12/09/2019

RHONIEL RYAN J. YMBONG, M.Sc.

Senior Research Assistant, Mosquito Research Group
Natural Sciences Research Center, University of San Carlos

Faculty, Department of Mathematics and Sciences

College of Arts and Sciences, University of San Jose - Recoletos

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1. Irritability

2. Movement

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3. Metabolism

4. Growth and Development

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5. Adaptation and Change

6. Reproduction

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7. Organization

Viruses: Living or Not?

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1. Proteins
2. Carbohydrates
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic acid

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The genetic code matches each RNA codon with its amino acid or function.

Normal gene Substitution mutation

GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCTTCTCACGCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGAAGAGUGCGGU
Codons
↓ ↓
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly
Amino acids

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Normal gene Substitution mutation

GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCTCCTCACTCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGAAGAGUGAGGU
Codons
↓ ↓
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Glu-Glu-STOP
Amino acids

Normal gene Substitution mutation

GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCACCTCACGCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGUGGAGUGCGGU
Codons
↓
↓ Pro-Val-Glu-Cys-Gly
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly
Amino acids
Substitutions will only affect a single codon
Their effects may not be serious unless they affect an amino acid
that is essential for the structure and function of the finished
protein molecule (e.g. sickle cell anaemia)

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Inversion mutations, also, only affect a small part

of the gene
Normal gene Inversion mutation
GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTCCTCTCACGCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGGAGAGUGCGGU
Codons
↓ ↓
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Gly-Glu-Cys-Gly
Amino acids

A frame shift mutation

Normal gene Addition mutation

GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTGCTCCTCACGCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCACGAGGAGUGCGGU
Codons
↓ ↓
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Arg-Gly-Val-Arg
Amino acids

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A frame shift mutation

Normal gene Deletion mutation

GGTCTCCTCACGCCA GGTC/CCTCACGCCA
↓ ↓
CCAGAGGAGUGCGGU CCAGGGAGUGCGGU
Codons
↓ ↓
Pro-Glu-Glu-Cys-Gly Pro-Gly-Ser-Ala-Val
Amino acids

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

Methionine initiator
ATG GTG CAT CTG ACT CCT GAG GAG AAG TCT
GCC GTT ACT GCC CTG TGG GGC AAG GTG AAC
GTG GAT GAA GTT GGT GGT GAG GCC CTG GGC
AGG CTG CTG GTG GTC TAC CCT TGG ACC CAG
AGG TTC TTT GAG TCC TTT GGG GAT CTG TCC
ACT CCT GAT GCT GTT ATG GGC AAC CCT AAG
GTG AAG GCT CAT GGC AAG AAA GTG CTC GGT
GCC TTT AGT GAT GGC CTG GCT CAC CTG GAC
AAC CTC AAG GGC ACC TTT GCC ACA CTG AGT
GAG CTG CAC TGT GAC AAG CTG CAC GTG GAT
CCT GAG AAC TTC AGG CTC CTG GGC AAC GTG
CTG GTC TGT GTG CTG GCC CAT CAC TTT GGC
AAA GAA TTC ACC CCA CCA GTG CAG GCT GCC
TAT CAG AAA GTG GTG GCT GGT GTG GCT AAT
GCC CTG GCC CAC AAG TAT CAC TAA
Nonsense terminator

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Mutation Codon Change to DNA Change in

sense strand Amino Acid
S (sickle cell anaemia) 6 GAG to GTG Glu to Val

C (cooley’s syndrome) 6 GAG to AAG Glu to Lys

GSan Jose 7 GAG to GGG Glu to Gly

E 26 GAG to AAG Glu to Lys
MSaskatoon 63 CAT to TAT His to Tyr
MMilwauki 67 GTG to GAG Val to Glu
OArabia 121 GAA to GTA Glu to Val

Sickle Cell Anaemia

Sickle cell anemia

www.netwellness.org/.../images/en/1223.jpg

Blood smear (normal)

137.222.110.150/calnet/cellbio/image/blood%20...

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Straight hair is dominant and curly hair is recessive.

Make a Punnett square for a cross of 2 heterozygous
parents:

1. What is the parents’ genotype(s)?

2. What is the parents’ phenotype(s)?
3. What is the genotypic ratio for the offsprings?
4. What is the probability of producing a curly-haired
child?

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In humans, assume that having dimples is a dominant trait.

Both parents of Karen and Jose have dimples, but Karen does
not have one. Her brother Jose has dimples. What are the
genotypes of the four members in this family?

