IP2) + D – 2EGE – U = DHf
where (IP1 + IP2) = total ionization energy to form Mg2+(g), from Mg(g).
Crack the PYQ
1. The ionization enthalpy of Na+ formation from Na(g) is 495.8 kJ mol–1, while the
electron gain enthalpy of Br is –325.0 kJ mol–1.
Given the lattice enthalpy of NaBr is –728.4 kJ mol–1. The energy for the formation
of NaBr ionic solid is (–)_______x 10–1 kJ mol–1.
[JEE MAINS - ONLINE - 2021]
2. TRANSITION FROM IONIC TO COVALENT BOND - FAJANS' RULE
Partial Covalent Character in Ionic Bonds
If polarization is more, larger will be covalent character of the bond.

Deciding Parameters
The extent of polarization depends on both the ions as:
(i) The power of the cation to distort or Polarize the anion.
(ii) The susceptibility of the anion to get polarized by the cation.

Fajan Rule
1. Small size of the cation. Smaller the size of the cation, greater is its polarizing
power.
Fajan Rule
1
Polarizing Power 
Size of the cation
Catio Radius of the Formula of the Melting point of

n cation, Å chloride the chloride, ºC
Be+2 0.31 BeCl2 405
Mg+2 0.65 MgCl2 712
Ca+2 0.99 CaCl2 772
Sr+2 1.13 SrCl2 872
Ba+2 1.35 BaCl2 960
2. Large size of anion. Polarization increases with increase in size of anion.
Cation – Ca+2
Anion Radius of the Formula of the Melting point of

Anion, Å Halide the Halide, ºC
F– 1.36 CaF2 1932
Cl– 1.181 CaCl2 772
Br– 1.95 CaBr2 730
I– 2.16 Cal2 730
3. Large charge on cation or anion. Larger the charge on cation greater is polarizing
power and large the charge on anion greater is its tendency to get polarized.
Compound PbCl2 PbCl4
Oxidation state of Pb +2 +4
Type of bonding More Ionic More Covalent
Melting Point High Low
Fajan Rule
4. Electronic configuration of the cation. Cation with 18 electrons shell configuration

(known as pseudo inert gas configuration) cause greater polarization then the
cation with 8 electrons shell configuration with the same size and charge.
Cation Cu+ ion Na+ ion

Electronic 2,8,18 2,8
Configuration
Radius of the cation 0.96 Å 0.95 Å
Melting Point CuCl (442ºC) NaCl (800ºC)
Example :
+3 +2 +1
1. AlCl3 __ MgCl2 ___ NaCl
Covalent character __________, B.P. ____________
+2 +4 +2 +4
2. FeCl2 ____ FeCl3
3. PbCl2 ____ PbCl4
4. BeCl2 ___ MgCl2 ___ CaCl2 ___ SrCl2
covalent character ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
5. AlCl3 ___ AlBr3 ___ AlI3 ___ AlF3
6. CuCl ___ NaCl

2, 8, 8 2, 8
MP=442ºC 800ºC
7. LiF ___ LiCl ___ LiBr ___ LiI
covalent character ___ ___ ___ __ due to large size of anion.

Among the following the maximum covalent character is shown by the compound :-
[AIEEE-2011]
(1) AlCl3 (2) MgCl2
(3) FeCl2 (4) SnCl2
3. Arrange NaCI, MgCI2, AICI3, SiCI4 in increasing solubility in ether (non-polar solvent).
(a) NaCI < MgCI2 < AICI3 < SiCI4
(b) SiCI4 < AICI3 < MgCI2 < NaCI
(c) SiCI2 = AICI3 < MgCI2 < NaCI
(d) Can't be decided
(3) To determine thermal stability of metal carbonates
From top to bottom thermal stability of carbonates increases
BeCO3
MgCO3 - size of cation increases
CaCO3 - f decreases (covalent character decreases)
SrCO3 - Thermal stability increases
BaCO3
4. Which of the following decomposes at highest temperature ?
(i) SrCO3 (ii) BaCO3
(iii) CaCO3 (iv) MgCO3.
OCTET RULE
The rule states that atoms of various elements enter into chemical combination so as
to attain the configuration of eight electrons in their outermost shell.
LEWIS SYMBOLS :
Electrons involved in the process of combination are outer shell electrons, therefore,
these are called valence electrons.
The electrons in the outer shell are represented by the dots surrounding the
symbol. For example, the Lewis symbols for the elements of 2nd period are:
Significance of Lewis Symbols

The number of dots in the Lewis symbol = number of valence electrons.
Example
1. H2
2.
3. N2
4. CCl4
Example
5. CO2
6. C2H4
Example
7. H2O
8. C2H2
Example
9. O3
10. CO
LIMITATION OF LEWIS OCTET RULE
(A) Incomplete Octet :
These are called as electron deficient compound or Lewis acids.

..
(i) BF3 F:B:F only 6 electron in outermost shell
(ii) BeH2 H : Be : H only 4 electrons

..
Cl
..
(iii) BCl3 Cl : B : Cl only 6 electrons
Cl
..
(iv) AlCl3 Cl : Al : Cl only 6 electrons

(B) Expanded octet

Central atom has more than 8 electrons thus shows expanded octet.
Formal Charge
A Formal charge (Fake Charge) is a theoretical charge over an individual atom of an ion
as the real charge over a polyatomic molecule or ion is distributed on an ion as a
whole and not over a single atom.
.
F.C. = [ Total number of valence electrons in the free atom]
– [Total number of non-bonded electrons]
– ½ [total number of shared electrons]
Example..ek Sample
(i) O3 O(1) = +1 Due to neutralization

of =1 & -1 O(2) = 0 molecules as a whole
is neutral.
O(3) = -1
(ii) CO2-3 O(1) = 0 total of -2

