Topic 1 : A cell is the smallest living unit.

They are the building blocks of life in every living

organism. Every living organism is made of cells.
Animal cell Plant cell

Similarity between animal cell and plant cell : Both cells have cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
Differences between animal cell and plant cell. :
The cell structures found in plant cells but not in animal cells are:
1. cell wall 2. Chloroplast 3. large vacuole
Part of cell Function
1). Cell membrane  semi-permeable membrane. To allow some substances to enter or leave
2).Cytoplasm the cell but not others.
3). Nucleus  Where many Chemical activities are carried out.
4). Cell Wall  controls all the activities carried out in the cytoplasm and contain
5). Chloroplasts chromosomes.
 It cell wall supports and protects the plant cell and gives it a regular
6). Vacuoles shape.
 contain chlorophyll to traps sunlight for photosynthesis and where plant
make food.
 A Plant cell have cell sap which helps to support the cell, making it turgid
(firm) by taking in water.
1.2 SPECIALISED CELLS: Cells which are different from typical cells (differences in size, shape and what
they contain) are specialised to carry out specific functions
Root hair cell Example of specialized cell in plant cell:
root hair cell.

Function: To absorb water & mineral salts from

the soil.
Root hair cells don’t have chloroplasts because
light cannot be absorbed through the ground.
How they are adapted to this function:
(a). The root hair cell grows outwards from the
root to increases surface area to absorb water.
(b). Root hair cell has a very large vacuole to
absorbs as much water as it can.
Example of specialized cell in animal cell: Red blood cells

Function: To transport oxygen from the lungs to every

living part of the body.
A red blood cell contains a red pigment called
haemoglobin. The function of haemoglobin is to carry
oxygen.
How they are adapted to this function:
(a). Red blood cells biconcave disc-shape provides a
large surface area for the cell to efficiently pick up and
release oxygen.
(b). They don’t have nucleus therefore the cytoplasm can
contain more haemoglobin, so more oxygen can be
transported.
 Topic 2: DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
Concentration – describe the amount of a substance in a given volume
- low or dilute concentration is used when the amount of substance is small in a given volume.
- high concentration / concentrated - when the amount of substance is large in a given volume
.
2.1 DIFFUSION (definition or meaning): the movement of molecules from a region of their
higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration , down a concentration
gradient.

Examples
1). Diffusion of oxygen & carbon dioxide into/out of lungs( animal)
2). Absorption of digested food across small intestine.( animal)
3). Diffusion of oxygen (product of photosynthesis) from leaf. (plant).

2.2 OSMOSIS (definition or meaning) : the passage(movement) of water molecules from a

region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane.

Cell membrane & wall of vacuole are semi permeable.

Example:
1) Uptake of water by root hair cell.
i). In the soil, soil has higher water potential than cell sap in root hair cell so  water is drawn
into root hair
Ii). In root hair cell, water passes from one cell to another until it reaches xylem by osmosis.

Importance of osmosis to plants

1). It helps plants to absorb water from the soil
2). It makes plant cells turgid, so keep plant upright.

Effects Of Osmosis On Plant Cells Effects Of Osmosis On Animal Cells

1). What will happen when we put plant cell in i). What will happen when we put red blood cells
distilled water or dilute solution? in distilled water or dilute solution?

i). Water enter cell by osmosis, 1). Water enter cell by osmosis, then
ii). Cell swell up and becomes turgid 2). Cell swell up and finally cell burst, as
( tough , elastic cell wall prevent cell animals cell do not have cell wall to
from bursting) resist the cell membrane from bursting.

2) What will happen when we put plant cell in ii). What will happen when we put red blood
stronger sugar solution or concentrated cells in strong salt solution or concentrated
solution? solution?

i). Water leaves cell by osmosis 1). Water leaves cell by osmosis
ii). Cytoplasm shrinks away from cell wall and 2). Cell shrinks and finally wrinkles
iii). Cell becomes flaccid ( cell wall remains
intact)
 TOPIC 3: ENZYMES

DEFINITION ( MEANING): Enzyme is a biological catalyst used to speed up biochemical reaction .

