universally

method,
Sedimentation the passing usually
matter 1Sseparates separates. consistsare The also chemicaldrainage,
next arrangernent
important the Physical use
mechanical
separation.
There To grouped mineraltemperature.
and passed done Soilcolour
7.Soil 6.porosity
consistence structure
Soil 5.Soil4.Soil3.Soiltexture
2.Soil I.dependphysical The physical and
Hydrometer are through make of behaviour
employed other below The physical andaeration, properties
by
particles
in to density and
method,several through a component on conditions
binding thecrushing mechanical process 2
millimetres gravels, of properties
organic
mineral
biological
properties retention towards
Physical
method
for methods sieve a
(mechanical
Decantation materials MECHANICAL
variousANALYSIS
carrying 2the of matter behaviour of
compösition
ismm constitutes
sands, plant
etc. analysis,determining the of
taken soii in sizes. of of
of sieve content amoisture,soil. growth.
out mechanical
Pipette lightly diameter silts soils behaviour)
mechanical method,
are for
also separate
to
sample
a According the
and :and depend
its
soil
of Physical
of
all Properties
and mechanical in
is theclays soil soils. and The
removed wooden a called particles.
pore
Centrifugal analysis of amounts mass. properties plant plant of
Sedimentation stone which, the to on a
soil spaces. support, soil
analysis a The
the nutrients
analysis. is size, This greatiy
from mortar. and mechanical amount,
viz., broken ofare Following physical also

soil.
method,Sieve
of
methods
thc gravel.
The
individua!termed minera! the
soil influence influences
are root of
CHAPTER 2
soil The size, penetration, linked
method, before
Pipette The
organic material analysis.
up.
This particles
asportion
properties
are shape, Soils
are sorl soil soil the the with its
is

exceeding
They are on Physical
Classification
(c) There
foliowedAmerican sott. a SzeDefinition determination
texture). is, reduce to this,
swelling., possess Characteristics
The plasticity.
decreasing and and sand, over they Significance not the
sand
Fine 2
Coarse
sand ! The 2 in I Mechanical
Soi l facilitate
ter-holding Clayencourage have () Clay 4. Silt 3.
separateSot!
are Soil aSoil sandy drainage.
the
make
Tfmm
2Properties
Physical Internatioral
TABLE in a given separates quantities 10
much
cohcsion particles the system tcxture texture of
particle India numbcr of per sieve
of Soil loan, the dra
large soit. analysis ccnt.
signiticance
inage of of
aeration. of is Soil Texture physical viz. , Being soil when Soils
capacity Nature 2.1 developed
of
refers rcfers
loam, of mechanical
etc., size, are size Soil given
:systenm. Separates to0 When
smallest Intern systems to
sand, available helps pieces and the
are there Their Separates
of of to properties open
in the the TEXTURE SOIL sandy tillage.presentunless sample
very of pore Soil ational the The byof silt in
clay water-hold.ng
is in relative relative deciding plant of and analysis.
Table
U.S.D.A., naming and cl ay
high.decrease size Separates.
is
spaces. internatioral
system of unweatheredloose.When tothey is
clayloam,ingredients thisprepared
very 2.1. percentage pxoportion soil the present are Stone
and of soil This
high. n0ssess Hencc, pl a y extent,
ir (b) and sandy textural
acration capacity
Sands naming
system separates. an makes present tor and
Diameter
range
(mm) The cultivation clay rock
in n
Properties percolation
facilitate
they of of
impotrtant classes a the mechanical quantities there gravei
are 002 2.00-0.20
0.20-0.02
0.0020.02-) soil sand,particles soil. and in
fine Below English
which They etc. is
Iarge
and is
large-sized separates soil an which
porc low, silt (Sec role name susceptible
minerals
plastic1ty.
such as
percolation is are largerquantities
advantagc.
spaces. They system, and of analys1srema1n
commonly : role in
particics (a) clay various that they than
do of the
W
rate. ith and The in
not
 Chemical
activity12. MineralsI1. 10.
Fertility
Tillage 9. S!. aluminium
llliteproductsnontmorillonite
8. 7. Watcr-holding hand,
(SiO,), andhydrous
the quantities
shades micas. finer
6. somewhat
Plasticity,
swelling, 5. 4Visibility
capacity 3. 2.Size I. No.
fingers
between
thumbandcohesion
Feel etc. water
Movement Size Total complex
(in) Coarse
is clay these Hematite grades (i1) Silt
on ofpore TABLE
Charactleris
tics hydrous oxides of
ofChemical Mineralogical
rubbing pore silicates.particles clay of particles
red intermediary
weathering. aluminosilicates.
two
of space
2.2 mica, of
and other of
air fractions and sand
: fractions iron yellow primary are
and Compargive They are
Makeup. limonite
a (hematite as
intermediate
nactive dominates potassium very are Characteristics. between
hemically Quartz Very
Low Easy Grity Verylow VeryLarge Least Low naked
eyes
Visible by mm Chemically,
also are if well
2.0-0.02 are at present minerals
Sand active. presentThree composed minerals
rapid carry generallySince as
characteristics and sands
aluminium the
inClays recogn1sed. sand limonite)main in
usually
may in
Slightly
activequartz
hematite, limo
Feldspar,
mica,
Moderate
Moderate Kaolinite
addition sufficient silt and
nite, powder
talcum flour
Like or
Moderate Medium
Moderate Medium scope
0.02-0.002
Medium Visible
micro-by mm inactive mineral of size.
consist and minerals be Quartzclays.
separate.
Sill silicateof present.occur, Silts
sodium, silt and
sand, and
chemically.
principally types quantity. commonly
arealuminium. such
montmorillonite
silt(Table These such In also
iron, dominantly -Kaoliniie, addition, Fundamentals Soilof
Very illite
montmorillonite
active and
Kaolinite, conditionunder
become
hard
dry wctandsticky
when
and
plastic
Feels
very Very
high Slow small
Very microscope Visibie Below
ultra0.002
by mm and as as show
High
Difficult Highest High quartz impart
of On feldspars dominates
cday 2.2).
magnesium. Another
Clay secondary the properties
and various vanable
otherquartz illite
and
isthe the
are

textural
percentage Clayey
soils Loam
soils Sandy
soils andsandy of main the intoname Textural
ClassesPhysical
Clay10. Silty
ClaySandy
9.Clay 8.
Clay 7. 6. 5.
loam loam
SiltLoamn
4. 3. Sand 1. TABLE Agriculture
Sandy
loam 2. In Common
name clay. basis According
3
SiltySandy Textural
groupTABLE the loam,systems
fundamental to Properties
Clay
classes 2.3 The indicate
of
Clay American
of these,
: loam,
classi of
loam 2.4 sand, Classification
Textural to
loam are naming its f
:
fication silt additional and the Soils
Tertural silt system
proposed.
FineModerately
Fine Medium
Moderately
Coarse Coarse textural
Classes loam, proportion
and Texture soils broad
Classes clay as is silt composition.
System class
developed Proposed from according textural
Textural in cl ay
S0-70 20-50 0-30 50-80 0-50 30-50 50-80 Sand %
80-100Proposed names of
0-50 0-20 a coarseloam,
textural sand,
soil
by toclasses
are
classes by U.S. to clay their have On silt
by the ClaySilty
classes this
given ClaySandy
Clay loam
ClaySandy
Silty loam Clay SiltloamSiltLoam Very sandy
Clay loam loam loamLoamy
FineSandy sandsSandy Basic fine
S0-70 20-50 50-80 S0-100 30-50
U.S.
U.S . Departm loam, texture. beenSands, : and
0-50 0-20 Sil1 % basis,
soil texture
0-30 0-50 0-20 based fine
Bureau in aredevised. clay,
Table Bureau sandy loams
Sand, :U.S.In soils a
sandy textural ent
on (Table
of ciay,
of
2.4. loam There and are soil
Soils the of Agriculture loamy
30-100 30-5030-50 20-30 20-3020-30
0-20 0-20 0-20 0-20 Clay %
clasS Department is
Soils,ten 2.3). silty are clay.classifgiven
relative
name
clay sand. tn n
a
 Determination 10
andreiatively Strueture Types of categories : peds, grouped
in patternsDefinition
The of alteredsandy size method wet when The sand is
nregiving usualBy but developed
from
Grade 3. 2. 1. the The ofThe and siltfeelBrubbad
s In
(b) :he may Platy when (a)There whereas arrangement soil wet. the
Class Type fieldtogether and particlestexture isare when
rism-iike. a parent a be Plate-like. primary is
Clayey gritty between fieid,
is
ar-like product structure thin, than thin are called thus 'iaboratory' hard
remains
ed present -Shape
-- under clod Structure
Soil dry of
iaminar horizontalthe four Size is in of under and texture Textural
material, Degree in of consideredsandy feels thumb
as of isvertical. principal is the
soil
structure.
soil mineral soil a material its
shape. The in In of natural an method is
r, soil particles dry lik e
the most (Fig. this peds.
or
of form artificially form particlesSTRUCTURE and horizon
particles commonlyand
n vertical especially
formingnoticeable plates. SOIL soil conditions. feels flour Class
When sub-soil. Whenstructuralfornms distinctness conditions of a a which fingers,
2.1). and basic clay is very orcan
and axis The aggregates. and not is
the thoseforces, the of arrangement fomed sand, soil an is talcum detemined be
n Although
in
horizontal
units type soil their property subjectalmost based plastic A preferably
top is of and remain more easily
more laid the the structure peds. silt powder
at, of are of soil
Natural
it
aggregate on and
surface and ofpermanent to accurate seen by
platy
such down most dimensions aggregates
thick, pattern is
mass. a
mechanical exhibit
areadily in
c.developed clay. and with the 'feel'
described clay soil.
a structura! ty pe : aggregates into Fundamentals
Soilof
by layers they Structure Texture
cannotbe and is mcthod.wet
ped -
water. of character. stickiness
change. slightly the
y isthan often is of are are are peds. usually certain analysis.
fundamental condition
naked
under
nded, featuresvirgin called arranged
much isare The
yorizontal, inherited defined Thus, plastic
studied when eye. soil
platy, three calledoccur The
soils more a
the are in

muchThese the the peds Physical

hisof wiseparately
esation, spaces
th overplaced facesedges are (c)
tß
types Block-1lke.
2 (d) do andcube-like Properties
a sharp
generally
blocky
inch in
Spheroidal with
usually
[Fig. this edges
latien in ANGULAR
B.0CKY la
soil angular, of
diameter.category, PLATrYla.
with All Soils
2.2 drainage, are are
upstructura. are
GAAN
JLAAVa.
these
confinedmainly the flat
(a).
not (Sphere-like). or
although Flg.
are and closed 2.2 These strucure
dimensions
rounded
2.1. BLOCK-UIKE In. PRISM-LIKE H. aeration
I.
cond:tion.
eration
ly (b) PHERE-LIKE IV. PLATE-LIKE rounded
to
Types
sorounded
and the COLUMNAR b. the
is
and faces.
ed are readily 2.2 term AIl of LANAR ib. sub-soi! named
it are
Therefore rounded soit root is
not (c)) more
compiexes CRLMBY Vb SU8-ANGULAR
BLOCKt When about
called
as
fec:ed by structure. penetration. and as
ar swellingWhen properly angular the the
aggregates characteristics sub
inwcted, faces same
by usua!ly angular
phere-iike blocky.
ch
wetting as refers are g1ze
may the ie (peds) flat and
sare of
blocky.When
beloosely to
intervening have and the
ystructure
soil. the those
may
The casc and not be
 for Structure
depend1ng Classesof
5.Medium
4. 3. 2. I. the Eacih
VeryCoarse Fine Very SiZe $2

coarse 0rfineciasses pr:mary

upon Fig.
or Fig.
thin 2.2.
thick or the 2.2.
or
very are:structural
size (c) (o) Fig.
very Arrangement
Arrangement 2.2.
thin of
thick. the type (a)
Example
individual
of of of
soil spherical particles
of
- sphere-like
MACRO MACRO
SPACE
PORE
is
peds.
differentiated in
particles sphere-like
PORE
The soil
terms in SPACE structure.
two soil
into ways. structure.
commonly FundamentalsSoil of
size-classes 5