O(2) = -1 appear on ion.
O(3) = -1
What is the formal charge of the oxygen labeled oxygen 1 in the following
illustration?
(a) 0 (b) -1
(c) +1 (d) -2
What is the formal charge of the nitrogen in the ammonium ion in the
following picture?
(a) 0 (b) -1
(c) +1 (d) +2
SO2 S = 6 – 2 – ½ x 6 = +1
O(1) = 6 – 6 – ½ x 2 = –1
O(2) = 6 – 4 – ½ x 4 = 0
CO C = 4 – 2 – ½ x 6 = –1
O = 6 – 2 – ½ x 6 = +1
CNQ C = 4 – 2 – ½ x 6 = –1
N=5–2–½x6=0
NH4+ N = 5 – 0 – ½ (8) = +1
On each H = 1 – 0 – ½ (2) = 0
NO–2 N = 5 – 2 – ½ (6) = 0
O(I) = 6 – 4 – ½ (4) = 0
O(II) = 6 – 6 – ½ (2) = –1
Formal charges are useful for helping decide which of the several possible Lewis
structures is best.
1. A Lewis structure with small formal charges are preferable to large formal charges.
2. Lewis structure with negative formal charges on the more electronegative atom are
preferable than Lewis structures with negative formal charges on the less
electronegative atom,
3. Lewis structures with unlike charges close together are more likely than Lewis
structure with opposite charges widely separated
4. Lewis structures with like charges on adjacent atoms are very unlikely.
COVALENT BOND
A force which binds atoms of same or different elements by mutual sharing of

electrons is called a covalent bond.
COVALENT BOND
Multiple Covalent Bonds. When the atoms share one electron pair, the bond formed
is called single covalent bond.
However, if two electron pairs are shared by the atoms, the bond formed is called
double covalent bond.
Similarly, when the atoms share three electron pairs, the bond is called triple
covalent bond.
The double and triple covalent bonds are collectively called multiple covalent bonds.
Covalency
The covalency of an element may be defined as the number of electrons which its
atom contributes for sharing while forming covalent bond.
For example, the covalency of chlorine is 1 ; oxygen is 2 and that of nitrogen is 3.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUND
1. State of existence. The covalent compounds, therefore, exist as individual

molecules. The intermolecular forces in these compounds are usually weak.
Therefore, they exist in liquid or gaseous state.
2. Non-conducting. These compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
3. Low boiling and melting points. The attractive forces are generally weak. As a
result, lesser amount of energy is needed to overcome these intermolecular
forces.
4. Solubility. Usually insoluble or less soluble in water.
COVALENT BOND
(a) A covalent bond is formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms
of same electronegativity to complete their octet.
(Except H which completes its duplet)
(b) The shared pair of electrons should have opposite spins, localised between two
atoms concerned.
COVALENT BOND
(c) Sharing of electrons may occurs in three ways -

No. of electrons shaded Bonded Bond
between two atoms Electron pair
2 1 Single bond (–)
4 2 Double bond (=)
6 3 Triple bond (=)
Ex-
{Three single bonds (not triple bond}
N  N Triple bond, (not three single bond) O = O (Double bond) H – O – H

(Two single bonds.)
Characteristic of Covalent Compound
(1) Physical state:- Covalent compounds are found in all the three states - Gas, Solid &
Liquid,
Separate molecules - In gaseous state
Associate molecules - In Liquid & solid state
(Due to strong vander waal's force and hydrogen bonding among the molecules.)
As the size of molecule increases physical state changes –
Eg.
Covalent solid : Those solids in which atoms are linked together by covalent
bonds, forms infinite three dimensional giant structure.
e.g. Diamond, Graphite, AIN, SiC, SiO2 etc.
Covalent solids
Covalent solids
Molecular solid : Discrete (separate) molecules are formed by covalent bonds and
then the molecules associated due to intermolecular force of attraction. (Vander
waal force)
eg. Solid l2, dry ice (Solid CO2) etc.
Molecular solids
(2) Conductivity :- Mostly covalent compounds are bad conductor of electricity. But
few polar covalent compounds due to self ionization can conduct electricity. e.g.
H2O, liq. NH3 etc,
H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH–

2HH3 ⇌ NH4+ + NH2–
Free ions are formed which can conduct electricity.

Exceptions:- Graphite, HCI In water.
(3) Solubility:- Non polar compound are soluble in non polar solvents. Non polar
compounds forms Vander waal bond with non polar solvent molecules.
(4) Reaction:- Reaction between covalent compounds are slow. Because it involves
breaking of existing bonds and formation of new bonds.
CO-ORDINATE-COVALENT BOND OR DATIVE BOND
It is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between the two atoms but the shared
pair of electrons is contributed only by one of the two atoms, the other atom
simply participates in sharing.
Co-ordinate bond
(a) It is a covalent bond in which the shared electron pair come from one atom is
called coordinate bond.
(b) Necessary conditions for the formation of co-ordinate bond are -
(i) Octet of donor atom should be complete and should have at least one lone
pair of electron,
(ii) Acceptor atom should have a deficiency of at least one pair of electron.
(c) Atom which provide electron pair for sharing is called donor.
(d) Other atom which accepts electron pair is called acceptor. That is why it is called
donor-acceptor or dative bond.
Metal co-ordinate compounds –
Variable valency in covalent bonds
Variable valency in covalent bonds
(i) Variable valencies are shown by those elements which have empty orbitals in
outermost shell.
(ii) Lone pair electrons get excited in the subshell of the same shell to form the maximum
number of unpaired electrons. Maximum covalency is shown in excited state,
(iii) The energy required for excitation of electrons is called promotion energy.
(iv) Promotion rule - Excitation of electrons in the same orbit
Ex.
(a) Phosphorus  Ground state
Covalency 3 (PCl3)
Phosphorus  Excited state
Covalency – 5 (PCl5)
(b) Sulphur  Ground state.
Covalency –2 (SF2)
Sulphur  Excited state

(c) Iodine has three lone pair of electrons
(Ground state)
So it shows three excited states - Maximum number of unpaired electrons = 7

Variable Valencies are 1, 3, 5, 7
HYBRIDISATION
Phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals of slightly different energies of the

atom (by redistributing their energies) to form new set of orbitals of equivalent
energies and identical shape.
SALIENT FEATURES OF HYBRIDIZATION
- The orbitals taking part in hybridization must have only a small difference of energies.
- The hybridized orbitals have equivalent energies and identical shapes.
- The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of orbitals taking part in
hybridization.
The hybrid orbital has electron density concentrated on one side of the nucleus,
i.e., it has one lobe relatively larger than the other as shown.
Representation of a hybrid orbital.

- The hybrid orbitals can form stronger bonds as compared to the unhybridized or
pure atomic orbitals due to more effective overlap.
-
- The hybrid orbitals are directed in space in some preferred directions so as to
have minimum repulsive interactions and attain Maximum stability. Thus, the
type of hybridization controls the geometry of molecule.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
sp3 Hybridization
Involves the mixing of one orbital of s-sub-level and three orbitals ot P-sub-level
in the valence shell of an atom to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals of equivalent
energies and shapes.
1. Formation of methane (CH4)

2. Formation of ethane (CH3 — CH3)
sp3 Hybridization
1. Formation of methane (CH4)
2. Formation of ethane (C2H6)
sp2 Hybridization
2. Formation of ethylene (C2H4).
2. Formation of ethylene (C2H4)
2. Formation of ethylene (C2H4).
sp-hybridisation
This type of hybridization involves the mixing of one orbital of s-sub-level and one
orbital of p-sub-level of the valence shell of an atom.
Formation of acetylene (CH = CH).
1.
What type of hybridisation is present on the carbon atoms in the following compound?
H2C = CH — CH = CH2
Can you Crack it !!
CH3 – CH = CH – C ≡ CH
(a) sp3, sp2, sp2, sp2, sp2
(b) sp2, sp2, sp3, sp3, sp3
(c) sp3, sp2, sp2, sp, sp
(d) sp3, sp3, sp2, sp3, sp2
What is the change in hybridisation state of carbon in the following reactions ?
(a) C2H2 