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES: Enzyme is made up of protein and sensitive to pH and temperature
ENZYMES ACTION: Enzymes act as catalysts. i.e. they speed up the rate of reactions.
They do not form part of the product i.e. they are not used up in the reaction.
DENATURATIONOF ENZYMES: As enzymes are made up of protein it is sensitive to temperature and pH.
At extreme temperature and pH , enzymes changes its structure and can no longer carry out its
function.
The enzyme is said to be denatured. Once enzymes get denatured it cannot be repaired, even if the
temperature is lowered.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME
i). At very low temperatures, an enzyme is less
active.
ii). At low temperature, enzyme reactivity doubles.
iii). At optimum temperature ( about 370C)
enzymes are most active.
iv). Above optimum temperature, enzyme activity
slows down as some enzymes get denatured.
iv). At very high temperature , enzymes reactivity
stops as all enzymes are denatured.
EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME Different enzymes work best at different pH values.
This is known as the optimum pH for that enzyme.

If the environment too acidic or alkaline, these

enzymes will be destroyed.
Most enzymes in our body require a neutral
medium (pH7).
The enzyme amylase breaks down starch, work best
in an alkaline environment (above pH 7).
The digestive enzymes in the stomach need an
acidic environment (below pH7) for example
pepsin at pH 2.
The Effect of Enzymes on the Germination of
Seeds
Germination is the process of a seed growing into a
young plant.
i). When a seed germinates, it produces enzymes
which digest the food stored in the seed.

ii). Seeds store food in the form of starch, proteins

and fats or oil. The enzymes in a seed convert
these complex insoluble food stores into simpler
soluble (small) substances so that it is available
for the embryo.

iii). These digested foods are taken to the regions of

growth in the seed for the growth and
development of the new plant.
 TOPIC 4: PLANT NUTRITION

4.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS – process whereby green plants make their own food (glucose) using carbon dioxide
and water with the help of chlorophyll and sunlight.
Word equation:

Rate of photosynthesis Depend on 1). Light intensity 2). Temperature

Raw materials needed 1) Carbon dioxide – enter leaf through stomata by diffusion
2) Water- enter plant through roots by osmosis
Conditions needed Light energy (sun)
Chlorophyll ( present in chloroplast of plant cell)
Products Of 1) Glucose (main product) – excess glucose ,stored as  starch,
Photosynthesis Test for starch - using iodine solution
If starch is present, colour of iodine solution changes from brown to dark
blue
2). Oxygen (by product) – escape through stomata ( by diffusion)
Importance Of 1) Source of energy – for all living things along the food chain & food web
Photosynthesis 2) Supply of oxygen- for all living things
1) Cuticle - waxy layer, protect the leaf and prevent water loss
2) Epidermis (upper and lower) -protect the leaf
3) Mesophyll layer consist of palisade cells & spongy cells
4.2 LEAF STRUCTURE i) Palisade Cells- tightly packed cell, contain more chloroplast
i i) Spongy cells- loosely packed cells, have air space, less chloroplast
4) Xylem – transport water & minerals from roots to leaves
5) Phloem – transport food (starch) from leaves to other plant part
6) Guard cell – control entry of carbon dioxide and exit of oxygen
7) Stomata - tiny holes where exchange of gases occur
4.3 Minerals Nutrition Plants need minerals salt that contain nitrogen to make protein
In Plant
Why plant need To make protein : protein needed to make new cells for growth and to
nitrogen? make chlorophyll.
How plants obtain From the soil in the form of nitrates ions, [nitrates dissolve in soil water],
nitrogen? enter the root by active transport]
Why fertilizers needed To increase the concentration of nitrates in the soil as the plant is
in agriculture? continuously removing the nitrates from the soil
Examples of fertilizers Ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, NPK , urea
Characteristics of plant 1). With nitrogen containing fertilizer
– large plant, more yield, high protein content
2). Without nitrogen containing fertilizer – small leaves, chlorrosis of
leaves, small plant (stunted growth), less yield, low protein content.
 TOPIC 5 ANIMAL NUTRITION