used

greateradhesion thparticles
e adhesion cementing iron ofaggregate
to
clay Formation
Structure blocky
conditions. type; distinct.and fairly exhibited of
form organic
matter,
influenced
determinedStructure Grades of and Physicat
formation The and these are The Often
ModerateStrong I.
2. Examples soil
For 4.
is cannot structure, for
Strongdurable Weak 3. 2. 1. Grades coarse The
and mineral
aluminium
and materials
secondary brought a
mechanism Grade
example, naming Moderaté Structureless. structure
the compoundformation compound For by
by are
Properties
ternms
cohesion.
ndency ofcohesion, of structure. structure.
and loose indicate
by
aggregates. forpColloids together example,
constitute a texture
are the used thin
granular
coarse
very finesphere-like soil the
hydroxidestaking strong distinct.
structure. sand of
particles or a of Class moisture
: the
aggregates number structures stability for thick
and Soils
to The stick secondary structure by
sequence
structurethe
coarse Indistinct or
There etc.
degree other
(Colloidal part thelarge Very Four
form amount
The the soil a
together that of comnpound Moderately cement-like are content
and in cementing (aggregate) prismatic granular well-formed of ofstructural are
egates.greater primary are Type angular
structure terms
as aggregate imparts no
and rganic particles.
clay) formation dist1nctiess
the types,
platy
used
they to met noticeable of
nature
the commonly aggregates.
form
do by structure or
particles structure. types moderate
within granular
strong
fine
blocky
: well-developed condition the ypes. for
amount matter. formation
Clay formation binding It peds of
ofnot virtue
aggregates. is Structural
Name
followed
peds
so1l.
of
may (soil
articlescolloidal possess mainly th ¹ which peds, used the
of of toeffect such very
structure). which of
GradeJrade
clay their are a is break soil toindividual
quite
as is 8ome such
soil the coarse are describe while
grade,
smaller inclay properties the Sand colloida!
arrangement soil
of
sand, intounder peds are clay as
als0 of
the
apower mass. complex. quite
influence
soil, granular not dependsstructure terts
and colloids silt medium cBass which conditions peds.
natural soils. the
than the clay, The durable durable.
ofsilt of and
In and grade It fine,
are on is is
 partmoiessubstances. on also root moisture Bow,structure,
fragments
Smallerand microorgansm Thiclayey
s
in S. decay, act hairs materialaggregationsoilaggregation Iitleof factors : Factors cation
aggregation adsorbs
thc and SoiB 4.some 3.
helps
adsorbed
cementing bacteria
materialsDuringcementing soil low
as Plant
soil,
as 2. I. The exchange 0.001 14
insects
onorganism. may which content Tillage. Organic
wel l Organic particles Iron base
cementing Climate. and
of an making produced development Affecting both taking mm
also help
roots. theoptimum
modifies
it as is as forms decomposition
by
effect. are and
exchange
etc., cement ofgreater cationshumus sand capacity
aggregate
existing Cultivation is matter. wel l produced matter together.
aluminium
bring Large to o clay a part and
ofAmong
that agents to byclay primary Climate as Soil calcium Another
develop aggregates.
high th e th e and in
nerburrow about number aggregates
moisture more the than on of forming plays silt capacity. form very
the properties
decomposing sand Organic arid
soil. In the Structure
structure anions.
the
which particles. of These
s. in it
implements has humate view hydroxidesaggregate
granulation
soil bindingcrumb will crumby. particles. type decomposition organic an readily.
in particles case regions. a are
of content For matter considerable clay-humus In of helps important also
tfauna,
he granules form of in in So
wil obtaining of of structure. normal structure
soil structure.
the cla y In arable combination matter,
to responsible act more also
large in break
be organic toimproves a
arsmall
e due soil byforn sandy semi-arid soil, have form part
as
readily clay
remainbrokenclods thc influence soi l complex.
formation humic cementing
the to
particBes. reducing In
animals the Plant soilgood down matter soil, calcium aggregate. also in minerals
chief aggregates. the arid depends with forming for than
production attached down. on s regions, been acid forming
root granular of the regions,
agents like drying. its andstructure on humus. It is
is that
agent those that
The
secretions necessary. large cohesive sticky seems Some and FundamentalsSoilof
the on the found soil
hworms, to Inthc the the clay aggregates in which have
plant and clods the there prcdominant other
that If associated and ofdegree degreefollowing that aggregates. binding
of roots itcrumby fungi
to high
stickyroots, may power case a particles
take Is If sBimy sandy is humus have sticky have
and too the into very and base
of of of by the
a a

dsploughed impervious
urable practicaly a tilleddifficult
to of grass Organic improving
wi l the
fertility Structural
the drainagestructure pore pore soi!. 1n in poreporosity, Effect sizes.massAmmonium swell reducing Physical
soil the comparison the
The (b) also capacity (a) 4spaces 2 1. Soil give on 7. 6.
etc., 5. spaces Structure 3. soil. spaces
are in presence
when Consistence.
Colour. Temperature.
Density.
density
Bulk Porosity. of WettingFertilizers.
tillage, this Fine-textured th an Soil.
The increasemater Coarse-textured and ofexhibits temperature, structure Soil absorbing rise the Properties
ed too also Thus,
water-holding Managementto soil. has has are
to Nitrate, stability
ucture wet, condition wct, sandy adsorb Biuish chiefly
high to less
Structure and
help the structure cracks of
up of of wil Platy strong low plate-ikethese Porosity brings water. Soils
Fertilizer
ch the clay
itslarge water-holding
soil. in not Consistence bulk bulk
influences Crumby whcreas
density, drying. help of
and and characteristics which
results. dries, pore improving only of Soil. structureplasticity. density ofchange on aggregates.
On in
structural soil airamounts In ofgreenish density. structure.
are
space clay, such hold
capacity. Soils varies structure insoil a Other break development
drying, When like
should itand act sufficient Sandy
of
consistence
crumby in
ult On usually capacity.
nomally whercas pore is other Sodium
water plasticity structural the as soil colours soil with easily Physical it a Few
ggregatesthe becomes of There soils spaces. help
provides shrinkage up dry
other be colloidal structural binding a - - also the structure physical into fertilizers, of
to becomes and
thmoisturc
e are drainage.
hinders
free of
crumby in changed. and soil good Nitrate
done Sod-crops, is depends Properties clods
rk.
hand, itmanagcment and commonly
only soil Platy total keep1ng good produced is
much
is addition colour.
are at said cohesion
hard
clay. condition agent are structure
structure
pore
aeration
pore properties and wetted,
structures.destroys for
one and on optimum In
if right generally spaces examples,
ughedbroken for space plate-like ofgranules
and reduced,to When
exampie,
fpractical
or nutrients.
of too
structure. strains the
moisturestage. I1 be the with and ofSoil granulation
dense. are of of organic loose with
present are soil
down puddled. such high sandy a particies due
temperature
percolation soil of in
too it clay method They Plate-like more less structure,
more. -- various the Calciunm
colloids
becomes because a
com, and to
dry. and matter. in ike soil by
When so1l so1! soiis. poor total total the
blue but lack lack
ig an 1s Is of
 t'puddle'
he this ploughing
reploughed, soil-profile
materials.
porosity
thisof sufficient
be
medium
smooth wil!gates aggregates
wet, volume Puddlingflooded soil.but theplant
Wet suffiCient
The flooded
responsc of By to of
Puddling terd formThose Puddling structural
mud.production
with granulaiOn
ineorporati
condition. system are water-iogging Scmi-aquatic
water
maintain
reducing water Such
Then soil and to
without soft with of material clay
'destabilized' to a cond1tions
supply water (c) The
to 'harden' random soiis and tonecded movement
the surfacecreate cause
Rice
muddyplanking land of surface to
decrease
a of
type
a
water
soii
stand1ng aggregates. and of granulathon
in on
The ricimportant
e can in the some
being fill the management ice. Soi!. the ot
in
partial
many gel-likewhich
corresponding condition.character1stics of
because percolation.
to
then
cultivation layer a roots. produce
obstructed no layer
condition,whole moist characteristically byheavy-textured soil waterdown Puddling
In organc
soil.
after puddling. the in preparation
Rice
puddled of
longer is is of bulk management
of entrance dispersion structure clay This
oxygen (percolation) in fine-textured
condition.
each reducedmade Rice a
the
the
nce the helps seediing mater.
permitting needsabsorb pores fraction density.
loss
characteristic puddled by of
ploughing,
by upper Asof can moves of
crop. rice control for the
channels dense soils the intensive
hard puddled by of be through transplanted the Growing
The air th'puddled'
e between of waterdisperses the
This
that
soil
pianting soil
inter-aggregate. grOWn rice through soil
layer and clay soil leads downward destroy weeds
layers. the freely.
infiltration
lands
to to dries is permits plantmarkedly tillage. is should
roots ofcondition, compact. particles. much of
bring deep particles,
th e due tosuccessfully the and generally
the structure. up, when an aggregate. 2ccount into of sod-crops
to are soil structural to inside ot
soil. also Pudding rice, be
the increase rice decreases
ramify soil the which Eventually, of The the the the the
ploughed are soft, Th:s the encouraged FundamentalsSoi!of
should soil muddy which soils
destruction
tothe for growing reduces freshly beneñial
on
stand Rice also
IS destroys soil
closed. micr0-aggre
puddle in
freely to
involves units, is total unpuddled stem its the
important prepared
surface releases is inproves
be a worked wellsurvivcs
poSitive amount
of seascn the floodei to by
in infine and
The the will soil soil
of in the rate he the ihe

present
decreases.
censity amount 2.65 soil density Density paddy siructurcless Disadvantages
field.hydrogen Puddling of and cas1ly
cJMeout the
manganese. Advantages
Puddlingof1mportant
Successfullv crop. i'rPhyscal
upertics
5o1ls
6 3.mud
grams Particle
is Soil 5. 3. 2. I.
4. 5 the 4 2. 1. ficld.In
in of called and represents
Root Loss Because In Soil A Increase
formation
Loss Weeds Easy Less Puddling thc
theavy
he density sulphide, paddy large with
to
perDensity. bulk development of soilstructure of on puddied
arethumb power
soil. particle in
nitrogen of quantity in watcr trarsplanting maintan
cubic density. is weight andfield, puddled helps
Particleminerals
With absence
ferrous avaiability of controlled
density. expressed
The presence is tulage by and required in soi!,
centimetre. destroyed. of
increasc Density (mass)
=DENSITY (denitrification)
is is other percolation stand1ng
soi!. the water
density
also is such weight SOILOFpoor. oxíde of water forefinger.
Generally, in air upland
of of pan. by rice in retention
in asThe per etC., tillage is nutrients, puddling. tillage. is
per two in due water
organic
magnetite,
Volume
Mass unit the required iS retained
unit
well-accepted are crops reduced to of in
particle
particle paddy pan.
termed volume formed. Buried sott
matter volume also for especialiy
water, the in
may
limonite field, because mud. field riceForthe
as density density of occurred puddling so
true of of not weeds
Plants that as
the theconcepts substance. a toxic
grOW phosphorus, of ice
density. and is of in rice
soil higher solid in the structureless
normal substances the are is
hematite
the water-logged can
seemi-ag
- well soil!. pushed
portion mud be
particle if
soils particle due iron
large do
are like into
is of to and soi! not
 amount
meability,
Significant greater condition. of readily general, growth the
air water. is Pore
Size MiCro(i7)or known
conditions.
soils. givesnormally
importance
density.varies smaller
(i) The amounts 1.6 of
of number and movement Clay LoamSandy
soil pore
of MacCro tw o and InSpace. loamSilt Textural
Generally, grams/cu. Bulk
macro individuai in water Sands size the as a
drainage TABLE good spaces
than TABLE
its sizes crop of decreases Density.
of 0r and pore pore The than
and plant is and
capillarv water
Classes Clay Silt sand
Fine Texturai
Clusses
Coarse
sand
micro non-capillary
restricted of production.
arshape
e volume indirectly cm., its is
estimate
spaces,space. 2.6 particle
soils particle 2.5
mnico growth
and pores, sandy r ai
whereas called The
recognised and : as
water pores. and Bulk Particle :
pores, of with of
pores.
relationship.rather to soilswater air the POROSITY
The ofSOILOF Bulk density mineral with density. bulk oven
pores Density the
retention, some in pore soil
plant low that
Density
In
have andpores. : the mass density porosity the density. dry
than contrast, and in soils of
extent. roots of bulk
I3 14 L.6 understanding The.bulk weight
total organic
a do soil space that Different of
aFor total large notThese pore fgncu.cm) The
soil and grow densities of become
pore
of
Different
Particle
Clays in hold is is soil. matter bulk a
should ideal pore number
the are
spaces thus usually and not
Soil space density unit
much finer density densitv
indirectlyexist.occupied Bulk Soil
conditionsspace andmicro the
vary Tertural
have the is volume
have of occupied present abOut of
clayey Water physicatdensity in 2.837 2.798 2.659 2655 Textural
in pores,macro large space
Pore
(a) favourable (gmiubic
It texture. 0.5. sandy of LFundamentals Soil of
about a considerably. directly by Classes of
soil underpores. controls $8 47 in a
of movementsoils
by
soil behaviour isthe Bulk soil soil soil Classes
aeration,
an is pores. centinetre)
controlsparticles of The
equal more havc normal
allow air physical
greater soil densityabout is is
inclusive
always
plant and bulk
a In of and
M