Two pure breeding strains of peas, one giving wrinkled, yellow seeds and
the other round, green seeds were crossed and all the resulting peas were
round and yellow. The latter seeds were then planted and the flowers self-
fertilized. The peas produced from this selfing contained 4 phenotypic
classes:
185 = round green 561 = round yellow
64 = wrinkled green 190 = wrinkled yellow

1. How many traits are different from the pure breeding parents?
2. Using A and a to designate pea shape and B and b for pea color, assign
genotypes to the three generations in the diagram of the cross above.
a. P1 generation
b. F1 generation
c. F2 generation

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Assume straight hair (S), Graying silver fur (G), and hairy
ears (H) are dominant to wavy hair, dark gray fur, and hairless
ears respectively. All three loci assort independently. In a cross
of SSGgHH with SsGgHh:

1. How many different phenotypes will be found among the

progeny?
2. How many different genotypes will be found among the
progeny?
3. What proportion of the progeny would be expected to have
genotype SSGGHh

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Dan has type B blood. His wife, Annalisa, has type O blood.
All of the sudden in their marriage, an ex-girlfriend of Dan
named Joanne (with type O blood) claimed that Dan is the
father of her child, Scott, and she wants to have financial
support from Dan. The couple insists that Joanne should verify
her blood type from a medical doctor and examine Scott’s
blood at the very least to check Joannes claim. It turns out that
Scott has a type A blood.

Is Dan the father of Scott? Explain.

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 Robert Hooke
 British, circa 1660
 Coined the term ‘cell’ in
‘Micrographia’
 Simple microscope and
a slide of cork
 Thought that cells are only
found on plants and
fungi

 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

 Dutch, 1673
 Pond scum, blood, bacteria,
bread molds, and sperm
 ‘Animalcules’
 Lens-maker and trader
 Developed a more powerful
microscope
 Father of Microbiology

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 Matthias Schleiden
 German, 1838
 Found that all plants are
made up of cells in his
work ‘Contribution to
Phytogenesis’
 One of the first to accept
Darwinian evolution

 Theodore Schwann
 German, 1839
 Noted that all animal cells
are composed of cells in his
work ‘Microscopic investi-
gations on the Accordance
in the Structure and Growth
of Plants and Animals’

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 All living things are made of cells

 Smallest living unit of structure and

function of all organisms is the cell

 Rudolph Virchow
 German, 1955
 Published the work of Robert
Remak as his own
 Omni cellula e cellula”
 Father of modern Pathology

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 All living things are made of cells

 Smallest living unit of structure and

function of all organisms is the cell

 All cells arise from preexisting cells

 All living things are made of cells

 Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life
 All cells arise from preexisting cells
 Energy flow occurs within cells.
 Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell
 All cells have the same basic chemical composition

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 A surrounding membrane
 Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
 Organelles – structures for cell function
 Control center with DNA

Prokaryotic cell vs. Eukaryotic cell

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 Protective covering
 Double layer of phospholipids & proteins

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1. Channels or transporters
 Move molecules in one direction
2. Receptors
 Recognize certain chemicals

3. Glycoproteins
 Identify cell type
4. Enzymes
 Catalyze production of substances

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 Viscous fluid containing organelles

 Components of cytoplasm
 Interconnected filaments & fibers
 Fluid = cytosol
 Organelles (not nucleus)
 storage substances

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 Cellular machinery
 Two general kinds
 Membrane-derived
 Bacteria-like

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 Passive Transport

 Active Transport

 Endocytosis
(phagocytosis & pinocytosis)
 Exocytosis

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 Molecules move to equalize concentration

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 Hypotonic
 Solutes in cell more than outside
 Outside solvent will flow into cell
 Isotonic
 Solutes equal inside & out of cell
 Hypertonic
 Solutes greater outside cell
 Fluid will flow out of cell

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 Molecular movement
 Requires energy (against gradient)
 Example is sodium-potassium pump

 Plasma membrane surrounds material

 Edges of membrane meet
 Membranes fuse to form vesicle

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 Vesicle moves to cell surface

 Membrane of vesicle fuses
 Materials expelled

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 Mitosis
▪ Cellular maintenance
▪ Cellular repair
▪ Reproduction – prokaryotes
▪ Somatic cells

 Meiosis
▪ Sexual reproduction
▪ Gametes

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Tissue Type Extracellular Matrix Cells

Nervous None Intertwining elongated processes
Epithelial Very small Aggregated polyhedral cells
Muscle Moderate Elongated contractile cells
Connective Abundant Several types of fixed and wandering cells

Apical surface

Apical surface

Basal surface Simple

Basal surface Stratified

Classification based on number of cell layers.