H 2 /Ni

 C2H4 
H 2 /Ni

 C2H6
(b) CH3 – C – N 

Re duction
 CH3–CH2–NH2
(c) CH2 – Br – CH2Br 

Zn /
 CH2 = CH2 + ZnBr2
sp3d Hybridization
In this hybridization one s orbital, three p orbitals and one d orbital are mixed to
give five new hybrid orbitals which are equivalent in shape and energy called as
sp3d hybrid orbitals.
sp3d Hybridization
For example, PCl5 showing sp3d hybridisation
P (ground state)
P* (excited state)
P atom share
five e with Cl
sp3d Hybridization
In this hybridization dz2 orbital is hybridised with s and p orbitals. In this way
five sp3d hybrid orbitals form five sigma bond with five Cl atoms and give a
molecule of PCl5, shape of this molecule is trigonal bipyramidal.
Axial two P-Cl bonds are longer than equatorial three P-Cl bond due to
repulsion between 3 equatorial b.p. of e– and 2 axial b.p. of e –
sp3d2 Hybridisation
(a) In this hybridization, one s-orbital, three p-orbitals & two d-orbitals are
mixed to give six new hybrid orbitals known as sp3d2 hybrid orbitals.
(b) The shape of molecule obtained from above six hybrid orbitals will be
symmetrical octahedral.
(c) The angle between all hybrid orbitals will be 90°.
Ex. SF6, AlF6–3, PF6–, ICl5, XeF4, XeOF4, ICl4–,
sp3d2 Hybridisation
(d) Two 'd' orbital participates in the hybridization are dx2-y2 and dz2.
SF6 S (ground state)
S (IInd excited state)
S (after hybridization) share

6e– with 6 F atoms
(vi) sp3d3 Hybridization
(a) In this hybridization, one s-orbital, three p-orbitals & three d-orbitals are mixed
to give seven new hybrid orbitals known as sp3d3 hybrid orbitals.
(b) In this hybridization d-orbitals used are dxy , dx2 – y2 & dz2 orbitals.
(c) These seven sp3d3 orbitals are configurated in pentagonal bipyramidal shape.
(d) Five bond angles are of 72° & two bond angles of 90°.
(e) The following examples showing sp3d3 hybridization -IF7 & XeF6.
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1 2 3 4
1. In CH2 = C = CH — CH3 molecule, the hybridization of carbon 1, 2, 3 and 4
respectively are :
[JEE MAINS 2021]
(1) sp3, sp, sp3, sp3 (2) sp2, sp2, sp2, sp3
(3) sp2, sp, sp2, sp3 (4) sp2, sp3, sp2, sp3
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2. The number of sp2 hybrid orbitals in a molecule of benzene is:
[JEE MAINS 2020]
(1) 24 (2) 6
(3) 12 (4) 18
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3. In allene (C3H4), the type(s) of hybridisation of the carbon atoms is (are)
[JEE 2012]
(1) sp and sp3 (2) sp and sp2
(3) only sp2 (4) sp2 and sp3
4. Match the orbital overlap figures shown in List-1 with the description given in List-
II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists.
List-I List-II
[JEE ADV. 2014]
P. 1. p - d p antibonding
Q. 2. d - d s bonding
R. 3. p - d p bonding
S. 4. d - d s antibonding
Code: P Q R S P Q R S
(1) 2 1 3 4 (2) 4 3 1 2
(3) 2 3 1 4 (4) 4 1 3 2
VSEPR THEORY
VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY

This definite relative arrangement of the bonded atoms in a molecule is known as
geometry of the molecule.
VSEPR THEORY
There are two types of electron –
(1) Bond pairs
(2) Lone pairs

VSEPR THEORY
According to VSEPR
L.P. – L.P. > L.P. – B.P. > B.P. – B.P.
Finding Hybrid State & Geometry of Central Atom or Ion in a Molecule
STEP - 1:
Predict the number of valence electrons in central atom
TABLE – 1
Number of Valance Electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Distribute the number of valance electrons between Bond pairs and Lone pairs.
Find the sum of BP + LP :
Sum of BP + LP Hybridisation State Geometry
Linear
Trigonal
Planer
Tetrahedral
(Td)
Trigonal
bipyramidal
(TBP)
Find the sum of BP + LP :
Sum of BP + LP Hybridisation State Geometry
6 sp3d2
Square bipyramidal or octahedral

Predict the shapes and hybridization of the central atom in the following molecules & ions:
Tetrahedral Shape
Killer Visualization
TBP Shape
Octahedral Shape
Octahedral Shape
Octahedral Shape
SF4
NH4+
2. IBr6
3. IBr4Q
[JEE MAINS 2023-31st jan (shift 1)]
Match List I with List II
List I List II
A. XeF4 I. See – saw
B. SF4 II. Square planar
C. NH4+ III. Bent T-shaped
D. BrF3 IV. Tetrahedral
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :
(1) A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I (2) A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV
(3) A-IV, B-I, C-II, D-III (4) A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III
[JEE MAINS 2023]
Match List I with List II
LIST-I LIST-II
(molecules/ions) (No. of lone pairs of e–
on central atom)
(A) IF7 I. Three
(B) ICI2 II. One
(C) XeF6 III. Two
(D) XcF2 IV. Zero
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
(1) A - II, B - III, C - IV, D - I (2) A - IV, B - III, C - II, D – I
(3) A - II, B - I, C - IV, D – III (4) A - IV, B - I, C - II, D - III
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The correct shape and l – I – l bond angles respectively in I–3 ion are :-
[JEE MAINS 2021]
(1) Distorted trigonal planar; 135P and 90°
(2) T-shaped; 180° and 90°
(3) Trigonal planar; 120°
(4) Linear; 180°
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The compound(s) with TWO lone pairs of electrons on the central atom is (are)
[JEE 2016]
(A) BrF6 (B) CF4
(C) XeF4 (D) SF4
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Total number of lone pair of electrons in I3– ion is :
[JEE MAINS - 2018]
(1) 3 (2) 6
(3) 9 (4) 12
CO2
SO2
SO3
NO3–
CO32–
SO4–2
PO4–3
Amongst the following, the number of species having the linear shape is_____.
XeF2, I+3, C3O2, I–3, CO2, SO2, BeCl2 and BClQ2