of arearranged
packing. betwcen
aggregates of spacc SandSandy
loam Clay ndividual andspace
ciay ClayHcavy Factors 2.65 be to Physical
packing.
arranged arrangement. Terttul
class that
Granular
3. 2. Following 1. Porosity has ForPorosity % andSince. calculated
Porosity= 100 - Soil
Árrangement than Soil m0re isSoil solid
Thus, in the iess. Affecting percentage Properties
examnple,
the % Porosity.
Socolumnar as a
Structure. particles tota!Texturc. o
in primary
orind1vIdual TABI.E = space pore
inthe the Infactors following (% pore by
crumby structureless a fine-textured 100
space
this soil porc pore = the cf
pyramidal number and Soil - a space ofSoil
Soils
system particles
form of hav1ng 2.7: In soi
2.65 (1.3 ) space)particle l density density
Bulk (
density formula sorl
A affect
withinspace sandy Porosity percentage
density
bulk =Particle porosity
Soil type grains soil having 100 + volume
of[Fig. Pore %
of or
having the x
porosity form poreParticle. aggregate content
Clay
(%)
granules
Space because soils, soils, 100 = -
solid
%
in 100
2.3(c)) structure single-grain a < 2030- 40S5
- percentage =pore bulk solid which the
is
(Fig.space single-grain an 10 therepores 50.94% space
in
would When Relation(nicro there
densityparticle
density 100 space
percentage
2.3(c)] it has stucture aggregate space. density
bulk 100 is
is = 02cupied
wil gives possibility are 100
be be the more soil. are of of
pores). quite pore
more. gives itless. the has soil,structure
to
1.3 pore
sphere-like porosity For Average Soil pores
most addlionai and spaces:
large, and by
space.
Texture of x
theWhen the
(macro) more particle 100 pore
closest opcn for has 42.54 45.45 48.4$ 51.09 pore thus,
than same Porosity
spaces.
the particBes similar greater
system pore space granulation
particies platc-itke
systein between
total density
size
spae mode pore it
refers
(%) porc can
ofarc of of
 described
ímoisturc stightlyshape. applied, slightBy The fielddescibed especialiyexampic, molecule
atraction k1nd
Soil Cuitivated soi!Virgin
soil ComparIsOn
a a the iCrease
Friable treaimen!Soil reduction decrease
Very Loose :
non-coherent (i) Plasticity. Stickiness. capacity), Consistence
degree () Consistence of
COparisonsOt0 i maCro
t 5. 4
Consistence plastic,
Tems the sticky, Consistence TABLE Depth
friable content in atattraction cohesion Cropping. Organic
Macr in
: the for of
easily th e shape of three of
in to
pores
perCentage
usedPlasticity substances
plastic stickiness
sticky The
consistence moisture another. 2.8 organicvirgin
large 0organism.
of
following
coherent : betwcen
crushed changed soil of representsand matter
(%)
Organic Efect :
Soil. tn Matter.
when to quality when between
soil 2.9 56 or Cropping the
and
describe and moisture A matter or
content dhesionadhesion of macro Pore sorl ot
isvery is depends ofuncroppcd Macroorganism InCrease
but tems air soil yery and identified the of is soil CONSISTENCE
like at
SOL
space
pore
described
adhesion soi! Continuous conten.
very is
dry plastic. thcapacity e after sticky. is
levels of varying pore tends space.
:moist. characteristics
and is of space(%Total
)pore
soil. on in
casily and removing
degree wet. the soil 50.2 58.3 spaces. soils. the n
by to in the water Continuous to
For The attractionmaterial. moisture Cropping sub-so1! organic
For to theotherterms Thislower like
crushed ield texture,
slightly of be consistence
wet molecule. earthwom
plasticity the following Macroporespace
Pore reduction
capacity), moulded. objects of
soils such
conditions, space (% ) has matter
stress 32.7
on
cropping the
stickiness colloids, of
Cohesion 16.0
wet Total been
(moisture unlike as total
non-plastic,are it tems is of that is and content
Fundamentals Sot!of
condition keep called soil Pore found
consistence When the assoCiated
often pore insects
and structurematerials, refers of Micro
pore Spaces
thenon-sticky, : content is one degree
space (% ) to in
stickiness.plasticity. generally 34.2 25.6 results space dccrease
changcd stress increase the
of water to
soil and the and with sO1!.
is is at for In n

Limnite Limonite
Xanthosiderite Turgite
Goethite
Haematite oxides, a grey pedochromic.
Soil orthe
lithochromic); and The consistence
consistence Physical
TABLE mixture
(c) (b)colour Colour (a) soil Colour colour is Extremely Very Hard Slightly non-coherent Soft Loose : (iii) Very Firm
whereas
Red-yellow Brown Black an Extremely
colour
2.9 of
of
important
of of
hard
breaks :powdeiymassbreaks : Consistence fim Properties
crushed :
the and hard of 1s
: colour. soil and is for a soil hard
Variationyellow organic Composition a soil thumband very :
forefinger drrigidity
characternised y by firm : :
crushed
colour. are dark example,
result varies with
breaks
: under
soils, of
criterion
is hand.
the : under Soiis
colour extreme
H20 FezO3
Fe203·3 2H20
H20 2 FezO3 Fe203 in matter
Thismainly inherited
of
resistant
difficulty slight whenresists
FezO3 Fez03.
H20 2 grey widely. under th e only
Ferric Red is soil red moderate
indicates in pressure following
due COLOUR SOIL soil and
colour and the colour. resistance crushing under
3 foming soils description to
H20 Oxide most to from It moderate
under is
iron pressure: dry.
some is organic developed is pressure
strong
Colour common The prOcess its an between terminology between
associatedoxides. to pressure
degree variations
parent andeasily
pressure; pressure hardness the and For
with matter.
from cannot dry pressure
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow,
brown
Yellowish-brown
reddish-brown Red to Red soil classification
and thunb forefingc. thumb
rock
Degree of observable condition
hydration with colour is red cannot is
from termed material be used
unhydrated sand and describing In
of broken
Hydratlon and black forefinger of
(Table characteristic
stone.
as of be so1l
is (termed soils. broken (air
due to acquired between
2.9).ferric Often dry)
dark to
to in
as a
ois.
thandryrequired
specifc controlling to they orFactors InSurface.
armountcondition. remain Loss raise in becomes thisatnosphere.
sub-soil surface rays Source Soitof alternating
tabie cond:tion colours
fine-grained soi, 4. the
are I. 3. 2. 1. of the BioBogical 4. and 3. heat 2. (radiant 1. () (e) (a)
heat Soil becauseRain. Evaporation. Conduction. Radiation.
constant. cherrical
Rain. Conduction. Soiar
for Affecting of Soil of are White
temperature (wermercocier to Mottling occur Bluish
raise
of factor Texture.
this heat
the
the oxidising
During Heat The The
Radiation. due
dry soils. rain soil energy) Heat coiour.
the reason n is A and than soil in and
soii Soil used. The occurrence iayers) exposure to
mperature so:l Sandy will part on colour.
ili-drained
is
A summer In Some biological
ofChemical
Reaction. Some isThewhich and the
greenish
Temperature
aiso quantity sub-surface very that The
less fine-grained
temperature usually This the is the to interior Silica
siow soils, lost TEMPERATURE
of
SOIL
reucing Colour presence
heat soil. of soii slow.
than months, results process the reach main soil. and
to process. (cooier the
uf to in have transmitted of warmn of
rays colour.
moist th e Generally, of lime
one warm.general, heat soil earth source the variegation
soil the conditions
Specific generally a in of air fail.
so!. gram lower evaporation a rain (sub-soil). earth
layers). earth ferrousgenerally
carries by so to of Some
Soil cooling th e
Hencc, of warm absorbed
radiation. during
heat temperature soil.
than to during is after soil or
moisture a rain very heat duecompounds. of
a lower amount heat motling impart
substance is large up effect the Thus, the
moist has of by night, hot, ofthey is to
the quicker winter the the a bluish
amount
water
is of soil layers the of heat t he pass Fundamentals
white Sol of
soils amount the especially
a fluctuating in
cooling heat the sun energy
by water
large a soil months conduction soils This and
are most than of is surface
flows warms
through colour.
1"C. does liberated indicates reducing
Cooler of clayey action soil of greenish
at sun's water
The heat vital may from
soil of the the
the by not

