MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF
DENTAL MATERIALS
Dr. Fatema Haji
MDS II
introduction
In the oral environment, restorative materials and dental appliances are exposed to
chemical, thermal and mechanical challenges.
These challenges can lead to deformation of materials.
The mechanical properties of a material define how materials respond to
mechanical challenges.
Therefore it is necessary to understand the principles involved in a variety of
mechanical properties to optimise the clinical service of a material.
Mechanical properties are measured responses, both elastic (reversible on force
removal) and plastic (irreversible on force removal), of materials under an
applied force or distribution of forces.
Dr. Fatema Haji
force
Force is generated through one body pushing or pulling on
another. (eg. Clasp in an RPD)
Forces may be applied through actual contact of the bodies or
at a distance (e.g.,gravity).
The result of an applied force on a body is a change in position
of rest or motion of the body, or it causes the body to deform or
change its shape.

A force is defined by 3 characteristics:

Point of application Magnitude Direction of application

SI Unit = newton (n) Dr. Fatema Haji

Occlusal forces Maximum occlusal forces: 200 to 3500 N.

200 N 150 N 300 N

400 - 800 N

Increase in force from 235 to 494 N occurs in growing children, with an average yearly increase the order of 22 N.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 250 N (40%) 40 -100 N (15%) 65 - 235 N

inical!
Cl
The distribution of force between the first bicuspid, second bicuspid, and the first molar of a complete denture is about 15%, 30%, and 55%
of normal, respectively.
A patient wearing a complete denture therefore may facilitate the chewing of tough foods by increasing the force or the number of chewing
thrusts or by shifting the food to the small bicuspids, where the stress is greater.
Because the range of force application is small, shifting the food forward would be a better solution.

STRESS FORCE
Stress is the internal resistance of a material to an external load applied on that
STRESS =
AREA
material.
Unit of stress = MPa (Megapascals)
Dr. Fatema Haji
A force can be directed to a body from any Tension results in a body when it is subjected to two
angle or direction, and often several forces are sets of forces directed away from each other in the
combined to develop complex stresses in a same straight line. eg. weight hanging from the
structure. ceiling suspended by a metal wire.
In fixed prosthodontics, sticky candy may sometimes
be used to remove crowns by the means of tensile
force when the patient tries to open the mouth after
the crown has mechanically bonded to the candy.

Compression results when the body is

subjected to two sets of forces directed
toward each other in the same straight line.
eg. Chewing a bolus of food - compressive
load and compressive stress in both upper
and lower teeth.

Debonding may occur by shear-stress failure of

the bonding cement.
Shear is the result of two sets of forces directed
It can also be achieved by twisting the bracket
parallel to each other.
with orthodontic pliers.
Torsion results from the twisting of a body. This mode of action is called torsion, where the
Bending results from an applied bending pliers function as a lever. The action is torque that
moment. debonds the bracket.
Dr. Fatema Haji
Clinical! combined stresses
In 3 unit FPD’s there is a combination of stresses that acts on
the bridge.
As the patient chews, the masticatory load causes the pontic
to bend towards the tissue even though the change is not
visibly detectable. Here the pontic becomes concave
(contracts) and the tissue side becomes convex (stretches).
Therefore, occlusally : compression and tension: tissue
side. Both stresses concentrate on the connector because of
the smaller cross section area than the pontic.
In case of canteliver FPD’s, the unsupported end will bend the
most leaving the occlusal surface convex and the tissue side
concave. Therefore, there is tensile stress occlusally and
compressive stress on the tissue side.
Both stresses will also concentrate on the connector.
There is a moment acting on the abutment tooth in the occluso-
gingival direction that could result in failure of cement and
loosening of the prosthesis.
A longer span FPD places more burden on the cementing
medium.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 Wire with load:
strain Length - 100mm
Deformation: elastic - no strain

Defined as the change in length per unit length Length - 100mm

Deformation: plastic - 2mm
Expressed in percentage (%) New length - 102 mm

Strain may be plastic/ elastic or a combination of both Strain = 2/100 = 0.2%

Elastic Deformation – Reversible, and the deformation disappears after the removal of
applied forces. Eg. Stretching of a rubber band.
Plastic deformation - represents a permanent kind of deformation where the material never
recovers once the force is removed. Eg. bending of steel rods
Dr. Fatema Haji
ultimate tensile
strength