5.1 DIET
Diet is the food we eat daily. We need food because :
1) To give us energy for our body functions and everyday activities. 2) To grow.
3) to maintain health, 4). To repair and replace damaged and worn-out tissues.
Food made up of :
1). Nutrients ( carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamin and minerals )
2. Fibre
3). Water
CARBOHYDRATES - made up of glucose unit.
Function 1). To give us energy.
2).To form part of the nucleus of the cells as well as other body components.
FATS – Made up of fatty acid & glycerol.
Function: To give us energy. To form part of cell membrane. To help absorb certain vitamins.
To improve the flavour of food.
PROTEIN - Made up of amino acids.
Function: To enable the body to grow by making new cells. To repair and replace damaged
and worn-out tissues. To make enzymes and hormones. To give energy.
VITAMINS such as:
VITAMIN C. Function: necessary for healthy skin, gums and lining of the blood vessels.
Deficiency diseases: scurvy

VITAMIN D. Function: necessary for the absorption of calcium for the healthy growth of bones and
teeth. Deficiency diseases: rickets
MINERALS such as:
CALCIUM .Functions: 1). for the formation of strong bones and teeth. 2). for the clotting of blood.
Deficiency diseases: rickets. Main sources: milk, cheese, small fish eaten with bones, peas.

IRON. Functions: necessary for the production of haemoglobin in red blood cells.
Deficiency diseases: anemia. Main sources: liver, kidney, meat, fish, egg yolk, peas and beans.
WATER: 1) To help form the cytoplasm and nucleus in our cells. 2) To act as a solvent and means
of transport for substances such as digested food, oxygen and waste materials. 3) To take part
in all chemical reactions in the body. 4) To help control body temperature.
FIBRE is needed to prevent constipation.
A balanced diet contains the right amounts of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, water and fibres to maintain good health.
Amount of food a person needs depend on: 1). age 2). gender (male and female) 3). activity
MALNUTRITION is caused by eating too little or too much of one or more components of food.
Examples of malnutrition are obesity and constipation.
5.2 HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL
The food we eat goes through five different processes in our body:
1).Ingestion: taking food into the body (eating). (mouth)
2).Digestion: Breaking down of large complex food molecules into simple, soluble molecules.
(mouth, stomach small intestine)
3). Absorption: food passing from the alimentary canal into the blood stream.
(small intestine; ileum)
4). Assimilation: the use of absorbed food to form new cells or part of cells. (liver)
5). Egestion: passing out undigested food as faeces.[rectum &anus]
 Parts of the Human Alimentary Canal and the Associated Organs

1) Mouth: Ingestion occurs. Physical digestion starts, the teeth break the food into smaller pieces
and mix it with saliva. Chemical digestion of starch.
2) Oesophagus: It is a tube through which food is transferred from the mouth to the stomach.
3) Stomach: Protein is digested in the stomach.
4) Liver: Produces bile.
5) Gall bladder: Stores bile.
6) Pancreas: Secretes pancreatic juice( contains enzymes for the digestion of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins) into the duodenum.
7) Small intestine:( duodenum and ileum.)
i). Duodenum: Digestive juices are added from pancreas, bile is added to help break up fats.
ii). Ileum: Complete the digestion of food & Site of food absorption.
8) Large intestine:Consists of colon, rectum and anus.
i). Colon: It absorbs water and minerals from undigested food.
ii). Rectum: Stores faeces before elimination.
iii). Anus: An opening through which faeces is eliminated.

Digestion is the breaking down of large complex foods into smaller simpler & soluble
food units. Two types of digestion: 1). Physical digestion 2). Chemical digestion.
Physical Digestion (mechanical digestion):
Breaking down of large foods into smaller pieces using teeth
E.g. Chewing : It is important to chew our food because:
1) It breaks the food up into smaller pieces that are easier to swallow.
2) It makes digestion by enzymes easier.
3) Chewing allows the food to be mixed with the saliva.

PERISTALSIS : movement which push food along the alimentary canal.