increasecondition.
rovid1ng
Watcer-logged
hcattemperature.soil temperature the air soi! temperate
It coolcOoler it the heat the lowerlower have light-colouredsun's Hence, ofand controlling warm
Control Phystcal
will retards organic
and Regulation temperature.
air 9. 8. off warming
On than 7. ground 6.
tempcrature,
temperaturc the aSoil $.ihcat. 4. partly 3. up 2.
Season.
be Climate. in
the Vegetative Slope higher minera!
Soil Soil Soil
thus,
suitable the temperatures
of more
summer the those more fPrupertics
The noticed (cool) temperature
slope, Colour. materials
organic. the
of other of Moisture. Composition. Structure.
emperature
ases
Soil loss of specific
control of th e Soil rapidly soils. soils rapidiy pore
Temperature During morc regions
Climate the that the of
rainage. so'l surface that and hand,
of Cover. also than The
temperature soil are Land. Dark-coloured As (specific
get space. Sonls
temperature of are there warmer heat.
than affects of Specific because
the espcciallythe plantsurface. bare. dry heat they heated specific
the are has Soils a Soiis Soil
ure. The of soil coldlow, those Hence, The moist soil. than The
is cooler heat
such amount
is a
a in cover
Vegetation
that
the heat possess nore structurc
heat sotl therehaving
removal has the varies great
coveredwinter topography soil. The dry of
is always months ofclose temperature soils
sols than soils
prevents are of iron of is !s
a of
possible soil the evaporation soils. a readily composed
low effect covered Moist water minerai good aiso
The of similarity with those than
carry:ng greatcrusually is iO
is water temperatures
higher surface
of with acts
tenperature.
excess Consequently.
of soiB a is 0.1Water.lozg1ng
1 structure
ease t) upto December different on
unprotected the as than affecis
vegetation.
in of th e higher warm
more up
remove
in than soil an with capacity substances
whereas
soil
bctween tropical asoil the gcts of organic
soiis partiy
water sol some land,
dense interceptor
n heips the and scasons temperature from vegetation soil. heatedwater than (granular s011
the excesS The extent,
re and for of of
lowers air the the (warm soils.plant more is tem.pcrature
also getting rathermoisthasso: s0tiabsorting humus rnineral
a to temperature. varvattons Jaruary more less
oniy var:a0n of and paricularly
absorb readilythan or
tent t s ateT regultteunder Barecover io:st
tow te
regns Sals than
is crunby
spcitc say cooi retards siowy hclps .44) matter
tieid The whcn vear so1ls iess soils
the that by
of by to its
3 are as to )
in in
 arequal
e sand, about paNtruts They to
sots ate Sandyproductivity
droughtfaciltates
grcwn frable. plant
Impartance Iowers by crop Use such The intercepting off absorption
mulch soi 1 iiie
aitering ack
ediate siit Si! ulrients brczk
d1fficul: Clay Pt.ysical
1. ROLE fron of shade as Onthe The o
oportions. haxc are sols growth the irrigation tea. outgoing the ICase
an such and Such Role During substance ali
anid to isa Cxceedingly
2
They particles drainage temperature its dry helps other sun heat Its of ienpeature
asare have of OF heips
clay 53pvery cOrtLntater-i bigh have to type of piorertics of and colour.spells. coffe
bween irn valuable water-holding
particies Cernt gging
ptato,
til! unsuilable
very and Texture. soil.
pIoductivity.
of
Piysical
PHYSICAL water and hand, tadiation. rays. tcmperaturc
in thc
Soil ike 0
and play protccting da y
drairage, finsticky
e
littlc
tSandy
he Spreading The At pereaNe of
sit. Ricc, require groundnut a aeration. texture of by tobacco
als o vegetative temperature
night charcoalNurface
sandy They pores, very Texture Properties temperature
reflecting time,
whichconstituent
An and water-holding for soils a as
absorption jute,
dry soil
PROPERTIES lowered however, t the
soiis are
capacity and much
important It is a young
etc., mulch powder
exhibits ideal sugarcane when and aliows sotl sod
gencrally they and
farming. allows easy are has have thin can can
and of much e from mulch
it also less temperaturc
loam of skill
dry, cucunbers. layer ofthsecdlings
clayey light of the and are rapid
to good
open great keepsthe when be
water, may in role capacity. handle of surface soi l the keeps
soi!l. can very poor become
poorhandling. In of keep reflcctionbe mod1ticd
and in sandy evaporationcharacter,effect influencc IN the temperature and
a intense sprcad
soils. white thregulated
e
ter-holdingheavy Good percolation be be
fertile in soil in SOIL
incoming soil the surface by
defined growWn drainage very Such tillage soi l soil on by
soil, and lowering
Tillage
loamy
fertility.
When
on
on substance shallow-rooted can heat
warmer by altering
the
properties soils, hard fe w usually
soils management FERTILITY also temperature
during hence,
as in operations.
and fertility radiant and soil
applying surface
erations this which
capacity a
soils in and and moist Claycy crops cannot
percolation. lik e be
protect cooler
by its the
mixture respect loose
energy. lowered summer. crops
soil aeration. a speciic
incontain usually difficultclayey can of cutting strawgrcater colour of
about very soils stand Sand and and soil, chalk lo w. the
are they be the by
of of

"gation
ascs
ace.
pore should
proportion aera:ion
important despite size movemcentof mic:o inmoisture air the soils whercas
Soils Ger space foclods
r age. physical
provides (granular structureeffects but soil. of pulscs, They best
Porosity For Fine-texturedof
the the and weight
4.havingwhich erally, 3. the Mostly Activities their porosity.
Not 2.
have ideal the the nacro pores
soil. water. Role present Rol e and
tillage Role adapt
are ed
not movement those soils sced
peds, optimum properticsnormally and novement only oilsceds.
consideration.
about
and conditions
of the
individuallarge
of so pore air
of can
Thus, of the
of have
compact
in of bed ric e
crumby) Structure
are
practicallyof to
much hold It
Porosity. wi th with the Soil resultirg is
of practices Structure. th is
creases a macro amoun:(clay) spaces.
and does soils. loose a for
soil the potato,
soil an in witain high low soi th e infilration,
growm ofhinders and
ecual b pere water mere (piaty) Density.
soilshelps amTunt controls s.ited ciass
is of
pores. soils sardy rot microorganism
rext in
acratión,incrcasing Thespacestotal
cf
water holdPorosity the
structure bulk bulkgivesand
by are
circulation
Structure groundnut, Soil
casily
the amount
allow
surprisingly soil,
is
soil.
structure. densities structureless The croppuddling a infree of
tosorl. t
loosening densities water-holdingcrumby the
nmount rather pore andwater drainage. structure every In
changed. relatively inspite (crumby) good bulk
a is drainage also water
permeability of the
space restrictunder Macro of
difficult are amount
vegetables, loam
macro the Bulk have and kind
of total
of
than
exhibit density the and controls also and
rapid of pores soil estimatc of supply The intluences
ganic Any and finc-textured pore their slow
(total th
normale density have
favourable mass. soil. granular.
whereas controlled air of ofsoil
the in capacity, best
peration micro
and
combinedporosity). air
becausemovement allow greatly poor
a varies th e The of run-off dependentwater rice, crop govd
space low alsolower Preparation
matter water and condition. puddledpuddl1ng nutrients structure
This and the such ilth
pores. as offtotal readyhelps
helps
physical
physicalporositythe with
aeration sphere-like by
sugarcane
retention, soils
by
Therefore,
volume
water
the of bulk
ty pc
and
soil onamount
ar as ss
inthat porosity, movemnent air the soil. of for erosion. obta:neo
raising moverent In to density to are present
soil whcat,
the
reduccs promotes dominance and judge determine conditions.
conditions,
total destroys
good andfavourable of structure. and etc
a contrast, good. structure structure structure
soil, soi! is water soil. of nahe a78 Asl,
in
the the the the than pore tilth drai n Pl a ty the
ofthe al I:
 Fundamentals ofSoil Plhysical Properties of Soils
tenperate
on sced germination. Sel
on the texture,
of soil depends structure, and
(e) Effet of soil-temperuture inlucnces gerninaton of wels lie
Cons1stence factors that
Consistence.. colloids. is onc of thc mpurtant sceds gernn.natc arc
dtferent thc
S Roieof Soil and oganic mosture content., temperatures at. which different
amcunt of mOrganc decreasing to germinate or germinatc
very slowly.
naare a content of sol. With
and become
friable tempcrature is too low, the seed fails
Especiall the moIsture stickiness and plasticity injured.
soils lose their hard and coherent.
If it is too high, seed may be plant
in genctal, the
and finally when dry become water-holding capacity and (S) Effect of soil-temperature on plant growth. Thc growingupto the
and son increases the right from the seed germination
Optimum soil consistence
fertility of soil. requires a certain amount of heat physioiogical
Thus, increasing the maturity. During plant growth
plant food material. soil fertility : stage where the plant reachestemperature.
Colour. Soilcolour isindirectly related with colour processes are influenced by
Role of Soi! temperature. Directly the soil absorb
weathering
on soil formation. Process ofincrease in
(a) Relaton of soil colour with
The dark-coloured
soils (g)Efect of soil-temperature
accelerated where there is an
to some extent. and soil development are
fluences soil temperature 'soils.
more heat than light-coloured matter imparts soil-temperature.
properties. Soil temperature
with organic matter. Organic (h) Effect of soil-temperature on
physical
(6) Reiation of soil colour of organic matter content improves
More quantity indirectly influences soil structure.
biack to dark grey tinges. of
the sol sructure
and greenish () Efect of soil-temperature on plant diseases. Development
colour with drainage. Bluish determined soil-temperature.
ic) Reiation vf the soil drainage can be discases are also related with
water-logging. Need of
coiours of soil indicate KEY POINTS
in the soil.
by the colour variations Soil colour may
id Relation of soil colour with parent naterial. Mechanical Analysis. The process of determining thc
amounts of
rock material. silts and clays) below 2
indicate their origin from parent cffects of soil individual soil separates (gravels, sands,
Temperature. There are following analysis. Mechanical
7. Roie of Soil millimetres in diameter is called a mechanical
an
growth:
temperature on fertility of soil and plant amount of analysis helps in deciding the textural classes. Soil separates play
on soil microorganism. A certain important role in the determination of physical properties of soil and
(aìEfec of soil-temperature
functioning of microorganism in the soil. Soil
cultivation.
heat is ecessary for the proper microbiological process involved in minera
tenperature controls the rate of Soil Texture. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of particles
matter, nitrogen-fixation eto.
lsation of nirogen, composition of organic is below
of various sizes in a given soil.
activity where soil temperature
There is iowest microbiological Classification of Soil Separates. (1) Coarse sand (2.00-0.20 mm).
S°Cand above 54°C. Optimum temperature for microbiological activity is (2) Finc sand (0.20-0.02 mm), (3)Silt (0 02-0.002 mm) and (4) Clay
bet ween 25-35°C (bclow 0.002 mm).
decomposition of soil-organic
(6} Effect of soil-temperature on thedepends on microbial process and Characteristics of Soil Separates
matter. Organit ratter decomposition
temperature. The higher the temperature,
miCrOorgarism sctvity is related with Characteristics Sand
the more rapid is the decomposition. 1. Visibility
absorption of soil water. Very low Visible by No: clearly Vis1bie by
(c) Efject of soil-temperature on absorption of soil water by the roots
naked cyes ullra-mcro
21d very high temperature affects the SCope
of plant. 2. Size of pores Large (macro) Medium Micro
Soil tempe
(d; Efect of soil-temperature on nutrients availability. in the soil. 3. Aeration
Very rapid Medium
rature influences the various chemical reactíons that take place Siow
4. Infiltration
The soubility of food nutrients and their availability are considerably Very rapid Mediunn Sow
infiuerked by soil ternpersture. 5. Total pore spaces Least Medimm Highest
 Fundamentals of Sctl Physical Properties ofSois
t. Watetoldug capacity Low Medium High Puddling. Ploughing of the land in moist condition 15 Tepeated
Difficuit
done to bring the soil to a 'puddle' condition. The upper layer of
Moderate
Lasy muddy condition
8 Plastwitv, stickness Very tow Medium High the soil is converted into snmooth soft
stface atea, swellg. DENSITY OF SOIL
adheson, cohcston etc.
substane.
Quart Quant, Kaolinite, Density. I represents weight (mass) per unit volume of a
ort.os
feldspars I10nUn0TI Particle density. The weight pcr unit volume of the sold
IMicas, hcmatte lHonte (only particle) of soil is callcd particle density or true density. EAp.
Particle density of sand is 2.65 grarms per cubic centimetre
iu Chemcal makeup Inacuv Siightiy active Bulk density. The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive
density Exn
Very less Mediuna High of pore spaces (particles + pore spaccs) is called bulk
Textural Classes. Textural classes (composition) are -- Sand, loamy Bulk density of sandy soil is about I.6 gm/cu cm.
sand, sandy loam, loam, silt oam, silt clay loam, clay lTam, sandy POROSITY OF SOIL
clay, silty clay and clay
Pore space. The volume of soil mass that is not occupied by soit
SOIL STRUCTURE particles is known as porc space.
Macro pores. These are large pores which do not hold much water
Definition. The arrangement of soil particles and their aggregate into is called macro or non-capillary pores.
certain tefined pattern is called structure.
Types of Structurc
Micro pores. These are small pores which hold much water is called
micro or capillary pores.
Porosity. It is the percentage pore space.
Plate ike Prism-like Block-like Sphere-like Factors affecting soil porosity. (1) Soil texture (2) soil structure
(3) arrangement of soil particles (4) organic matter (5)
Platv Lamunar Colum- Prismatic Angular Sub Granular (6) depth of soil (7} cropping. macroorganism
Biocky angular mby SOIL CONSISTENCE
Blocky
It represents at varying moisture
Clusses of strueture. Very fine or very thin, tine or thn, medium, conditions, the degree and kind of
cohesion and adhesion of soil materials.
Coarse or thick and very coarse or very thick.
Consistence of soil at 3-moisture levels. (1)
Grades of siructure. Sructureless, weak structure, moderate structure is wet, (2)
soil is dry.
consistence when soil is moist, andConsistence when soil
(3) consistence when
and strong structure.
Structure formation. The cementing materials taking part in aggregate SOIL COLOUR
ionnation are colloidal clay. iron and aluminium hydroxides and I. Colour of soil
organic matter. developed from redinherited from parent rock material e.g., red
sand stonc. soiis
Factors affecting soil structure. Climate, organie mater, tillage, 2. Acquired
colour, it is result of soil
and dark grey colour of forming process e.g., black
plant reots, soil organism, fertilizers and wetting and drying. due to ferric oxide: soil is due to organic
matter: red colour is
white colour due to silica and
Efect of soil structure on other physical properties of soil. lime.
Porosity, temperature, density, consistence and colour. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Structural management of soils. Coarse-textured soils, fine-textured Source of soil heat. Solar
soils, ricc sols. chemical reaction. radiation, conduction, biolog1cal and
Loss of soil heat.
Radiation, conduction and evaporation.
 3
Prysical Properties of Soils
Fundamentals of Soil
Soit Sctence
Millar, C.E., Turk, L.M. and Foth, H.D. (19$3). Fundamentais of London.
Factors affecting soil temperature. (1) Soi! texture (2) Soil john Wiiey and Sons. Inc., New York, Chaprman and Hal! Ltd.
structure (3) Soil composition (4) Soil colour (5) Soil moisture Mohr, E.C.J. and Van Baren, F.A. (19$9). Tropica! Soils.
Interscience Pubiishers
(6)Slope of the land (7) Vegetative cover (8) Climate an (9) Season. Ltd., London and New York.
Clasuficatior
ControB of soil temperature. For increasing temperature - providing Robinson, G.W. (1951) Soils-Their Crigin, Constuuutton and
dra:nage, altering colour and applying mulch. For lowering the soi! Thomas Mirby and Co., London.
temperature -- use of irrigation, altering soi! coiour, applying mulch and Plani Gronit
Shaw, Bvron, Editor, T. (19$2). Soil-Phy sica! Cond1ttons
and growing vegetat1ve Cover. Vo!. Il. Academic Press, Inc., New York
Handbook No. 8.
ROLE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES IN SOIL FERTILITY Soil Survey Manual (1951). United States Dept. of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C
Importance of Texture. Sandy soils have poor fertility and very (1966). Soits
Tamhane, R.V., Mottramani, D.P., Ball, Y.P. and Donahue, R.L.
lite water-hoid1ng capacity so only few crops can be grown such Pvt. LIc.
Their Chemistry and Fertility in Tropical Asia. Prentice-Hall of india
as potato, groundnuts and cucumbers. Clay soil have high fertility New Delhi.
and very high water-holding capacity. Rice, jute, sugarcane can be
grown in this soit. Silt (loam) soils have medium fertility and
water-holding capacity. They are suited to every kind of crop such
as wheat, maize, pulses, oilseeds, potato, groundnut, vegetables,
Sugarcane, fice etc.
Importance of Structure. Platy structure nomally hinders free
drainage which results in water-logging. This structure is not good
for cultivation. Whercas sphere-like structure helps in drainage and
provides optimum aeration, water-holding capacity ete. This structure
is considered best for cuitivation.
Importance of Density. Soils with low bulk density have favourable
physical conditions.
Importance of Porosity. For ideal conditions of acration, pernea
bility and water-holding capacity, a soil should have about an equal
amount of macro and micro pores.
Importance of Consistence. Optimum soiiconsistence increases the
water-holding capacity and piant food material. Thus, increasing the
fertility of soil.
Importance of Colour. Soil colour has relation with temperature,
organic matter, drainage and parent material.
Importance of Ternperature. (1) Decomposition of organic matter
(2) absorption of soii water (3) absorption of nuttients (4) seed
germination (S) plant grcwth (6) soil formation (7) physical proper
ties and (8) plant diseases.