[JEE MAINS 2023-31st jan (shift-2)]
Ans. 5
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Which of the following has maximum number of lone pairs associated with Xe ?
[AIEEE-2011]
(1) XeO3 (2) XeF4
(3) XeF6 (4) XeF2
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The group having triangular planar structures is:-

[JEE MAINS 2017]
(1) CO2–3, NO–3, SO3 (2) NCl3, BCl3, SO3
(3) NH3, SO3, CO2–3 (4) BF3, NF3, CO2–3
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The type of hybridization and number of lone pair(s) of electrons of Xe in XeOF4
respectively, are :
[JEE MAINS 2019]
(1) sp3d and 1 (2) sp3d and 2
(3) sp3d2 and 1 (4) sp3d2 and 2
BENT'S RULE
BENT'S RULE
BENT'S RULE
As s-orbital is more close to nucleus, the electron pair present in s-orbital will
experience more attraction of the nucleus, i.e. stability of the system increases,
therefore, a lone pair prefers to occupy that hybrid orbital which has greater
percentage of s-character.
A more electronegative atom has tendency to attract the shared pair of electron
towards itself, thus it will prefer to overlap with that hybrid orbital which has less
percentage of s-character (i.e. relatively more distant from nucleus of central
atom) because by doing so, it increases the stability of the system.
BENT'S RULE
(i) A lone pair of electron prefers to occupy that hybrid orbitals which has greater
percentage of s-character.
(ii) A more electronegative atom/group prefers to occupy that hybrid orbital which has
smaller percentage of s-character.
Draw the geometry of PCl3F2
Draw the geometry of SCl2F2
HYBRIDISATION IN SOLID STATE
Hybridization in Ionic solid species :
Species Cationic part Anionic part
PCl6 PCI4+ (sp3) PCI6– (sp3d2)
PBr6 PBr4+ (sp3) Br–
XeF6 XeF5+ (sp3d2) F–
N2O6 NO2+ (sp) NO3– (sp2)
I2CI6 (liquid) ICI2+ (sp3) ICI4– (sP3d2)
CI2O6 CIO2+ (sp2) CIO4– (sp3)
(BeCl2)n (BeCl2)n (sp3)
DRAGO GENERALISATION
On the basis of experimental bond angles of certain molecules fulfilling the

following three conditions,
(i) Belongs to third or lower period in periodic table
(ii) Contain at least one lone pair of electron, and
(iii) Electronegativity of surrounding atom is ≤ 2.5
DRAGO GENERALISATION
Drago generalized that in such molecules justification of experimental bond angle
can be made satisfactorily if one considers no hybridization, i.e., overlapping of
almost pure atomic orbitals.
In such molecules bond angle is approximately 90°.

Group 15 Bond angle Group 16 Bond angle
NH3 107°48’ H 2O 104°28'
PH3 93°36’ H2S 92°
AsH3 91°48’ H2Se 91°
SbH3 91°18’ H2Te 90.5°
Right order of bond angle.

(a) H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te
(b) NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3
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The ion that has sp3d2 hybridization for the central atom, is :
[JEE MAINS 2019]
(1) [ICI2]– (2) [IF6] –
(3) [ICI4] – (4) [BrF2] –
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The molecular geometry of SF5 is octahedral. What is the geometry of SF4
(including lone pair(s) of electrons, if any) ?
[JEE MAINS 2020]
(1) Trigonal bipyramidal (2) Square planar
(3) Tetrahedral (4) Pyramidal
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The correct shape and l – I – l bond angles respectively in I–3 ion are :-
[JEE MAINS 2021]
(1) Distorted trigonal planar; 135P and 90°
(2) T-shaped; 180° and 90°
(3) Trigonal planar; 120°
(4) Linear; 180°
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The shape/structure of [XeF5]– and XeO3F2, respectively, are:
[JEE MAINS 2020]
(1) pentagonal planar and trigonal bipyramidal
(2) trigonal bipyramidaI and pentagonal planar
(3) octahedral and square pyramidal
(4) trigonal bipyramidal and trigonal bipyramidal
14. For OF2 molecule consider the following
(A) Number of lone pairs on oxygen is 2.
(B) FOF angle is less than 104.5°.
(C) Oxidation state of O is -2.
(D) Molecule is bent 'V’ shaped.
(E) Molecular geometry is linear.
Correct options are:
(1) C, D, E only (2) B, E, A only
(3) A, C, D only (4) A, B, D only
15. Match List I with List II:
List I List II
(Complexes) (Hybridisation)
(A) [Ni(CO)4] I. sp3
(B) [Cu(NH3)4]2+ II. dsp2
(C) [Fe(NH3)6]2+ III. sp3d2
(D) [Fe(H2O)6]2+ IV. d2sp3
(1) A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV (2) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV
(3) A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III (4) A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III
MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY (MOT)
The salient features of MOT are as follows:
1. In molecules, electrons are present in new orbitals called molecular orbitals.

2. Molecular orbitals are formed by combination of atomic orbitals of nearly same

energies and proper symmetry.
3. Molecular orbitals are not associated with any particular atom but belong to
nuclei of all the atoms constituting the molecule.
4. The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic

orbitals undergoing combination.
5. Half of the new molecular orbitals have energy lower than the combining
atomic orbitals and are called bonding orbitals.
The other half of new molecular orbitals have energy greater than the combining
atomic orbitals and are called anti-bonding orbitals.
79435
6. The shapes of the molecular orbitals depend upon the shapes of combining
atomic orbitals.
7. The molecular orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their energies, starting
with the orbital of lowest energy (Aufbau rule).
8. A molecular orbital like atomic orbitals can accommodate only two electrons and
these electrons must have opposite spin (Pauli’s principle).
9. While filling degenerate molecular orbitals (i.e., molecular orbitals of equal

energy) pairing of electrons does not take place until all such orbitals are singly
occupied (Hund’s rule).
MO = A  B
b = A + B
a = A - B
The molecular orbital b formed by the addition overlap (constructive

interference of waves) of atomic orbitals is called bonding molecular orbital
(BMO)
The molecular orbital a formed by the subtraction overlap (destructive
interference of waves) of atomic orbitals is called anti-bonding molecular orbital
(ABMO).
Constructive interference
Destructive interference
(a) s-s combination of orbitals
Bond Order
Bond Order = ½ (Nb – Na)

BONDING IN SOME HOMO-NUCLEAR DIATOMIC SPECIES
1. HYDROGEN MOLECULE (H2)

2. HYDROGEN MOLECULE ANION (H-2)

3. HYDROGEN MOLECULE CATION (H+2)

4. HELIUM MOLECULE (He2)

5. HELIUM MOLECULE ION (He2+)

6. LITHIUM MOLECULE (Li2)

7. BERYLLIUM MOLECULE (Be2)

8. BORON MOLECULE (B2)
9. CARBON MOLECULE (C2)
10. NITROGEN MOLECULE (N2)
11. NITROGEN MOLECULE ION (N2+)
Can you crack it !!
1. According to molecular orbital theory, which of the following will not exist?
(a) H+2 (b) Be2
(c) B2 (d) C2
Can you crack it !!
2. Which of the following formulae does not show the correct relationship?
(a) B.O. = ½ (Nb – Na)
(b) B.O. 1/ Bond length
(c) B.O. Bodissociation energy
(d) Nb > Na, B.O. = + ve

Can you crack it !!
3. Which of the following bond orders is indication of existence of a molecule?