Dr. Fatema Haji

ultimate tensile
strength

Dr. Fatema Haji

ultimate tensile
strength

Dr. Fatema Haji

 mechanical
properties based on
elastic deformation
Youngs modulus / modulus of elasticity
Dynamic Young’s modulus
Flexibility
Resilience
Poissons ratio

Dr. Fatema Haji

 Young’s modulus
The elastic modulus / Young’s modulus represents the
stiffness of a material within the elastic range.
The elastic modulus can be determined from a stress-strain
curve.
The stiffness of a material can be calculated as a ratio of
elastic stress to elastic strain.

strain

eg. a stiff material will have a high modulus of elasticity

while a flexible material will have a low modulus of
elasticity.

Steep line: Higher modulus, more rigidity

Flat line: Lower modulus, less rigidity Dr. Fatema Haji
 inical!
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stress
= constant dentin & enamel
Hooke’s law strain (E)
Hooke's law states that the Enamel is stiffer and more brittle
strain in a solid is than dentin.
proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic Dentin is capable of sustaining
limit of that solid significant plastic deformation
under a compressive load before
it fractures.
The stress at which the
material ceases to obey
It is more flexible and tougher.
Hooke’s law is called
Proportionality limit.

Dr. Fatema Haji

proportional limit
Defined as the magnitude of elastic stress

above which plastic deformation occurs.

As stress increases, strain increases as well.

Initially, 0-A portion shows stress linearly

proportional to strain.

As strain is doubled, stress is also doubled.

After this, stress is no longer linearly

proportional to strain.

Here, the value of stress at A is known as the proportionality limit.

Dr. Fatema Haji
Therefore, PL can also be defined as the highest stress at which the stress-strain curve is a straight
line. ie: the stress is linearly proportional to strain.

Below the PL, there is no permanent

deformation in the structure, and it will
return to it original position once the
force is removed.
Below the PL, the material is elastic in
nature.

Region of stress-strain curve before the

proportional limit is called the elastic
region and beyond this is the plastic
region.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 inical!
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When a material is said to have a high value
of proportional limit, it indicates that the
material is more likely to withstand applied
stress without permanent deformation,

Connectors should have a high proportional

limit.

Materials such as cobalt/chromium alloy which

has high proportional limit is widely used for the
fabrication of connectors because they can
withstand high stress without permanent
deformation.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 linical!
C

eg. Impression Mate

rials
The impression m
aterials should hav
e a low
modulus of elasticity
(more flexible) to be
remove it from the u able to
ndercuts of the mouth
.
However the modu
lus of elasticity shou
ld not be
so low that the mater
ial cannot withstand
tearing.
Elastomeric impress
ion materials have
a greater
stiffness (elastic m
odulus) than algin
ate-based
impression materials
. Thus, a greater
needed to remove a force is
n elastomeric impre
ssion tray
from undercut areas
in the mouth.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 *unitless

poisson’s ratio Value

s of Po
Restor isson'
ative D s Ratio of S
ental ome
Mater
Materi ials
During axial loading in tension and compression, there is a al
simultaneous strain in axial, transverse or lateral directions. Amalga Poisso
m n's Ra
Zinc p tio
hospha
te cem 0.35
Under tensile loading (stretching), as a material elongates in Enamel ent
Resin c 0.35
ompos 0.30
the direction of the load, there is a reduction in cross section. ite
0.24
Under compressive loading there is an increase in cross
section.
Within the elastic range, the ratio of the lateral to the axial
strain is called Poisson's ratio (v)

Most rigid materials such as enamel, dentin, amalgam, composite etc, exhibit
a poissons ratio of about 0.3
More ductile materials such as soft gold alloys show a higher degree of
reduction in cross sectional area and higher poisson’s ratio.
Dr. Fatema Haji
Dynamic young’s modulus
Elastic modulus can be measured by a dynamic as well as static
method.
The velocity at which the sound travels through a solid can be