REFERENCES
Baver. L.D. (1955). Soit Physics. John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York. Chapman
and HailI LId. London.
Buckman, H.0. and Brady, N.C. (1960). The Nature and Properties of Soils.
The Macmillan Co., New York.
 Fundumentuis ut Sod

H,PO, is adsorbed in acid as well as alkaline soil. CT and SO, ions

are adsorbed slightBy at low pH but none at neutral soil, whilc CHAITLR 7
NO, ions are not adsorbed at all.
Importance of Anion Exchange. The adsorption of phosphate ions by
Soil Reaction
clay particles from soil soBution reduces its availability to- plants.
This is known as phosphate fixation. The adsorption of phosphate Soil reaction is the most important single chemical characteristic
influencing
ions by clay particles from soil sölution reduces is availability to growth and microor
many physical and chemical properties of soil. Plantfactors associated with
plants. ganism activity depends upon soil reaction and the
OH - Clay + H,PO, H,PO, - Clay + OH it. Threc conditions possible in the soil are : acidity, neutrality and alkainity.
(Available) (Unavailable)
SOIL pH
The phosphate ions, react with the hydrous oxides and get fixed,
foming insoluble hydroxy phosphates of iron and aluminium. Soil reaction is measurod by_pH (Puissance de Hydrogen) of a suspension
to
Al(OH), + H,PO, Al(OH),. H,P0, + OH of soil in water. The concept of pH may bc explaincd with reference
ions
(Àvailabie) (Unavailable) pure water, which is amphoteric, and in which hydrogen and hydroxyB
reaction of a
are in equilibrium with undissociated water molecules. The
solution represents the degree of acidity or basicity caused by the rclative
REFERENCES
concentration (or activity) of hydrogen (H") r hydroxyl (OH) ions present
alkalinity
Bear Firnian, Editor, E. (1964). Chemist1y of the Soil. Oxford and
IBH Publishing in it. Acidity is due to the excess of H ions over OH ions, and
Co., New Delhi. is due to the excess of OH ions over H ions. A neutral reaction produced
Hall of (Fig. 7.1). According to the theory
Brady N.C. (1996). 7he Nature and Properties of Soils, 10th ed. Prentice- by an equal activity of H and OH icns
Indie, Pyt. Lid., New Delhi. of dissociation, the activity is due to the dissociation or ionisation of
Buckman, H.0. and Brady, N.C. (1974). The Nature and Properties of Soils. The compounds into ions. The greater the degree of ionisation, the greater is
Macmillan Co., New Yôrk. the activity of the ions. Even pure water which is neutral in reaction
Kelley, W.P. (1948). Carion Exchange in Soi!s. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, dissociates into Hand OH ions :
New York. H,O H+ OH
Shawarbl, M.Y. (1962). Soil Chemistry, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.
as it shows a very slight but definite conductivity.
Tamhane, R.V., Motiramani, D.P., Bali, Y.P. and Donahue, R.L. (1966). Soils
Their Chemistry and Fertilin in Tropical Asia. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi.

OH H OH

) ACID (üi) NEUTRAL (i) ALKALINE

pH-6.0 pH-7.0 pH-8.0

7.1. () At pH6 (acid), the H ions are cominant. (i) At pH 7 (neutral), the H ions and
Fig. the OHions are dominarnt
OH ions of a solution are equal, (iid At pH 8 (alkaline).
 Fundanientals of Soil TABLE 7.1 : Relationship between H and nH
the relationship between pH
The most convenicnt method of expressing
H
reciprocal (or
H* and OH is pH pH is defined as the logarithm of the
negative ogarithm) of the hydrogcn-ion concentration in gram per litre,
represented in equation form as follows : 2
1
pH = log
H)
At neutraltty, the hydrogen-iTn concentration is : 0.0000001
!x 0 grams of hydrogen per litre of solution. Substituting this concen Ix 105 5
tration into the fomula,
6
pH= log 0.0000001 7

pH= log 10,000,000= 7 (see Table 7.| and 7.2)

At a pH of 6, there is 0.00000),1 gm of active hydrogen, or 10 Ix J0-9
times
more the concentration of H than at a pH of 7. At each Ix 10-lo
smaller pH unit, 10
the H* increases by 10 in concentration. It therefore
6is 10 times more acid than a pH of. 7; a
follows that a pH of Ix 10-I
pH ofS is 10 times more acid
than a pH of 6, and so on. Ix 10-12
12
The pH value, therefore, represents the amount of lx 10-3
free or active acidity 13
and not the total quantity of potential (or
it represents the intensity of acidity of a combined) acidity. In other words, Ix 104
ranges from 0-14, where pHOrepresentssolution.
In this scale, the pH value
the highest limit of active acidity, TABLE 7.2. Relationship between pH and pOH
and pH 14 the highest degree of basicity (or
alkalinity). Neutrality
shTws a neutral reaction. When represents
pH 7 (Fg. 7.2). There fore, pH 7 pH
icss than 7, the solution is acidic; the pH is Acidity Alkalinity pOH
when it is above 7, it is alkaline.
1.0
(normaliy of H) (normality of OH)
NEUTRALITY
ACIDITY
MODERATE
0.1 0.000,000,000.000,01 14

sTRONG
MODERATE
STRONG ALKALINITY ().0| 0.000,000,000,000, 1 13
STRONG
3LIGHT
SLIGHT
4
0.001 0.000,000,000,001 12
0.000.1 0.000,000,000,0 I
0.000,0| 0.000.000.000.1
7 0.000,00I 0.000,000,001 9

0,000,000.01 0.000,000,0 8

9 0.000,000,01 0.000.0001 7

5 7 8 0.000,000.001 0.000,001
0.000,0 )
-pH RANGES FOR-MOST
9 10 !11 .12 13 14
0.000,000,000,1
MINERAL SOILS
Fig. 7.2. Ranges in pt.
12
0.0.000.000.000.00
000,000.000,01 I 0.000.!
0.001
0.01
3