(a) Zero bond order (b) Negative bond order
(c) Positive bond order (d) All of these.
Can you crack it !!
4. The electronic configuration of carbon is Is2 2s2 2p2 . There are 12 electrons in C2. The
correct electronic configuration of C2 molecule is
(a) (s1s2) (s*1s2) (s2s2) (s*2s2) (s2p2z) (p2p2x)

(b) (s1s2) (s*1s2) (s2s2) (s*2s2) (p2p2x = p2p2y)
(c) (s1s2) (s*1s2) (s2s2) (s*2s2) (s2pz2)(p2p1x = p2ply)
(d) (s1s2) (s*1s2) (s2s2) (s*2s2) (p2p2x = p2ply)
12. OXYGEN MOLECULE (O2)

13. OXYGEN MOLECULE ION (O2+)

14. SUPEROXIDE ION (O2-)

15. PEROXIDE ION (O2 2-)

No. of Bond
No. of electrons Bond Order
electrons Order
15 2.5
8 0
16 2
9 0.5
17 1.5
10 1
18 1
11 1.5
19 0.5
12 2
20 0
13 2.5
14 3
No. of e = 14 (N2)
B.O = 3
B.O = (2.5) 15 (2.5)

13
(2.0) 12 16 (2.0)
(1.5) 11 17 (1.5)
(1.0) 10 18
(1.0)
(0.5) 19 (0.5)
9
(0) 8 20 (0)
1. Stability increases on moving upwards.
2. Bond order increases on moving upwards.
3. Bond dis energy increases on moving upwards.
4. Bond length decreases moving upwards
Paramagnetic species = 10, 16, odd

16. FLUORINE MOLECULE (F2)

Can you crack it !!
5. Bond order of N+2, N–2 and N2 will be
(a) 2.5, 2.5 and 3 respectively

(b) 2, 2.5 and 3 respectively
(c) 3, 2.5 and 3 respectively
(d) 2.5, 2.5 and 2.5 respectively.
Can you crack it !!
6. According to MO theory the bond orders for O22–, CO and NO+ respectively, are
(1) 1, 3 and 3 (2) 1,3 and 2
(3) 1, 2 and 3 (4) 2, 3 and 3
JEE MAINS JAN ATTEMPT 2023
Can you crack it !!
7. What is the number of unpaired electron(s) in the highest occupied molecular

orbital of the following species : JEE MAINS JAN ATTEMPT 2023
+
N2: N2; O2; O2 ?
(1) 0, 1, 2, 1 (2) 2, 1, 2, 1
(3) 0, 1, 0, 1 (4) 2, 1, 0, 1
Can you crack it !!
8. Which of the following pairs will have same bond order?

(a) F2 and O22– (b) N2 and CO2
(c) O2 and C22– (d) N2 and N2+
Can you crack it !!
9. Which of the following species has unpaired electrons?

(a) N2 (b) F2
(c) O–2 (d) O22–
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10. In which of the following processes, the bond order has increased and
paramagnetic character has changed to diamagnetic ?
[JEE MAINS • ONLINE -2019]
(1) N2 N2+ (2) NO  NO+
(3) O2  O22– (4) O2  O2+
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11. According to molecular theory, the species among the following that does not
exist is:
(1) He2+ (2) He2–
(3) Be2 (4) O 22 –
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12. In which of the following pairs of molecules/ions, both the species are not likely to
exist ?
[JEE (MAIN) 2013]
(1) H+2, He22– (2) H2–, He22–
(3) H22+, He2 (4) H2–, He22+
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13. Stability of the species Li2, Li2– and Li2+ increases in the order of:-
[JEE (MAIN) 2013]
(1) Li2 < Li+ < Li2– (2) Li2– < Li2+ < Li2
(3) Li2 < Li2– < Li2+ (4) Li2– < Li2 < Li2+
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14. Among the following, the species having the smallest bond is :-
[AIEEE ONLINE- 2012]
(1) NO (2) NO+
(3) O2 (4) NO–
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15. Which of the following is paramagnetic ?

(1) CO (2) O22–
(3) NO+ (4) B2
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16. Bond order normally gives idea of stability of a molecular species. All the
molecules viz. H2, Li2 and B2 have the same bond order yet they are not equally
stable. Their stability order is :
(1) Li2 > H2 > B2 (2) H2 > B2 > Li2
(3) B2 > H2 > Li2 (4) Li2 > B2 > H2
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17. Among the following, the molecule expected to be stabilized by anion formation is
C2, O2, NO, F2
(1) NO (2) C2
(3) F2 (4) O2
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18. If the magnetic moment of a dioxygen species is 1.73 B.M, It may be :

(1) O2– or O2+ (2) O2 or O2+
(3) O2 or O2– (4) O2, O2– or O2+
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19. Which one of the following molecules is expected to exhibit diamagnetic behavior ?
[JEE (MAIN) 2013]
(1) C2 (2) N2
(3) O2 (4) S2
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20. The correct order of bond dissociation energy among N2, O2, O2– is shown in which
of the following arrangements?
(1) N2 > O2 > O2– (2) O2 > O2– > N2
(3) N2 > O2– > O2 (4) O2– > O2 > N2
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21. Among the triatomic molecules/ions, BeCl2, N3–, N2O, NO2+, O3, SCl2–, ICI2–, I3– and XeF2,
the total number of linear molecule (s)/ion(s) where the hybridization of the central
atom does not have contribution from the d-orbital(s) is
[Atomic number: S = 16, Cl = 17, I = 53 and Xe = 54]
[JEE 2015]
Crack the PYQ
22. According to Molecular Orbital Theory,