G
E
readily measured by ultrasonic transducers and receivers. =
2 (1+v)
The velocity of the sound wave and the density of the material
can be used to calculate the elastic modulus and poisson’s ratio.
E
If a shear stress was induced instead of a uniaxial tensile or =
2 (1+0.3)
compressive stress, the resulting shear strin could be used to define
a shear modulus for the material.
= o.38E
The value of 0.25 to 0.30 for Poisson’s ratio is typical.
Therefore Shear modulus is 38% of elastic modulus.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 Flexibility
It is the elastic strain on the stress-strain curve
Defined as the flexural strain that occurs when the material is stretched to the
proportional limit.
For materials used to fabricate dental appliances and restorations, a high value for
the elastic limit is a necessary requirement.
This is because the structure is expected to return to its original shape after it
has been stretched and the force has been removed.
Maximum flexibility - flexural strain that occurs when the material is stressed to
its proportional limit.
In orthodontic appliances, a large strain or deformation is needed with a
moderate or slight stress.
Here, a spring is often bent a considerable distance under the influence of
a small stress.
In this case, the structure is said to possess the property of flexibility.

Dr. Fatema Haji

resilience
Resilience of 2 or more materials
It is the amount of energy per
can be compared by observing
unit volume that is sustained
the areas under the elastic region
on loading and released upon
unloading of a test specimen. of their stress-strain graph.
The term resilience is associated
with springiness of a material
but it means precisely the amount
of energy absorbed within a ie: the material with
unit volume of a structure when the longer elastic area
it is stressed to its has the highest
proportionality limit. resilience.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 cal!
Clini
When a dental restoration is deformed
during mastication - it absorbs
energy.
If the induced stress is not greater than It can be calculated
by the area under
the proportional limit- the restoration
the graph.
is not permanently deformed. ie:
only elastic energy is stored in it.
Resilience is the ability of the
substance to absorb energy when it Large amounts for

is deformed elastically.
deformation in restorations
is avoided by the presence of
So restorative material should exhibit a
the PDL which has
moderately high elastic modulus and
proprioceptive receptors.
relatively low resilience - limiting
the elastic strain produced.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 mechanical properties based on
plastic deformation
If a material is deformed by the stress at a point above the proportional limit but before fracture, upon
removal of the applied force, the stress will reduce to 0 but the plastic strain / deformation remains.
Thus the object will not return to its original shape once the force is removed.
It remains bent, stretched or compressed, ie: it becomes plastically deformed.

Toughness
Cold working
Fracture toughness
Flexural strength
Ductility and malleability
Impact strength
Strength
Brittleness
Yield strength
Hardness
Ultimate strength
Dr. Fatema Haji
 toughness
When the induced stress goes beyond the elastic limit of the
material, additional work needs to be done for permanent
deformation.
The ability of a material to absorb energy and physically deform
without fracture is known as Toughness.
It is defined as the energy required to fracture a material.
It is a property of the material which describes how difficult the
material would be to break.

The modulus of toughness is the amount of strain energy per unit volume that a material can
absorb just before it fractures and can be calculated by the total area under the stress-strain curve.

Toughness increases with an increase in strength and ductility.

Therefore one can assume that a tough material is strong but a strong material might not
necessarily be tough. Dr. Fatema Haji
 fracture toughness

The ability to be plastically deformed without fracture, or the amount of energy required for fracture, is the
fracture toughness.
The larger a flaw, the lower the stress needed to cause fracture.
The ability of a flaw to cause fracture depends on the fracture toughness of the material.
Fracture toughness is a material property and is proportional to the energy consumed in plastic deformation.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 Ductility
It is the ability of a material to withstand
permanent deformation under a tensile load
without rupture.
A metal that can be drawn readily into a wire
is said to be ductile.
Ductility is dependent on tensile strength
and decreases as the temperature is raised.
malleability
It is the ability of the material to withstand
rupture under compression, as in hammering
or rolling into a sheet.
It is not dependent on strength as is ductility.
and increases with rise in temperature.
Toughness of a material is dependent upon the
ductility (or malleability) of the material than
upon the flexibility or elastic modulus.
Dr. Fatema Haji
strength It is the maximal stress required to fracture a structure.
It is the stress at the point of fracture (ultimate strength)

m at eria l ca n
Strength o f a
d b y o n e o r
be describe w i n g
fo llo
more of the
properties:

eld St ren g th
Yi
ma te stre n gth
Ulti
Shear stren g th
ive strength
Compress
ural strength
Flex