0.0.0000,00.0000,00.0000,00.0000.00,0|1 0.
 Soil Reaction
Fundamentals of Soil
the pH is lowered. Thus., the pH of a water-loggcd soil will be higBh and
FACTORS CONTROLLING SOIL REACTIONS the soil will be more alkaline than when it is well-acrated.
Soil reaction varies due to following factors Under similar circumstances, a chang in the degree of oxidation of
anions. such as sulphide and sulphite to sulohate. Sulphur is usualty present
1 Nature of Soil Colloids. The colloidal particles of the soil influence
forms the as sulphide (S) under reduced conditions n poorlyacratcd suits Upun
soii reaction to a very great extent. When hydrogen (H) ion acration, it is convertcd to fully oxidised sulphate (S), ).
hich Is
nredominant adsorbed cations on clay colloids, the soil reaction becomes
available forn1 to plant. This also incrcases thc sol aciity and lowcrs i>
acid(see soil colloid chapter). pH.
2 Soil Solution. The soil solution carries a number of salts dissolved The continual use of fertilizers is respons1blc for a marked change n
with those of the
in capillary water. The cations of the salts intermingle concentration. In soil pH. Acid fertilizcrs ike ammonium suphate make the soil
acidic. while
diffuse double layer of the clay particle and increase the nitrate make it alkaline.
basic fertilizers like sodium
of the solution is more
other words, the concentration of cations in the bulk
near the particle surfaces. For a base Leaching also encourages acidity beczuse it removes the basc-forming
or less (or nearly) the sarne as that dissociating into the cations that might compete with hydrogen and aluminium on the
exchange
unsaturated soil (Ciay), the number of hydrogen ions
solution. This increases the acidity of the soil solution or lowers its pH. complex.
salts varies with the S. Microbial Action. Decomposition of organic matter produces
Under field conditions, the concentration of the higher the carbonic acid (H,CO,). The solvent actio: of carbonic acid on the mineral
solution,
moisture cóntent of the soil. The more dilute the progressively dry. constituents of the soil is responsible for he removal of large quantities of
pH value. Hence, the pH tends tò' drop_as the soil gets base-forming cations (e.g., Ca* and Mg") by dissolution and lcaching
presence of CO, in soil air. As
Soil reaction is also influenced by the Sulphuric and nitric acids are formed by the organic decay prucesses
soil pH falls. This principle of
the CO, concentration increases, the also used in the reclamation and by microbia! action on inorganic sulphur and nitrogen-containing
is
increasing the concentration of CO, in soil air materials (ammonium nitrate and anmonium sulphate). These acids encour
of alkali soils. Under field conditions,
plant roots and microorganism agc acidic conditions in the soil.
liberate enough CO,. 6. Formation of Sulphuric and Nitric Acids in the Atnosphere.
important role in determining the reaction Industrial complexes emittcd sulphuric and nitric acids from the combustion
3. Climate. Rainfall plays an regions of high rainfall are acidic (low of coal, gasolinc etc. The precipitation of these substances is called "acid
of its soil. In general, soil formed in of löw rainfall are alkaline (high
regions rain'". The pH value of acid rain may range from 2.0 to 4.5. The hydrogen
pH value), while those formed in
pH value). See Acidic soil and Sodic
soil. ions added to the soil are not sufficient to change the pH immediately but
operations in generaltend to increase over a long period of time the continuous addition of hydrogen ions may
4, Soil Management. Cultural more acidic, and an alkaline soil less have a significant aciditying effect.
soil acidity. They make an acid soil basic elements are lost from
alkaline. As a result of constant cultivation, IELUENCE OF SOIL REACT:ON ON AVALABILITY
the soil through leaching and crop removal. OF NUTRIENTS
reaction is the state of oxidation or
Another factor that controls soil
present in the soil change their The main cffec: of soil rcaction iS on the ailabilty of pBant utICts
reduction. The ions of cetain substance conditions prevailing in
reducing
Vaiency depending upon the oxidising or their valency with the change in
the soil. The unproductiveness of acidat dalkili sods s eIy wten duc to
the lack of available plant nutrients In heh acd : ton i t
ions change
ue so1. Iron and manganese
conditions these ions are present in the
oxid1sed availabilitv of Some of the nutrieni such uHuh to! :ta
äeration, Under aerobic
(Fe*) and maganic (Mn") ions. ctc., is incrcascd to a pont when thev bevome toxe lo the ol. t le
State having a higher valency as ferric available to plant. Under conditions saine time the supplics of available calcium, nirogen, phu0splous etc.. afe
Ihese ferric and maganic ions forms are
valencies are reduced to reduced to starvation level (become unavailable). The samc is the case at
of reducced aeration as in water-logged soils. their high pH (alkaline condition), plant growth suffers due to the unavailabity
terrous (Fe*) and manganous (Mn* states. This brings about a change in
it
pH also y reducing the valency the pH is increased, and by increasing
 Fundamentals of Soi! Soil Reaction

e.g., iron, trivalent PO, ions are present in extremely Smalt quant1ty. At pH
some minor elemcnts
nitrogen, phsphorus and
of nutient: like and above, PO, is available to plants.
phospha
Another thdueet efte: occurs
through the activity of
microorgan1sns.
The ionic Iom has a large influencc on the availability of
range 6.0 to 7.5. If be more availakl
\1oNt CidOgaNs ncuon a! their best within a pH
tT plants. The H,P0, and HPO, 1ons are considered to
microorganisms becomc these
Ol c l is changcd bevond this range, the
some of the essential plant tnan PO, ions. Thus, plants depend tor their phosphorus requirement on
of
tuncttontess (onvOuentiv, he suppiy neutraity
reduced [wo ionic forms to a much greater exicnt than PO, ions, H,PO, at
t C trecen is coMisiderably
nitrogen in the form of nitrate andbclow (acid range). and HPO, at neutrality and above (alkaline range).
i Nitrogen. Plant absorbs most of their
nitrifying bacteria. The
whose availab1lity depends on the activity of most active when the pH In the pH range 6.0 to 7.0, phosphate-fixation is very slight. Conse
nitrification are
miCroorgan1sms rcsponsibie for
if the pH falls below quently at the pH range phosphorus availability is highest. At this pH range
is betwcen 6.5 and7.5, They are adversely affected only 20-30% phosphorus is actually assimilated by the growing plant, if
$5 and grcater than 9.0 (Fig. 7.3).
soluble phosphorus is added in the soil as fertilizer. It is believed that the
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (like Azatobactor) also fails to function below presence of calcium hinders the absorption of phosphate by plant.
pH 6.0. The decomposition of organic matter which is the primary source
of nitrogen aiso slows down under acidic condition. In acidsoil (low pH), phosphorus becomes available by anion exchange.
Part of the phosphate which has reacted with iron and aluminium
2. Phosphorus. Its availability is at its highest when the reaction is compounds is subject to replacement by other anions, such as the hydroxyl
between 6.5 and 7.5. When the reaction is above or below this range, ion (OH). Such replacement is called anion exchange. It is
avatlab:ity is recluced. !n the strongly acidic soil (pH 5.0 or less), iron, the reverse
aumintun:. niangancsc and other bases are present in a soluble state and in rcaction of phosphate fixation in acid soil given above
more quantty The phosphate ions react with these bases (iron, aluminium Ai (OH),. H,PO, +OH AI (OH)), + H,PO,
cte ) and Insoluble hosphates of these elements are formed and become (Insoluble)
hav3ilable Ixanple (Soluble)
(One anion (OH) has been exchanged for
another
Ai 1PO, 211,02H' + Al (OH; H,PO, (1,PO, become available after liming in the acid (H,PO). Phosphorus
(Solubte) (lnsoluble) soil.
3. Potassium. Thc
Thc plhosphates rcact wth hydratcd oxides of iron and aluminium and reaçtion to any great availability of potassium does not
influencc by soil
form insolubie hydroxy-phosphates of iron and aluminium. Unavailability The unavailability ofextent. In.acid soil
K is duc to thepotassium lost through leaching.
is
of phosphous is calied phosphorus-fxation.
non-cxchangeable potassium. conversion of exchangeable to
Fexation of phosphete takes place cven when the soil is alkaline (high In alkaline soil,
brought about by overparticularly
ni) Phosphate ion combines with calcium ion and calcium (or magnesium) if the alkalinity is due to
catbonates and form insoluble calcium (or magnesium) phosphate. The liming in acid soil), the solubility of soil CaCO; (or is
is depressed (results in
1eactson is as follows :
4. Calcium and non-availability). potassium
i Ca (HPO), + 2Ca*" Ca, (PO,), + 4H* Magnesium.
available calciumn and magnesium. Acid soils (base
unsaturated) are poor in
(Sodublt) (Mdsorbed) (lasoluble) In alkaline
t ) Ca tH,PO.); +2CaCO,
soil_(pH not excecding 8.5)
nutrients always high. When the pH is above availability of Ca and Mg
Ca, (PO;), +2C0, +2H,0
-(InsoBuble) nutrients again decrcascs. 8.5, the availabi!ity of these
i be avaiabiiity of phosphorus at diffcrent pH is linked w:th the ionic S. Iron,
torm in whch :s present in soil solution. The monovalent H,PO, ions
Aluminium and Manganese. When the pH is
solubility of iron, aluminium and manganese compounds is low.. the
prcdonwiale i) highly ac:d (at pH 4.0-5.0) solutions. With decreasing hence, they are readily' available in acid soils. At the pH increased, and
acidty. the divalent HPO ions bcgin to appear. In alkaline soil the iron and manganese are present in
the
range 5:S to 7.0.
(Mn*) forms. At pH below 5.5, thesoluble ferrous (Fe) and manganous
solubility of these compounds is
 Sol Reaction
considerably 1ncrcased with the result that they have a toxic influence on progressively decreases as
7.3) The availability of boron, copper and zinc
nlant growth (Fig. also decieases under highly acid
NEUTRAL the soil pH increases. Their availability
condition when the pH is below 5.0.
ACIDIC eALALINE insoluble zinc salts (calc1um
Zinc availability in alkaline soils from copper adsorbed on the clay
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 availability, zinc and
pH 45
zincate) which reducesits plant
and hence, not available for
colloids and are not casily displaced
growth.
soiis. it s morc
moiybdenum, is reduced under acid
The availability of soils.
availabie in neutta! and alkaiinc