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Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar
Classification based on cell shape.

 Cells
 Fixed
▪ Adipocytes
 Wandering
▪ Fibroblasts
▪ Plasma cells
▪ Mast cells
▪ Macrophages
 Extra-cellular matrix
 Fibers
 Ground substance

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 Collagen Fibers: Large fibers made of the protein

collagen and are typically the most abundant
fibers. Promote tissue flexibility.
 Elastic Fibers: Intermediate fibers made of the
protein elastin. Branching fibers that allow for
stretch and recoil
 Reticular Fibers: Small delicate, branched
fibers that have same chemical composition of
collagen. Forms structural framework for
organs such as spleen and lymph nodes.

1. True Connective Tissue

a. Loose Connective Tissue
b. Dense Connective Tissue

2. Supportive Connective Tissue

a. Cartilage
b. Bone

3. Liquid Connective Tissue

a. Blood

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Loose Connective Tissue:

a. Areolar tissue - widely distributed
under epithelia

b. Adipose tissue - hypodermis, within

abdomen, breasts

c. Reticular connective tissue - lymphoid

organs such as lymph nodes

(a) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar

Description: Gel-like matrix with all

three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts,
macrophages, mast cells, and some Elastic
white blood cells. fibers

Function: Wraps and cushions

organs; its macrophages phagocytize
bacteria; plays important role in
Collagen
inflammation; holds and conveys
fibers
tissue fluid.
Location: Widely distributed under
epithelia of body, e.g., forms lamina
propria of mucous membranes; Fibroblast
packages organs; surrounds nuclei
capillaries.

Epithelium

Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a

Lamina soft packaging tissue of the body (300x).
propria

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(b) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose

Description: Matrix as in areolar,

but very sparse; closely packed
adipocytes, or fat cells, have
nucleus pushed to the side by large
fat droplet.

Function: Provides reserve food Nucleus of

fuel; insulates against heat loss; fat cell
supports and protects organs.

Location: Under skin in the

hypodermis; around kidneys and
eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts.

Adipose Vacuole
tissue containing
fat droplet

Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the

Mammary subcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).
glands

(c) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular

Description: Network of reticular

fibers in a typical loose ground
substance; reticular cells lie on the
network.

Function: Fibers form a soft internal

skeleton (stroma) that supports other
cell types including white blood cells,
mast cells, and macrophages.
White blood
cell
Location: Lymphoid organs (lymph (lymphocyte)
nodes, bone marrow, and spleen).

Reticular
fibers

Spleen

Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticular

connective tissue fibers forming the internal skeleton
of the spleen (350x).

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a. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

 forms tendons and ligaments

b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

 Found in fasciae, dermis of skin, joint capsules,
and heart valves

(d) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular

Description: Primarily parallel

collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;
major cell type is the fibroblast.

Collagen
Function: Attaches muscles to fibers
bones or to muscles; attaches bones
to bones; withstands great tensile
stress when pulling force is applied
in one direction.

Location: Tendons, most

ligaments, aponeuroses.

Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Shoulder
joint

Ligament
Photomicrograph: Dense regular connective
tissue from a tendon (500x).
Tendon

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(e) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular

Description: Primarily
irregularly arranged collagen
fibers; some elastic fibers;
major cell type is the fibroblast.
Nuclei of
Function: Able to withstand fibroblasts
tension exerted in many
directions; provides structural
strength.
Location: Fibrous capsules of
organs and of joints; dermis of
the skin; submucosa of Collagen
digestive tract. fibers

Fibrous
joint
capsule
Photomicrograph: Dense irregular
connective tissue from the dermis of the
skin (400x).

1. Hyaline Cartilage
 Found in embryonic skeleton, at the ends of long
bones, in the nose and in respiratory structures.
2. Fibrocartilage
 Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral
discs, and menisci of the knee.
3. Elastic Cartilage
 Found in external ear, auditory tubes, epiglottis.

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(g) Cartilage: hyaline

Description: Amorphous but firm

matrix; collagen fibers form an
imperceptible network; chondroblasts
produce the matrix and when mature
(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae.
Function: Supports and reinforces;
has resilient cushioning properties;
resists compressive stress.

Location: Forms most of the

embryonic skeleton; covers the ends Chondrocyte
of long bones in joint cavities; forms in lacuna
costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages
of the nose, trachea, and larynx.

Matrix

Costal Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from the

cartilages trachea (750x).