[JEE 2016]
(A) C22– is expected to be diamagnetic.
(B) O22+ is expected to have a longer bond length than O2.
(C) N2+ and N2– have the same bond order.
(D) He2+ has the same energy as two isolated He atoms.
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23. Among H2, He2+, Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2, O2 and F2, the number of diamagnetic species is
[JEE 2017]
(Atomic numbers : H = 1, He = 2, Li = 3, Be = 4, B = 5, C = 6, N = 7, O = 8, F = 9)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
The intermolecular forces are weak forces.
van der Waals forces. Hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding
The attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with
electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another molecule is known as hydrogen bond
or hydrogen bonding.
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bond
Energy of H-bond is usually low but there are examples in which H-bond energy is
found to be nearly 220 kJ/mol (comparable to covalent bond) Therefore H-bond
can be classified into 3 categories.
(a) Weak BE < 25 kJ/mol.
(b) Medium 25 – 35
(c) Strong > 35 kJ/mol ex: K+HF2– or [NF2–] ion energy - 220 kJ/mol.
Hydrogen Bonding
Strength of hydrogen bond.
(i) High electronegativity of atom bonded to hydrogen.
(ii) Small size of the electronegative atom.
Types of Hydrogen Bonds
(a) Intermolecular hydrogen bond. Formed between two different molecules of
the same or different substances.
Hydrogen Bonding
Examples of intermolecular Hydrogen Bonded Compound.
1. Hydrogen fluoride.
Hydrogen Bonding
2. Water
Hydrogen Bonding
3. Ammonia
Types of Hydrogen Bonds
(b) Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
Chloral-hydrate  CCl3CH(OH)2
CCl3CHO (Chloral)
2 - OH groups are stabilized on the same C-atom*

Intramolecular Hydrogen bond
Maleic Acid :
Compare the difference
Effect of Hydrogen Bond on Physical Properties of the Compound
1. Boiling point of NH3 is greater than PH3.
2. At room temperature water (H2O) is liquid while H2S is gas.

3. Molecular mass of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) is same. Even
then C2H5OH is liquid at room temperature while CH3OCH3 is gas.
4. The boiling point of monocarboxylic acids is higher than expected.
5. At 19°C, HCl is gas while hydrogen fluoride (HF) is liquid

6. Sugar, glucose, urea, alcohol, acetone, glycerol etc. are all covalent compounds
and are soluble in water. It is because they form intermolecular hydrogen
bond with water.
7. The substances which can give more extensive H– bonding will have higher viscosity
and surface tension.
Ethanol < Glycol < Glycerol
CH3 – OH CH2 – OH CH2 – OH
| |
CH2 – OH CH2 – OH
|
CH2 – OH
Influence of Hydrogen Bonding on the Properties
8. Association. Carboxylic acid (RCOOH) exist as dimers even in the vapor

state.
Melting and Boiling Point (K) of Hydrides : (Groups 14, 15, 16 and 17)
Hydride m.p. (K) b.p.(K) Hydride m.p. (K) b.p.(K)

Group 14 Group 15
CH4 89.0 111.5 NH3 195.0 239.0
SiH4 88.0 161.2 PH3 138.0 185.0
GeH4 108.0 183.0 AsH3 159.0 218.0
SnH4 123.0 221.0 SbH3 184.0 256.0
Group 16 Group 17
H2O 273.0 373.0 HF 180.7 292.4
H2S 190.3 211.2 HCl 161.0 189.4
H2Se 209.0 231.0 HBr 184.5 206.0
H2Te 222.0 271.0 HI 222.2 237.0
10. Hydrogen Bonding in Water and Ice
(i) Ice is lighter than water.
(ii) Water has maximum density at 40C.
When ice is melted by increasing its temperature, the open cage structure starts
collapsing due to partial break down of the hydrogen bonds. This allows H2O
molecules to come closer and also the water molecules separated from ice
structure fill the vacant spaces in open-case structure.
Application of Hydrogen Bonding
(11) C2H5OH is soluble in water but ether is much less soluble

- - - H - O - - - H - O - - - Association is large
| |
H R
R - O - - - H - O - - - Association is very small

| |
R H
solubility of ether is much less.
C2H5OC2H5 8gm/100gm H2O Hydrocarbon chain  solubility 
CH3CH2CH2OH
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1. If the boiling point of H2O is 373 K, the boiling point of H2S will be :
[JEE MAINS 2020]
(1) Greater than 300 K but less than 373 K
(2) Less than 300 K
(3) Equal to 373 K
(4) More than 373 K
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2. HF has highest boiling point among hydrogen halides, because it has :

[JEE MAINS 2019]
(1) lowest dissociation enthalpy
(2) strongest van der Waals’ interactions
(3) strongest hydrogen bonding
(4) lowest ionic character
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3. Statement I: o-Nitrophenol is steam volatile due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding.

Statement II: o-Nitrophenol has high melting due to hydrogen bonding.
[JEE MAINS 2021]
(1) Statement I is false but Statement II is true

(2) Both statement I and statement II are true
(3) Both statement I and statement II are false
(4) Statement I is true but statement II is false
Crack the PYQ
4. Assertion A: The H-O-H bond angle in water molecule is 104.5°.
Reason R : The lone pair - lone pair repulsion of electrons is higher than the bond
pair - bond pair repulsion. [JEE MAINS - ONLINE - 2021]
(1) A is false but R is true

(2) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct correct explanation of A
(3) A is true but R is false
(4) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (VAN DER WAAL'S FORCES)
Intermolecular attractions hold two or more molecules together. These are weakest
chemical forces and can be of following types.
(a) Ion-dipole attraction:  to 1/r2
(b) Dipole-dipole attraction:  to 1/r3
(c) Ion-induced dipole attraction:  to 1/r4
(d) Dipole-induced dipole attraction:  to 1/r6
(e) Induced dipole-induced dipole : (Dispersion force or London forces)  to 1/r6
Note : Strength of van der Waal's forces a>b>c>d>e

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (VAN DER WAAL'S FORCES)
1. Ion-dipole attraction
Exists between an ion and a polar molecule. Its strength depends on
(i) size of ion (ii) charge on the ion (iii) dipole moment of the polar molecule.
This force is responsible for hydration.
Note :
(The interaction energy is inversely proportional to square of the distance, 1/r2

between species.)
2. Dipole-dipole (or Keesom) forces :
These types of forces occur in molecules which have permanent electric dipole
such as HCl, NH3, H2O
3. Ion-induced dipole attraction
It exists between ion and non-polar molecules.
dd– dd+
Na+ Cl ____ Cl
The interaction energy is inversely proportional to fourth power of the distance

1/r4 between species.
4. Dipole-induced dipole forces
These type of attractive forces operate between the polar molecule having
permanent dipole and the one having no permanent dipole.
A polar molecule may sometimes

polarize a neutral molecule which lies in
its vicinity & induce polarity in that
molecule.
5. Dispersion forces or London Forces.
The intermolecular forces may exist even in non polar atoms such as noble gases
or non-polar molecules such as O2, N2, H2 etc. A dipole may develop momentarily
even in such atoms or molecules.
These forces are responsible for the condensation of noble gases and other gases
such as H2, Cl2, CH4, etc.,
The strength of the forces depends upon
(i) size of the molecule
(ii) number of electrons present in the molecule
(iii) molecular structure.
Melting and Boiling Point (K) of Hydrides : (Groups 14, 15, 16 and 17)
Hydride m.p. (K) b.p.(K) Hydride m.p. (K) b.p.(K)