Dr. Fatema Haji

yield strength
Very few materials follow Hooke’s law perfectly and some
permanent change may be seen in the tested material. A small
amount of permanent strain is tolerable.
The limit of tolerable permanent strain is the yield strength.
Thus yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material
exhibits a specified limiting deviation from proportionality of
stress to strain and the material behaves in a plastic manner.
The amount of permanent strain is reffered to as percent offset.
A value of either 0.1% or 0.2% of the plastic strain is often selected
and is reffered to as the percent offset.

The point at which the parallel line intersects the stress strain curve is the yield strength.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 inical!
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These values play an important role as they
help evaluate dental materials and the stress at
which permanent deformation begins.
If these values are exceeded by masticatory
stresses, the restoration/appliance may no
longer function as originally designed.
In the case of an orthodontic appliance or a
clasp on a removable partial denture, it is
necessary to apply stress into the structure in
excess of yield strength if the maerial is to
be permanently bent or adapted.

Dr. Fatema Haji

ultimate strength
Ultimate tensile strength / stress is defined as
Ultimate
the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before failure in tension. strength
Ultimate compressive strength / stress is the =
maximum stress that a material can withstand
imum load
in compression. max
The ultimate strength / stress is determined
original
- section
by dividing the maximum load in tension
cross
or compression by the original cross
section of the test specimen.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 Cold working flexural strength
(stress hardening/work
hardening) Defined as the force per unit area at the
instant of fracture in a test specimen
When materials are stretched beyond PL, subjected to flexural loading. (bending)

hardness and strength increases at the Also known as modulus of rupture.

area of deformation but ductility decreases. Most prosthesis and restoration fractures

Repeated plastic deformation can cause develop progressively over many stress
cycles after initiation of a crack from a
eventual fracture. (eg. Ortho wires)
critical flaw, and subsequently by
To minimise risk of such brittleness,
propagation of the crack until a sudden,
deform the metal in small increments so
unexpected fracture occurs.
as to not deform the metal excessively.
This is called fatigue failure.

Dr. Fatema Haji

impact strength
Defined as the energy required to fracture a material under an impact
force.
Measured using a Charpy Impact Tester, where a pendulum is
released that swings down to fracture the centre of a specimen that is
supported at both ends.
A material with low elastic modulus and high tensile strength is
more resistant to impact forces.
A material with low elastic modulus and low tensile strength has
low impact resistance.
A material may have reasonably high static strength values, such as compressive, tensile, and shear
strengths, and even reasonable elongation, but may fail when loaded under impact.
Materials such as fused glasses, cements, amalgam, and some plastics have low resistance to
breakage when a load is applied by an impact.

Dr. Fatema Haji

Dr. Fatema Haji
 Hardness
Hardness may be broadly defined as the resistance to permanent surface indentation or
penetration.
It is therefore a measure of the resistance to plastic deformation and is measured as a
force per unit area of indentation
Hardness is indicative of the ease of finishing of a structure and its resistance to in-
service scratching.

hardness tests:
BRINNEL TEST ROCKWELL TEST VICKER’S TEST KNOOP’S TEST

Selection of the test is done on the basis of the material being tested.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 BRINNEL TEST
The method depends on the resistance to the
penetration.
A small steel or tungsten carbide ball, typically 1.6
mm in diameter, is subjected to a weight of 123 N.
Time: 30 seconds
It is removed and the indentation diameter is
carefully measured.
Advantages Disadvantages
The resulting hardness value, known as the Brinell
hardness number (BHN), is computed as a ratio of the Best for
Hardness of cold worked
ductile
load applied to the area of the indentation materials are difficult to measure
materials.
produced.
Smaller the area of indentation, the harder the Not suitable for brittle materials

material and the larger the BHN value. Dr. Fatema Haji
 Brinell Hardness Number
(BHN) of Some Dental
Casting Alloys and
Condensed Gold