Plant Growth and Soil Reaction

moderate ac1dity.
plants can toleratc slight to
A large proportio. of crop but very few are able to toierate
slightly alkalinc soils,
a few can tolerate There are some plants that require
moderately alkaline soil' conditjons.agricultural value fail to grow and die
but all plants of
strongly acid soils, pH secms to be
The prcference of plants for soil
in strongly alkalime soils. system prescnt in the cell sap.
linked with the type of buffering
Byfering and SoilReaction
resistance to a change in pH. lf
Buffer Action. Buffering refers to water of pH
to onc litre of pure distilled
I ml HCI (of 0.01 N) is added of about 5.0. If on the other
havc a pH
70. the resulting solution would added to a litre of sotl suspens1on the
hand, this sane amount of acid is rcststanc
snall. Thcrc is, u distinct
resultng change in pH would bc very buffer
to res1st a change in pl| is called
BEST pH FOR'MOST CROPs to #change in pH. This power
alkai1n1ty
contains reserve acidity and
availability of piant nutiients action. A buffer solution is one whichadditions of acids or alkalies
between soil pH and the relative and does not change pH with small
Fig. 7.3. The relationship the greater the availability of nutrients
The wider the bar, acts as a powerful buffer
usually Buffer Capacity. The colloidal complcx thus
conditions, iron and manganese arc rapid and sudden changes in sol reaction
Under neutral and alkaline in soils with in the soil and does not allow
maganic (Mn**) states. Hence, Buffering depends upon the amount of colloidal material present in sol
present in ferric (Fc***) and and sometimes produce buffered than
become unavailable Clay soils and soils rich in organic matter are more highly
pH 7.5 and above, they exchange
deficiency diseases like chloros0s in plants. affected by soil reaction sandy soils. Buffer capacity of the soil varies ´with its cation buffer
availability of sulphur is not (C.E.C.), the greater the C.E.C. the grcater wil! be its
6. Suiphur. The soluble in the whole pH range. Howevcr, it is capacity matter content
as suBphur compounds arc lost in leaching. Acid conditions which retard capacity. Thus, heavier the texturc and the greater the organic
material required 19
more soluhle in acid soil and matter, therefore, retard the
release of of a soil, the grcater the amount of acid or alkaline
the decomposition of otganic sulphur present in organic matter change its pH.
available sulphur. The availability of
depends upon the decomposition of organic matter. Importance of Buffering to Agriculture. Changes in soil reaction (pH)
of
general, the.avajlability of boron, copper and have a dircct influence on the plants and it also affects the avalab1lity
7. Micronutrients, In and that of molybdenum in acid
soi!s. o otters !!
soils plant nutrients. Deficiency of certain plant nutrients and cXcess
Zinc is reduced i alkaline baiance in iN
toxIC amounts would seriously upset the nutritiona
 Iundanentals ot Sott
KEY POINTS
pB, so t regulates
fs.teng pevents Ndden h. nyes and tuctuations n sol possible in the soil
t avariatnlity of utnents ani a so checks, direct toxic cftect to plants. Soil Reaction. Three conditions arc: 1. acidity,
Butfer tends to assure reasonable stability in the soil p} and prevents 2. neutrality and 3. alkalinity. ay:
drastic tuctuattons that might be detuimental to microorganism and plants. Soll pH. It represents concentration or activity of hydrogen ion
Butter also intuences the anr ount of chemicals, such as lime application in expresses the relationship bctwecn H and OH. Acidity is due to excee
of OH ions over H ions. A neutral rcaction is produced by an coual
sOL REACTION AND PLANT GROWTH activity of H and OH ions. In the pH scalc, the pH value ranges fron
0-14, where pH, O represents the highest limit of active acidity and
Aost o! the plants can grow on sois with a wide range of pH. However, pH 14 thc highest dogree of alkalinity. Ncutral represents pH 7,
rlanin have preterence for u spec1tic range of soil pH (Table 7.3). Soil Factors Controlling Soil Reactions. (1) Nature of soil colloids
icaCion inH) and plant growth are interrelated. It increases or decreases (2) Soil (3) Climate (4) Soil management (5) Microbial action
the avarlab:lity of nutinent elements. For example, in acid soil (low plH)the (6) Formation of sulphuric and nitric acids in the atmosphere.
omenatton of Ai'*. Fe*" or Mn' increases to the toxic level. High pH Influence of Soil Reaction on Availability of Nutrients. (1)Nitrogen
1alhaliN so) generally lowers vaiabBity of all nutrient clements caccpt
2 t n u m and h0fon Availabtlity. Ntrification is highest where the pH is between 6.5 to 75
It is adversely affected if the pH falls below 5.5 and is greater than 90
TABLE 7.3: Soil reaction (pl) preference of crop plans (2) Phosphorus Availabil1ty. Its availability is highest when pB is
Opimun pH range betwcen 6.5 to 7.5. Fixation of P takes place in strongly acid soil:
AI** + H,PO, +2H,0 2H' +Al(OH), . H,PO,
Rice (soluble) (insoluble)
4.0-6.0
Wheat 6.0-7.5 Fixation of P takes place even when the soil is alkaline or high pH :
Maize 6.0-7.5 Ca (H,PO), + 2Ca** Ca, (PO4), + 4H"
(soluble) (insoluble)
Millets S.0-6.5
(3) Potassium. In acid soil, K is lost through leaching whereas in
Bartey 6.0-7.5
alkaline soil, solubility ofK is depressed results in non-availability
S.0-7.5 (4)Calcium and Magnesium. Acid soils are poor in available Ca and
Mg where as Ca and Mg are available in
alkaline soil.
5.3-6.5 (5) Iron, Aluminium and Manganese. VWhen the pH is
solubility of iron, aluminium and manganese compounds is low, the
5.5-70
Under ncutral and alkaline conditions, Fe and Mn arc usually increasSco.
i.cnsl. sram tc S.5-70
(6) Sulphur. The availability of S is not affectcd by ava1labie.
Sovabar 5.5-7.0 Is more soluble in acid soil soil reaction. t
and lost in lcaching.
iBcrseei9 6.0-7.5 (7) Micronutrients. In general, the
availability of boron, coppet nd
zinc is reduced in alkaline soil and that
(Other field crops of molybdenum in acid sollS.
Potalo 5.0-5.5
Buffering añd Soil Reaction
Buffering refers to resistance to a
5.0-6.5
complex thus acts asa powerful buffer change in pH. The colloidai
in the soil. Buffering regulalen
Sugarcane 6.0-7.5 the availability of plant
Tca 4.0-6.0 Soil Reaction and Plant nutrients.
Growth. Soil reaction (pH) and plant
growth are interrelated. It incrcases
"Acd Sois of lnd1a and Limirg, Tech Bul1. (Agric.) ICAR, S1 :81, 1975. or decreases the availabil1ty o
nutrient elements.
 Eudarttatsof Sol
REFERENCES
(HAPR
#s Kirm#8, Editos... (1964). Chemsiv of ihr Stnl Oxford and 3 Pubishmg
Acid Soil
Bsady N.C, (1985). he Nnoe and Prnperie of Sols Furasia Publnhing Houw
(P)Ltd. New Detht
Mehieh, A. (1941), Base Unsaturatiun and pH Relation to Sol pe So! S Sog
adsorbed
sol which has got enough of
Acid Moil is a base unsaturated of lower thn
MIlar, CE (19$8), Soil Fertilty John Wiley und Sons, New York exchangcable hydrogen ioos (1)s0o that to give soil s pH
Shawarbi, M.Y. (1962). Soil Chemistory Chapman and Hal! Lid., London 7.0. enough
Tamhahe. R.V., Motiramanl, D.P., Bl, Y.P. nnd Donahue, R.L.. (1966). Soil regions where precipitation is high catioHA
Soil acidity is conmon in all base-forming
Their Chemistey and Fertiliny in Tropteal Asta. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. LId. quantities of exchangeable
to leach appreciable soils. The condition
New Delhi.
(calcun, nagnesium cte.) from tlhe soil layers of the
pronounced on plants
Is widesprcad and influence is unavailable and
of the plant nutrients become
In acid soils, most
affected
consequcntly plant growti is
(CLASSIFICATION OF SOM. ACíDIT)
VATURE OFSOL ACIDITY
presence of 0ns
soil acidty accodng to the
Iherc ure three tvpes of
present in sojl solutioH and
)Active Acidity. H ons reman fheely
produce limited acidity
sol solutto1
of the H iOn acivity in ihe
Te active acidity Is a measure acidity
quantity of H ions owing to active
at any given tmc, However, the
the cxchange and residual acidity
Is very small compared to the quantity inof liydrogen ions owing to acttve
forms. Even though the concentration
because this is the environment
acidity is extremely small, it is important
exposed.
to which plants and microbes arc
hydrogen
t) Exchangeable Acidity. In very acidic sols,cxchangeable
quantity of easily
and aluminumions are prescnt in large quantities, But the
exchangeable iydrogcn and alumnun ons are in quite leSs quantity n
k

A|

Collord + 4 KCI Collod + AIC;+ HCT

H* K
K
(Soil Solid) (Soil Solution) (Soil Solid) (Soi! Solution

moderately acid soils. In this type of acidity higher amount of limestone ts

required to ncutralise the acid soil in comparison to active acidity.
 Acid Soil
Yundamer:tals of Sorl
36
AcidSulphate Soils. In case of acid sulphatc soils (pH lessas than
sulnbun
is that which remains in the acidic substances, such
ft:) Residusl Acidity. Residua acId1tv the acidity is due to cissolved or free
so after active and evchangabie aclity
neutralised. Residua
has been acid, ferriC and aluminium sulphate. The sulphuric acid is produced hu:
acdty is generally aNsoctated with aiuminium hydroxy ions and with oxjdation of sulphur and sulphide. Acid sulphate soils occur in some of the
are found in non-exchangeable forms
hydrogen und aluminium atorsthat
residual acidity Ts Commonly far lowlying areas of Kerala.
by organc matter and s:hcate CTay The
greater than either active or exchangeable acidity. Limestone requirement DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATION OF ACID SOLS
ts verr hgh (i000 to 00,000 tmes greater than active and exchangcablc AcId soils are formed under natural conditions as well as artificially by the
acatitv) to neutralise the rescual adity n the sol.
continuous use of acid-foming fertilizers. Following reasons may cause sou!
Sources ef Hydrogen lons acidity
Soil acidity is caused by gnisable hydrogen ions. Exchangeable I. Leaching due to Heavy Rainfall. The magnitude of leaching is the
hydrogen ions (which alongwith other Stch cations) are present in the soil main factor for the development of acid soil. The rainfall carries lime and
to neutralise the negative charge arising from isomorphous substitution. other bases (Ca*, Mgt etc.) downward beyond the reach of plant roots.
They are dispiaceable by any cation which is added in fairly high When all the soluble bases are lost, the H ions of the carbonic andother
conccntration.
acids developed in the soil replace the basic cations of the colloidal complex.
Moderately Acid Soils. The exçhangeable hydrogen igns are main As the soil gets gadually depleted of its exchangeable bases through
sources of bydrogen ions in moderatelyacid spil (pH value between 5.0 constant leaching, it gets desaturated and becomes increasingly acid. Thus,
and 65). Moderately acid scil have higher percentage of base saturation the regions having an annual rainfall of 100 cm (40 inches) or more (humid
(Ca", Mg* etc.) than the strongly acid soils. The aluminium can no longer region) have a high percentage of acid soils.
CXiSt as ions but is converted to aluminium hydroxy ions (as shown in
reaction). CO, +H,0=H,C0, (Carbonic acid)
AI**+ OH Al(OH)* H,CO, +CaCO, =Ca(HCO3), Leachable
2. Microbiological Action. Several
many processes such as decomposition ofmicroorganisms
Al(OH)** +OH ’ Al(OH); are responsible for
Aluminium hydroay ions organic residues and nitrification.
As a result of microbial activity, acids are constantly being
acids are not neutral:sed by bases (Ca*, Mg* etc.) then formed. these
in the sonl solution, alunnnium hydroxy ions poduce hydrogen ions by the If
hydrolyS:s feaction cause the soil
solution to be acid.
Al(OH)'*+H,) ’ A(OH), +H' 3. Origin of Acid from Acid Parent Rock
Al(OH)}* +H,0 ’ Al(OH), + H* have developed from parent rock materials whichMaterial. Some acid soils
are of acid nature such
as granite. Here also, the leaching effect is
4. Removal of Bases by Crops. Some predominating
Strongly Acid Soils. Aluninium becomes soluable at very acid soil in creating acidity.
conditions (pH less than 5.0). Aluminium is either tightly found by organic crops like sugarbeet
matter or is present in the form of aluminium or aluminium hydroxy cations. from the soil. Due to removal of bases from the soil, acid absorb bases
5. Continuous Application of
soils develop.
These exchangeable ions are adsorbed by the negatively charged soil Acid-Forming Fertilizers. The use of
colloids. The adsorbed alum:nium ions are in equilibrium with aluminium ammonium sulphate and ammoniumn nitrate increase soil acidity. When
ions in the soil soiution. nitrogenous fertilizers of ammonical nature added to soil, they are nitrified
and nitric acid is liberated. The acid so developed reacts with calcium and
Collotd]A"
Adsorbed aluminium
Altt* other bases to fornm calcium and other nitrates. Being soluble, they
removed by crops or lost in drainage. At the same time, a partareofeither
Aluminium ion
in soil coiicid in soil solution
the
in the soil solution, aiuminium ions produce hydrogen ions by
the following NH, ions are adsorbed by the soil colloidal material. The
hydrolysis reaction so adsorbed replace calcium and other cations, ammonium ions
Al + H,0 - ’ A(OH)** + H* The ammonium ions of the colloidal material getwhich are leached down.
nitrified and form niric
acid. The residual anions give rise to acids like sulphuric
The H ions lower the pil value of the and hydrochloric
soil solution. which further deplete the soil solution and the colloidal complex of their
 Acid Soil
bases. On these accounts, Fundamentals of Soil
the clay gets
IRCrCASes and the soil desaturated, H ion
pH is lowered. The
concentration
or with CO, to form
unstabie H,CO,,
CO,. The reaction is given below : which is readily changed to H) and
expressed as under: reactions involved may be
H* HH*
NH4*
Colloid + (NH4)2 SO4 -’ H*
Colloid H+ H20+Ca(OH)2
Colioid + CaSOa lime
NHA Calciun H H H
Neutral soii Ammoniun suiphate suiphate Acid sc1l
NHA* (Leachabie)
H Ca* Ca'
Nitrification H0 + Ca" Collord
{iu)
Colloid+302 Colloid + 2HNO: Mg** K´ Ca*
Nitic acid
Neutra! soil
NH H* (2} Úse of Basic Fertilizer. Use of basic fertilizers like sodium nirate.
Anmonium ions Acid soil basic slag etc. reduces the acidity in soils.
EFFECTS OF SOIL ACIDITY ON PLANTS (3) Soil and Water Managenment. Proper soil and water management
checks leaching of bases and enhances decomposition of organic matter.
The effects of soil acidity may be direct or indirect. (4)Growing of Acid Tolerant Crops. In acid soils, acid tolerant crops
shouid be grown. Choice of crops may be done according to soil pH. Crops
Direct EfTects. (a) Toxic effect of H ions on root tissues; (b) infuence can be divided into following groups :
of soil acidity on the permeability of the plant membranes for cations, and (a) Highly acid tolerant crops : Rice, potato, sweet potato, oat, castor,
(c)disturbance in the balance between basic and acidic constituents through Echinochlua, Paspalum ctc.
the roots.
(6) Moderately acid tolerant crops: Barley, wheat. maize. turn1p.
Indirect Effects. (a) Adverse effects on the availability of various bnngal etc.
nutrients t.e., phosphorus, copper, zinc etc., (see for detaiis in the soil (¢) SlightBy acid tolerant crops : Tomato, carrot, red clover cte
reaction chapter; influence of soil rcaction on availability of nutrients). Liming Materials. The conmmon liming materials are
(b) High solubility and availability of elements like aluminium, manganese 1. Limestone (CaCO,)
influence of soil
and iron in toxic amount due to high soil acidity (see 2. Quick lime (CaO)
rcaction on availability of nutrients under soil reaction chapter). (c) Beneficial
affected. These activities are 3. Hydrated (Slaked) lime (Ca (OH),)
activities of soil microorganisms adversely
nitrification (ii) nitrogen-fixation 4. Dolomitic limestone (CaMg (CO,)>]
() decomposition of organic matter (ii)
() prevalence of plant diseases. S. Blast furnace slag (CaSiO),
6. Misccllaneous sources, such as wood ash, ground oyster shell cte
RECLAMATION OF ACIDIC SOILS
Lime Requirement (Laboratory Method)
The acid soil can be managed in the following ways For rcasonable crop production on a acid1c soid. pH range from o.0-7)
() Addition of Liming Material.
Soil acidity is the resuit of the sCOnsidcred gy0d. he amount of imc required to he ttded to
acc sef
OH i0ns. The bulk of H adesired yalue is known lle eoBent h btt
uccumlation of a predominance of H ions over io raise the pH i0
coBloidal complex. Whcn lime method is used for determny m: ivgurement. nthis icht
the
ons arc held in close association with ons.
solution becomes charged with calcium
iS added to moist soil, thc soil with hydrogen ions in the
place
These active (a-ions exchange take with OH-ions to form neutral water
combines
exchange complex. Hydrogen
 TABLE 8.2: Dose of Limestone for Different Soil Texture Classes
IFeld Method)
the pH of the suspension
added s stirred contuousiy for l0 minutes and
Nteterined Lime requirement in tems of pure Calçium Carbonatc can Soit pH Pouds of Limestone keqiarCd per acre of duferen: .
McLean E 0 and Partt textural classes
be scen trom a table (Sourçe Shoemaker, HE,
soils with
p (196)) Buffer method for determining Iime requirement of Sandy loam Loam Clay ioam
appreciable amount of extracted aluminium (Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 25.
1.125 I,687 2,625
274)
TABLE 8.1 :Lime Requirement for Acidic Soils 5.2 975 i,462 2,275
Lime required io bring pH down lo indicated 5.4 825 1,237 1,923
pH of soil-buffer suspension
(sotl ta®en fron the field) level (Calcium Carbonale) in tonnes per acre 675 1,012 1,575
S.6
pH 60 pH 6.4 plH 6 8
$.8 S25 787 1,225
67 10 12 |4
6.0 375 562 885
6.6 I.4
6.2 225 337 $25
6.5 I8 22 25
6 4 23 2.7 31 Method of Applying Lime
63 27 32
Ihe most efficient way to use Ime is t0 apply small amounts every
31 37 41 vcar or alternate, but this Iiming progra1me increases the cost of
6! 35 42 48 application Limc can bc applied at any stage in the cropping system, but
6 0 3.9 47 S4 notmally it is applied one or two months before the sowing of crop.
5.9 4.4 S.2 60 It is desirable that newly spread lime be well-mixed with the whole
S.8 4.8 S.7 65
plough layer. When exCessively large amounts of lime are applied to sandy
soiis low in humus, injury to plant growth sonmetimes occurs due to boron,
5.7 5.2 6.2 71 ron. mangancse, copper, zine etgOverliming injury may be reduced by
5.6 5.6 6.7 7.7 application of large anount of compost, farm yard manure, phosphorus,
boron ctc
SS 6.0 7.2 8.3
54 6.5 7.7 89 Efficiency of Limning Material
S.3 6.9 8.2 9.4 The efficiency depends on the following
52 74 84 100
(u) Chentical Composition. Oxides and hydroxides are the best as it
dissolvcs inmediatelv upon coming n contact with water.
7.8 9.1 106
(h) Finencss. The fine materials arc quicker in
96
\ hat Lime docs in the Soil
correcting sotl ph.
The man cffect of limc on acid so1}S
8.6 T8