Group 14 Group 15
CH4 89.0 111.5 NH3 195.0 239.0
SiH4 88.0 161.2 PH3 138.0 185.0
GeH4 108.0 183.0 AsH3 159.0 218.0
SnH4 123.0 221.0 SbH3 184.0 256.0
Group 16 Group 17
H2O 273.0 373.0 HF 180.7 292.4
H2S 190.3 211.2 HCl 161.0 189.4
H2Se 209.0 231.0 HBr 184.5 206.0
H2Te 222.0 271.0 HI 222.2 237.0
(i) Strength of vander waal force  molecular mass.
van der Waal's force  Boiling point
(ii) In this case also interaction energy is proportional to 1/r6 where r is the
distance between two molecules.
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5. Which one of the following molecules is polar ?

(1) CF4 (2) SbF5
(3) IF5 (4) XeF4
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6. The relative strength of lnterionic/intermolecular forces in decreasing order is :
(1) ion-dipole > ion-ion > dipole-dipole
(2) dipole-dipole > ion-dipole > ion-ion
(3) ion-dipole > dipole-dipole > ion-ion
(4) ion-ion > ion-dipole > dipole-dipole
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7. Match the type of interaction in Column A with the distance dependence of their
interaction energy in Column B:
[JEE MAINS 2020]
A B
(i) ion - ion (a) 1/r
(ii) dipole - dipole (b) 1/r2
(iii) London dispersion (c) 1/r3
(d) 1/r6
(1) (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c) (2) (i)-(a), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d)

(3) (i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(d) (4) (i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(c)
Can you crack it !
8. In larger atoms, why can outer electrons move more freely?
(a) Electrons are filling higher energy shells, which means that they’re
farther from the nucleus, and are thus less tightly held.
(b) Larger atoms have more electrons, which makes the atom less stable.
(c) Larger atoms have more protons, which means that there will be more
electron movement.
(d) Larger atoms are much more likely to crash into other atoms, thus
dislodging their electrons, helping them to move more freely.
COVALENT BONDS
NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDS POLAR COVALENT BONDS

- Covalent bond formed
- Covalent bond formed between atom of different
between some atoms. elements.
- Electrons are not displaced - Shared electron pair is
towards any atom. displaced more towards
- Ex. H – H, Cl – Cl, O = O, N ≡ N element of high
electronegativity
d+ d- d-
- Ex. H – Cl, d+ O d+
H H
POLAR CHARACTER OF COVALENT BOND
When covalent bond is formed between two similar atoms, the shared pair of
electrons lies midway between the nuclei of the two atoms, because both the
atoms have equal attraction for the bonding electrons. Such a covalent bond is
called a non-polar covalent bond.
POLAR CHARACTER OF COVALENT BOND
A covalent bond develops a partial ionic character as a result of the difference of

electronegativities of the atoms comprising the bond. Such a bond is called polar
covalent bond.
DIPOLE MOMENTS & MOLECULAR POLARITY
The degree of polarity of covalent bond is given by the dipole moment (µ) , which is the
product of charge (e) and the distance (d) between them.
µ = e x d.
(a) ‘e' is the order of magnitude of the electronic charge, i.e., about 10–10 esu and d is the
distance between the atomic centres, i.e., about 10–8 cm.
(b) Dipole moments may be expected to have value around 10–10 x 10–8 = 10–18 esu-cm.
Electronegativity of A < Electronegativity of B

(c) Express dipole moments in Debye units (D), 1 D = 10–18 esu-cm.
(d) Rem: 1 D = 3.336 x 10–30 C-m

Dipole moment is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction. Its direction is
from + ve pole to -ve pole.
-------------> ------------->
d+ v– d+ d–
A ——— B H ——— Cl
Dipole moment, for the polarity of the molecule as a whole is the vector sum of
the individual dipole moment
Understand Vector addition
(I) Inorganic substances
(a) Monoatomic molecules such as He, Ne, etc., have zero dipole moment
because they are symmetrical.
(b) Homo-diatomic molecules such as H2, Cl2 and N2 have no dipole
moment; so these molecules are symmetrical.
Diatomic molecules.
Greater the electronegativity difference between the atoms, more will be the
dipole moment of such molecules. For example, the dipole moment of HF is
1.91 D while that of HCl is 1.03 D (F is more electronegative than Cl).
(c) Triatomic molecules: Linear molecules possess zero dipole moment Ex. CO2, CS2, HgCl2.
Bent molecules like water and sulphur dioxide have definite dipole moments.
Example Geometry Dipole moment
+ +
BeCl2 Cl ––– Be ––– Cl Zero
This is because the two equal bond dipole point in opposite directions and cancel
the effect of each other.
Example Geometry Dipole moment
+ +
CO2 O = C = O Zero
+ +
CS2 S = C = S Zero
H 2O Non-zero
Due to its bent structures, the two O – H bonds are oriented at an angle of 104.50,
so there is net dipole moment & the molecule is polar.
(d) Tetratomic molecules: Planer molecules like BCl3 have zero dipole moment.
Other example are BF3, BBr3, CO32– , and NO–3.
There B – Cl bonds are oriented at an angle of 1200 to one another, the three
bond moment give a net sum of zero as the resultant of any two is equal and
opposite to the third.
PCl3, AsCl3, NH3, PH3, AsH3, H3O+ have appreciable dipole moment.
They possess trigonal pyramidal structure.
(II) Organic substances
(a) Methane and CCl4 have zero dipole moment. They possess symmetrical
tetrahedral structures with C atom at the center of the tetrahedron.
Lets understand
CH3Cl, CH2Cl2 and CHCl3 have definite dipole moments.