MATERIAL BHN (kg/mm²)

Condensed gold 69
Foil 46
Powdered
Gold alloys*
Type I 45
Type II 95
Brinnels Hardness Test Type III 120
Type IV 220
A- Indentation on soft material 252
40% Au-Ag-Cu
B- Indentation on hard material 99% noble alloyt 165

Dr. Fatema Haji

 ROCKWELL TEST
Rapid Method
Instead of a steel ball, a conical diamond
point is used.
Depth of measurement is directly measured
Advantages Disadvantages
using a dial on the instrument

Not suitable for brittle

Direct reading
materials

Rapid Test time

Dr. Fatema Haji

 VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST
It has been used to a limited degree to test the hardness of
restorative dental materials.
The method is similar in principle to the Knoop and Brinell
tests, except that a 136- degree diamond pyramid-shaped
indenter is forced into the material with a definite load
application
The indenter produces a square indentation.
Advantages Disadvantages The load value divided by the projected indentation area
gives you the VHN.
Small areas and hard Material requires highly
The Vickers test is especially useful in measuring the
materials polished surfaced
hardness of small areas and for very hard materials.

Longer time for test Used for testing dental casting alloys as well as tooth
completion structure.
Dr. Fatema Haji
 KNOOP’S HARDNESS TEST Advantages Disadvantages

Great range can be

Material requires highly
The Knoop hardness test was developed to fulfill the needs tested by varying the
polished surfaced
load
of a microindentation test method
The Knoop method is designed so varying loads may be Longer time for test
applied to the indenting instrument. completion

Suitable for thin plastic or metal sheets where the force

does not exceed 35N.
The resulting indentation area, therefore, varies according
to the load applied and the nature of the material tested
Rhomboid shaped indenter, length of largest diagonal is
measured.
The load value is divided by projected area to get the KHN.

Dr. Fatema Haji

Dr. Fatema Haji
stress concentration effects
The cause of strength reduction is the presence of small
microscopic flaws or microstructural defects on the
surface or within the internal structure.
These flaws are especially critical in brittle materials in
areas of tensile stress because tensile stress tends to
open cracks.
Stress at the tips of these flaws is greatly increased
which leads to crack initiation and broken bonds.

Dr. Fatema Haji

 When a brittle or ductile material is subjected to
compressive stress, it tends to close the crack and this
stress distribution is more uniform.

When a ductile material is subjected to tensile force, it

tends to open the flaw and only plastic deformation
has occored.

Stress intensity increases with the length of the flaw.

Flaws on the surface are associated with higher stresses than flaws of the same size in the interior
region.

Therefore, the surface of brittle materials such as ceramics, amalgams etc. are extremely
important in areas subjected to tensile stress.

Dr. Fatema Haji Dr. Fatema Haji

 inical!
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causes for areas of high concentration and methods to
minimise them
CAUSES OF AREAS OF HIGH STRESS CONCENTRATION METHODS TO MINIMISE THEM

Surface defects such as porosity, grinding roughness Polish surface to reduce the depth of the defects

Little can be done about the interior flaws but to ensure highest quality of
Interior flaws such a svoids
the structure or to increase the size of the object

Design of the prosthesis should vary gradually than abruptly.

Marked changes in contour - sharp internal line angle at axio-pulpal line
Notches should be avoided
angle
All internal line angles should be rounded

The elastic moduli of the 2 materials should be closely matched

A large difference in elastic moduli or thermal expansion co-efficient across
Materials must be closely matched in their co-efficients of expansion or
bonded surface
contraction

Cusp tip of an opposing crown or tooth should be well rounded such that
A Hertzian load (load applied to a point on the surface of a brittle material)
the occlusal contact areas in the brittle material is large.

Dr. Fatema Haji

Conclusion
While designing a dental appliance or a restorative
material, it should have adequate mechanical
properties to withstand the stress and strain caused
by the forces of mastication

All the methods must be employed to minimise the

stress concentration so that the restorative material
or the appliance is in harmony with the different
tpes of forces occurring in the oral cavity

Dr. Fatema Haji

thank you

Dr. Fatema Haji