Chemical digestion is a process by which complex food molecules are broken down into
simple soluble substances using enzymes
Digestion is extracellular. Takes place outside the body cells, in the alimentary canal.
salivary amylase
(a) Mouth: starch maltose

(b) Stomach: protein pepsin polypeptide (peptones)

bile (not enzyme)

(c) Duodenum: fats emulsified fats
pancreatic amylase
starch maltose
maltase
(d) Ileum: maltose glucose
peptidase
peptones amino acids

lipase
fats lipase fatty acids and glycerol
5.3 ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION
Absorption: Absorption is the taking Assimilation is the use of absorbed food
In of the soluble products of digestion by the cells of the body.
through the wall of the ileum into the -The food absorbed from the ileum is first
blood. transported, by the blood, to the liver
which regulates what is in the blood so
Food Group Molecules that the body receives a constant supply
Absorbed of food
Carbohydrate Glucose
- Metabolism is the chemical reactions which
Protein Amino acids
buildup and breakdown substances in
Fats Fatty acids and our body.
glycerol

LIVER : Regulates the amount of glucose and amino acids needed by the body.
1). Converts excess glucose to glycogen.

excess glucose glycogen (stored in fats)

2). Deaminates excess amino acids. [ Deamination is a chemical process by which excess
amino acids are converted to carbohydrates and urea]

excess amino acids urea + carbohydrates

(excreted by (used in respiration or
kidneys as urine) stored as glycogen)
3). Breakdown of alcohol in the body.( detoxification).

breaks down in the liver

alcohol carbon dioxide + water + energy

IN THE CELLS OF THE BODY, the absorbed food (glucose, amino acids and fats) is used for various
purposes:

Glucose : The cells use glucose to produce energy.

Amino acids : 1). buildup new cells to grow

2). repair and replace damaged and worn-out cells.
3). Produce enzymes and hormones.

Fats :
1). To form parts of the cells such as the cell membrane & nuclear membrane.
2). Stored in the adipose tissues (in the abdomen, beneath the skin and around the heart and
kidney.
3). Source of energy when there is not enough glucose in the body.
 TOPIC 6: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

6.1 Water and Ion Uptake

Water and mineral salts enter the plant through the root hair cells by the process called osmosis.

Special features that makes root hair cells suitable for water absorption are
i).The root hair cell grows outwards from the root, this increases surface area to absorb water.
ii). Root hair cell has a very large vacuole; this absorbs as much water as it can.
iii)The cell sap in the vacuole of the root hair is more concentrated than the soil water;
- so that water is drawn into the root hair by osmosis.
Once water has entered a root hair, it passes from one cell to another within the root by osmosis.

Function of xylem:
i). The xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves.
ii). It also supports the plant because the cell wall of each xylem vessel is thickened with very tough lignin.

6.2 Transpiration (definition/meaning) : loss of water vapour by plants through the stomata of the
leaves.

Stomata are pores on the lower surface (underside)

of leaves that allow gases (carbon dioxide,
oxygen) and water to diffuse through them.
Transpiration pull. As water evaporates from the
leaves, a pulling force pulls water from the
xylem of the roots up to the xylem of the leaves
is produced which is called transpiration pull.
Advantages of transpiration.
1). It kept plant upright, by making the cell
turgid.
2). Allow water to flow to leaves for
photosynthesis.
3). It allows minerals uptake.
4). It helps to cool the plant.

Wilting (definition/meaning) : Is a process in which the leaves lose water (in the form of water
vapour) faster than the roots absorb water.

Most of the plant cell is made up of water. Appearance of a wilting plant:

Water keeps the plant cell firm and turgid. stem is limp and the leaves drop (or droopy).
Plant cells have to be turgid so that the leaves This happens on a hot, dry day when there is
are held upright for photosynthesis. a high rate of transpiration or if a plant is not
watered, especially in hot weather.
 TOPIC 7: TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - the system that transports nutrients and other useful substances
to the cells of the body and removes waste produce by the cells.