48 91 10.6 124 Lime makes phosphorus more

avaitable.
ne inCrcases the availab1lity of nirogen, as increase in nitrification
Lime Requirement (Field Method) and nitrogen-fixation.
3. Organic matter
The actual dose of liming matcrial is least fixed from field trials on decomposition increases.
4. Lime makes potassium more
Ining and crop response. In a icld trial, on different soil textures, Iime efficient in plant nutrition.
equrenient has been determincd (Sce Table 8.I and 8.2). 5. Bencficial soil
bacteria are cncouraged.
 Fundamntals of Sil Ac1d Soil
iarnful aiuminium and manganese and iron are rendered insciuble
dharniess when a soil is well supplicd with !ime Characteristics. Acid suipt.ate soils are usually clay. Ihe organic
ca bon content varies fron I.5 to i8%. The cation cxchange capacity IS
1 Calcium and magnesium becomc avarlablc. :0-25 meq'100 gm. Availabie nitrogen and phosphorus are low There may
. Flocculating power of soil incrcases be toxicity of iron, aluminium, H,S in these soils These soils when
9. Improves the physical condition of thc soil. submerged, are nearly neutral in reaction but when these are drained and
10, Checks soil erosion. dried they become extremely acidic and letha! to crop plants.
Reclamation. These soils can be managed for growing of crops.
11. Fertilizer effectiveness increases. is
Reclamation measures depend on the degree of water control. If water
12. Plant diseases favoured by acid soil decrease. are kept continuously flooded or saturated to prevent
available, the soils
and leached
Crop Response to Lime The use of lime on acid soil increases the acidification. Where that is not possible, the soils are drained
are then limed, fertilised with
yield of m
ost crops. ILégumes greatly and sugarcane appreciably respond to to remove the acid materials. The soils
lime application. Lime application substantially increased the yield of maize. nitrogen,. phosphorus and crops grown in the wet season.
wheat, gram, soyabean and groundnut. The response to liming on jowar,
also KEY POINTS
moong, arhar, masoor, marua, cotton, barley, linsced and mustard was
has got enough
eicouraging. Acid Soil. Acid soil is a base unsaturated soil which
hydrogen ions so that to give soil a pi
Extent of the Problem. The acid soils in india are located in Kerala. of adsorbed exchangeable
Orissa.
Assam, Manipur, Tripura, some districts of West Bengal, Bihar and
of lower then 7.0.
ionisable
tarai arca
In Bihar, acid soils arc found in Chhotanagpur, Singhbum,Bihar Source of Hydrogen lons. Soil acidity is caused by soil.
acd
of north Bihar, north-cast area of Purnea and uplands of south hydrogen ions. The sources of H ions in Moderately
Strongly acid soils and Acid sulphate suils.
ACID SULPHATE SOLS
They have a pH which is less Nature of Soil Acidity. (1 ) Active acidity (H remain freely present
Acid sulphate soils are cxtremely ucid soils.
cm) of the profile. The acidity is in soil solution) (2) Exchangeable acidity and (3) Residual acidity.
than 4.0 in some layer (in the upper 50 aluminium suiphates. They Development and Formation of Acid Soils. (1) leaching due to
sulphuric acid and iron and
due to presence of pyrites and poor in bases. Suiphur heavy rainfall (2) microbiological action (3) acid parent rock material
are derived from marine sediments high inrcactions are as follows (4) removal of bases by crops (5) application of acid-forming
oxidation is an acidifying process. The fertilizer (reacton given below) :
Odaion
2S + 30, + 2H,0 H,SO, NH4
(Eleental sulphur) (Sulphuncacid:
O*nlaton () CaaColloid +(NH4)2 SO4 -’ Colloid CaSO4
H,SO, (Ammunium
H,S 20, sulphate)
NH4 sulpate
(1Hydr ogen sulphide) Ncuttal so! (Ammonum iechahie
suiphates (S0,) n the water are
During the subnerged period.
they are stab1l1sed generally as
reduced to sulphides (S), in whch form are drained, the suiphides or NH4 H*
areas
iron sulphides (FeS). When these sulphuric acid. The soit pH may
Nitrification
Colloid + 2HNO
clemental sulphur (S) are oxidised forming condition). Obviously plant
(ii) Colloid + 302
drop to level as low as 1or 2 (highly acidic
conditions. Sizeabie areas of these kinds NH4 H* (Acid soil)
growth cannot occur under these
of soils, called cat-clays, are found in
south-cast Asie.
taken up by plants). Effects of Soit Acidity on Plants. (1) Toxic effect of Hon root
Most soils will retain sulphate (this is the formSulphate or acid sulphate tissucs (2) effect on permeability of plant membrane (3) adverse
The mechanism of adsorbing sulphate, is simple.
(A!). effect on the availability of nutrients ie.. P, Cu, Zn ete. (4) Al, Mn
ions replace hydroxyl (OH) held by aluminium ions
 Acd Soil
REFERENCES
activities of soil
avalable in tUC amount (5)
ant fe Properiies of Soits. 10th Edition, Prentice-Hall
merOrganism atversely atleted. The Naiure and
Management. () addition of lime
Brady, N.C. (1996).
Ltd, New Delhi.
Reciama tion of Acid Soits o of India Pvt
(1960). The Nature and
Properies of So:ts
(RCæOn given below) Buckman, H.0. and Brady, N.C.York.
Macmillan Company, New
H Mukherjee, S.K. (1961). Limung n c
Chakraborty, M., Chakravarti, B. and indian Soc Soil Sci., New Delhi
+H}0 + Ca(OH): Production in India Bull. No. 7,
Collotd Sulekha Press, Bhagalpur, Bihar, India.
(Lime) Jha, J. (1961). Problem Soils. N.H. (1955). Lime Requirement of an
H* Mandal, S.C., Das, S.K. and Mukherjee,
Soil Sci. 3(1).
Acid Sandy Soil. J Ind. Soc.
(1975). Acid Soils of India and Lim:ng
Mandal, S.C.. Sinha, M.K. and Sinha, H.
Ca Ca*
ICAR Tech. Bull. S1.
plant growth on acid soiis.
H:0 + Colloid
Ram, A. and Verma, U.K. (1962). A review on
Mg* K* Allahabad Farmer, XXXVI(4).
method for
(Neutral soil) Shoemaker, H.E., McLean, E.O. and Part., P.F. (1961), Buffer
determining lime requirement of soiis with appreciable amount of extracted
(2) Use of basic ferilizer, eg, sodium nitrate (3) soil and water aluminium. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., 25, 274.
management (4) growing of acid tolerant crop, e.g., ice, potato, Tamhane, R.V, Motiramanl, D.P., Ball, Y.P. and Donahue, RL. (1966). Soils
bariey. wheat etc. Their Chemistry and Fertility in Tropical Asia. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
Lime Requirement. (a) Laboratory and (b) field method. New Delhi.

Methods of Applying Lime. Lime should be applied one or two

months before the sowing of crop. Lime should be well-mixed in
the soi
Efficiency of Liming Material. (a) Chemical composition, e.g,
OAIGeS OF hydroxides (b) fineness of liming material.
Effect of Lime on Acid Soil. (1) Lime makes P more available
(2 ncreases avatlab:lity of N, K, Ca, Mg etc. (5) encourages the
act: ties of soi! microorganism (4) renders Al, Fe and Mn insoluble
and harmiess (5) increases flozculation (6) improves physical condition
of soit (7) checks soil erosion (8) increases fertilizer effectiveness
(9) decreases piant diseases.
Acid Suiphate Soils. These scils are extremely acid soils (pH below
4.0). The acidity is due to the presence of sulphuric acid and iron
and aluminiun suiphates.
Management of Acid Suiphate Soil. When submerged. these soils
are near!y neutral in reaction. in order to keep these soils normal the
soils are kept flooded or saturated. Liming of soils are also effeçtive
in keeping soil norma!.