Note : (Order of dipole moment CH3Cl > CH2Cl2 > CHCl3 > CCl4 = CH4)
(b) Benzene has zero dipole moment. All the

6C and 6H atoms are assumed to be in the
same plane (symmetrical hexagonal structure).
(c) The trans-isomer, which is symmetrical, has zero dipole moment
while the cis-isomer has a definite dipole moment.
o-nitrophenol, m-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol.
Dipole moment of dichlorobenzenes
Dipole Moment and Molecular Structure
Order of dipole moments. Dipole moment of NH3 > NF3, why ?
(a) NH3 & NF3
Dipole moment of NH3 is greater than NF3 because is case of NH3, the orbital
dipole due to conc pair is in the same direction as the resultant dipole moment of
N – H bonds, whereas in NF3, the orbital dipole is in the direction opposite to
resultant dipole moment of three N – F bonds.
Dipole Moment and Molecular Structure
9. Statement I :- Dipole moment is a vector quantity and by convention it is depicted
by a small arrow with tail on the negative centre and head pointing towards the
positive centre.
Statement II :- The crossed arrow of the dipole moment symbolizes the direction
of the shift of charges in the molecules.
In the light of the above statements, choose the most appropriate answer from
the options given below :-
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct.
(2) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct
(3) Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect.
(4) Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect.
Can you crack it
10. Which molecules has zero dipole moment
[Roorkee Entrance 2000]
(a) H2O
(b) CO2
(c) HF
(d) HBr
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11. The dipole moments of CCl4, CHCl3 and CH4 are in the order:
[JEE MAINS 2020]
(1) CH4 = CCl4 < CHCI3 (2) CH4 < CCl4 < CHCI3
(3) CCl4 < CH4 < CHCI3 (4) CHCI3 < CH4 = CCl4
Can you crack it
12. Correct order of dipole moment is :

(A) OF2 > OH2 (B) NH3 < SO2
(C) PCl3F2 > PCl2F3 (D) CH3F < CH3CI
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13. The compound of Xenon with zero dipole moment is:-

[AIEEE 2012]
(1) XeO3 (2) XeO2
(3) XeF4 (4) XeOF4
BACK BONDING
Back bonding generally takes place when one out of two bonded atoms has vacant
orbitals.
Back bonding increases the bond strength and decreases the bond length
The extent of back bonding is much larger if the orbitals involved in the back
bonding are of same size, for example Back bonding in boron trihalides.
BACK BONDING
• Observed bond length in BF3 molecule in found to less than the expected.
There will be pp - pp back bonding between 2p of B atom & 2p of F atom. Bond

length of B - F will decreases
BACK BONDING
Boron trlhalides:
BF3 BCl3 BBr3 BI3
   
sp2 sp2 sp2 unstable
(stearic hindrance)
•
All boron trihalides are lewis acids. Explain their order.
Boron trihalides are electron deficient molecules therefore act as a Lewis acids
L.P in BCI3 > BF3

Lewis acid strength BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3.
BACK BONDING
The extent of back bonding decreases if the atom having vacant orbitals is also
having some non-bonded electron pairs on it. So among the atoms of third period
the extent of back bonding follows the order Si > P > S > Cl.
BACK BONDING
Trisilylamine is a planar molecular and does not act as a lewis base while trimethyl
is a pyramidal and act as lewis base
In a similar compound N(PH3)3 the shape is found to be pyramidal, so N atom must be
sp3 hybridized due to much less extent of back bonding into the vacant orbitals of P.
Silylisocyanate (SiH3NCO) is linear but methyl isocyanate (CH3NCO) is bent
l.P. of N can be delocalised

(Back bonding)
pp – dp back bonding.
Crack the PYQ
14. Which one of the following does not have a pyramidal shape ?
(1) P(CH3)3 (2) (SiH3)3N
(3) (CH3)3N (4) P(SiH3)3
Crack the PYQ
15. The correct statement among the following is

(1) (SiH3)3N is pyramidal and more basic than (CH3)3N
(2) (SiH3)3N is planar and more basic than (CH3)3N
(3) (SiH3)3N is pyramidal and less basic than (CH3)3N
(4) (SiH3)3N is planar and less basic than (CH3)3N

(Combined PDF) - Chemical Bonding

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CLASSIFICATION OF BONDS

The conditions for the stable ionic bonding are:

 Factors affecting lattice energy

S + (IP1 + IP2) + D – 2EGE – U = DHf

If polarization is more, larger will be covalent character of the bond.

The extent of polarization depends on both the ions as:

(i) The power of the cation to distort or Polarize the anion.

(ii) The susceptibility of the anion to get polarized by the cation.

Catio Radius of the Formula of the Melting point of

Anion Radius of the Formula of the Melting point of

4. Electronic configuration of the cation. Cation with 18 electrons shell configuration

Cation Cu+ ion Na+ ion

Covalent character __________, B.P. ____________

covalent character ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

5. AlCl3 ___ AlBr3 ___ AlI3 ___ AlF3

6. CuCl ___ NaCl

7. LiF ___ LiCl ___ LiBr ___ LiI

covalent character ___ ___ ___ __ due to large size of anion.

From top to bottom thermal stability of carbonates increases

Significance of Lewis Symbols

These are called as electron deficient compound or Lewis acids.

(ii) BeH2 H : Be : H only 4 electrons

(iv) AlCl3 Cl : Al : Cl only 6 electrons

(B) Expanded octet

(i) O3 O(1) = +1 Due to neutralization

(ii) CO2-3 O(1) = 0 total of -2

A force which binds atoms of same or different elements by mutual sharing of

1. State of existence. The covalent compounds, therefore, exist as individual

(c) Sharing of electrons may occurs in three ways -

N  N Triple bond, (not three single bond) O = O (Double bond) H – O – H

H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH–

Free ions are formed which can conduct electricity.

Phosphorus  Excited state

Sulphur  Excited state

So it shows three excited states - Maximum number of unpaired electrons = 7

Phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals of slightly different energies of the

Representation of a hybrid orbital.

1. Formation of methane (CH4)

(a) C2H2 

(b) CH3 – C – N 

(c) CH2 – Br – CH2Br 

SF6 S (ground state)

S (IInd excited state)

S (after hybridization) share

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) THEORY

(2) Lone pairs

Sum of BP + LP Hybridisation State Geometry

Sum of BP + LP Hybridisation State Geometry

Square bipyramidal or octahedral

XeF2, I+3, C3O2, I–3, CO2, SO2, BeCl2 and BClQ2

The group having triangular planar structures is:-

On the basis of experimental bond angles of certain molecules fulfilling the

In such molecules bond angle is approximately 90°.

Right order of bond angle.

The salient features of MOT are as follows:

1. In molecules, electrons are present in new orbitals called molecular orbitals.

2. Molecular orbitals are formed by combination of atomic orbitals of nearly same

4. The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic

9. While filling degenerate molecular orbitals (i.e., molecular orbitals of equal

The molecular orbital b formed by the addition overlap (constructive

Bond Order = ½ (Nb – Na)

1. HYDROGEN MOLECULE (H2)

Covalent character , B.P. __

covalent character _ _ _ _ ___

5. AlCl3 _ AlBr3 _ AlI3 ___ AlF3

7. LiF _ LiCl _ LiBr ___ LiI

covalent character _ _ _ due to large size of anion.

(a) (s1s2) (s1s2) (s2s2) (s2s2) (s2p2z) (p2p2x)