Parts of circulatory system 1). HEART

2). BLOOD VESSELS
3). BLOOD
Oxygenated blood - Blood with high concentration of oxygen
Deoxygenated blood - Blood with high concentration of carbon dioxide

Blood vessels – circulate blood around the body. Three types of blood vessels
1). Artery – carry blood 2) vein – carries blood to the 3) capillary – take nutrients ,
away from heart heart useful substances to the
i). thick muscular walls i). thin walls and large lumen cells and remove waste
and small lumen ii). Blood under low pressure, products produce by the
ii). blood flow under high no pulse cells
pressure, no semi lunar iii).blood flows slowly in veins, i). very thin cells only one cell
valves blood moves by contraction thick
iii).blood flow in pulses of body muscles especially ii). Blood pressure rises and
vi). Carry oxygenated in the arms and legs pulse gradually fall
blood iv). Have semi lunar valves iii). No semi-lunar valves
iv). Carry deoxygenated blood

Heart – muscular organ that pumps blood around the body

- Made up of special muscles that contract and relax regularly throughout life
- Septum divide heart into left and right sides, to prevent oxygenate blood from mixing with
deoxygenated blood
Right side of heart : Left side of heart:
-Receive deoxygenated blood - Receive oxygenated blood
right atrium and right ventricles left atrium and left ventricles (have thickest muscles )

Heart has 4 chambers : two upper chambers (atriums) & two lower chambers (ventricles):

right atrium - left atrium right ventricle- -- left ventricle

Receive deoxygenated -receive oxygenated pump - pumps oxygenated
blood from the blood from deoxygenated blood to rest of
body via vena lung, via blood to lung body through
cava pulmonary vein through aorta
pulmonary artery
Parts of the heart
1). ATRIUM – push blood to ventricles [RA RV ; LA RV]
2). VENTRICLES – force blood out of the heart [RV to lung, LV to body]
3). HEART VALVES – to prevent blood from flowing backwards
4). TENDONS – to hold heart valves in position
5). SEMI LUNAR VALVES – ensure blood flows in one direction throughout the body
6). PULMONARY ARTERY - carries deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs
7). PULMONARY VEIN - bring oxygenated blood from lungs to heart
8). AORTA – carries oxygenated blood from heart to all body tissue
9). VENA CAVA – brings deoxygenated blood from body tissue to heart
PUMPING BLOOD : Blood is pumped by the contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.
Same action takes place on both side of the heart.
Right atrium receive deoxygenated blood from body parts,
while left atrium receive oxygenated blood from lungs

When atrium contract,- blood flow into ventricles

When ventricles contract,- 1). deoxygenated blood flow pulmonary artery  lungs and
( right ventricle)
2). -oxygenated blood flow  aorta body parts
( left ventricle)

BLOOD consist of :
PLASMA – RED BLOOD WHITE BLOOD PLATELETS
CELLS- CELLS-

Function: Function : Function : Function :

transports useful substances to to transport to protect the body – help in
all body tissues and oxygen against germs blood clot
removes waste products causing
produce by body tissue diseases

i). pale yellow liquid i). biconcave i). Two types i). not true
flattened disc phagocytes & cells,
ii). 90% liquid is water and ,no nucleus lymphocytes made up
dissolved substances of pieces
ii). Contain ii). Colourless and of broken-
iii). Dissolve substances haemoglobin, contain nucleus up
[vitamins, minerals, plasma red pigment cytoplasm
proteins, antibodies,
hormones, & waste ( carbon
dioxide , urea) ]

CORONARY HEART DISEASE (CAD)

The heart need a constant supply of food and oxygen to pump blood.
Blood supply to heart by smaller arteries called coronary arteries.

When coronary arteries are blocked by fat deposits, the persons suffer from coronary heart
disease (heart attack).
 When this occur, oxygen and nutrients cannot reach heart muscles and the heart muscles start
to stop working,

The symptoms are: breathless, sweat a lot and may vomit.

Possible cause of CAD: 1) SMOKING

2). HIGH FAT DIET
3). OVERWEIGHT
4). LACK OF EXERCISE
5). STRESS