(i) Cartilage: fibrocartilage

Description: Matrix similar to

but less firm than that in hyaline
cartilage; thick collagen fibers
predominate.

Function: Tensile strength

with the ability to absorb
compressive shock.

Location: Intervertebral discs;

pubic symphysis; discs of knee
joint. Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Intervertebral
discs
Collagen
fiber

Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an
intervertebral disc (125x). Special staining
produced the blue color seen.

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(h) Cartilage: elastic

Description: Similar to hyaline
cartilage, but more elastic fibers
in matrix.

Function: Maintains the shape

of a structure while allowing Chondrocyte
great flexibility. in lacuna

Location: Supports the external Matrix

ear (pinna); epiglottis.

Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage from

the human ear pinna; forms the flexible
skeleton of the ear (800x).

(j) Others: bone (osseous tissue)

Description: Hard, calcified

matrix containing many collagen
fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.
Very well vascularized.
Central
Function: Bone supports and
canal
protects (by enclosing);
provides levers for the muscles Lacunae
to act on; stores calcium and
other minerals and fat; marrow
inside bones is the site for blood
cell formation (hematopoiesis). Lamella
Location: Bones

Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

of bone (125x).

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(k) Others: blood

Description: Red and white

blood cells in a fluid matrix
(plasma).
Plasma

Function: Transport of
respiratory gases, nutrients, Neutrophil
wastes, and other substances.

Location: Contained within

blood vessels. Red blood
cells

Lymphocyte

Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1860x); two

white blood cells (neutrophil in upper left and lymphocyte
in lower right) are seen surrounded by red blood cells.

 55 % plasma
 Plasma is the straw-colored liquid in which the
blood cells are suspended.
 45 % formed elements
 Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
 White blood cells (leukocytes)
 Platelets (thrombocytes)

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 Skeletal muscle
 40% of body mass
 Multinucleate cells –very long!
 Muscle has cross-striations

 Voluntary (higher brain) control

 Contracts rapidly
 Terminal cell type

 Cross-striations

 Intercalated discs- intercellular

communication

 Involuntary contraction-speed and strength

regulated by endocrine and nervous systems

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 Non-striated

 Individual cells

 Visceral smooth muscle- forms sheets

 Slow contracting

 Involuntary contraction

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 Named after the patricidal

son of Gaia

 Extinction is necessary for

diversification

 New metaphor for

population dynamics

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 Substrate

 Plays a role in nutrient and water cycle

 Soil respiration

 Biological habitat

 Agent of speciation

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 Abiotic components:
 Climatic factors
 Edaphic factors

 Biotic factors

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Immigration

+
+ -
Natality Population Mortality

-
Emigration

Population Size

Size: number of individuals in an area

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Population Density

Density: measurement of population per unit

area or unit volume

Pop. Density = # of individuals ÷ unit of space

1. Immigration: movement of individuals into a population

2. Emigration: movement of individuals out of a population
3. Density-dependent factors: Biotic factors in the
environment that have an increasing effect as population
size increases (disease, competition, parasites)
4. Density-independent factors: Abiotic factors in the
environment that affect populations regardless of their
density (temperature, weather)

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Population Distribution

 Dispersion: describes the spacing of

organisms relative to each other
 Clumped
 Uniform
 Random

Clumped. For many animals, such as these wolves,

living in groups increases the effectiveness of hunting,
spreads the work of protecting and caring for young,
and helps exclude other individuals from their territory.

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Uniform. Birds nesting on small islands, such as these

king penguins on South Georgia Island in the South
Atlantic Ocean, often exhibit uniform spacing, maintained
by aggressive interactions between neighbors.

Random. Dandelions grow from windblown seeds that

land at random and later germinate.

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 The maximum population size that can be

supported by the available resources

 There can only be as many organisms as the

environmental resources can support

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 R Strategists
 Short life span
 Small body size
 Reproduce quickly
 Have many young
 Little parental care
 Ex: cockroaches,
weeds, bacteria

Most weedy plants, such as this dandelion, grow quickly and

produce a large number of seeds, ensuring that at least some
will grow into plants and eventually produce seeds themselves.

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• K Strategists
 Long life span
 Large body size
 Reproduce slowly
 Have few young
 Provides parental
care
 Ex: humans,
elephants

Some plants, such as this coconut palm, produce a moderate

number of very large seeds. The large endosperm provides
nutrients for the embryo, an adaptation that helps ensure the
success of a relatively large fraction of offspring.

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 Gene flow

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 Mutation

 Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Parthenogenesis
 Sexual reproduction

 Reproductive effort

 Ensures ecological fitness

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