GEC 7: Ethics

1. Title of the Module

Chapter IV: Western Ethical Frameworks and Principles

2. Introduction

The goal of Western Ethics is generally for individuals to achieve self-direction

and self-understanding which have direct impact on ethical decision making. Our
intangible decision making as to determine what is right or wrong permeates everyday
life. Ethical problems are often complex and novel; they present themselves in unique
contexts in which conflicting principles are at stake. Ethics should concern all levels of
life: acting properly as individuals, creating responsible organizations and
governments, and making our society as a whole more ethical.

The first part presents an overview of the fundamental ethical frameworks and
principles. It introduces frameworks for ethical thinking and decision-making. These
ethical frameworks and principles represent the viewpoints from which students may
seek guidance as they make moral decisions.

The second part discusses virtue ethics which focuses on the development of
the character of the individual who must confront ethical dilemmas. Virtue ethics
recognizes that resolution of difficult problems depends, above all, on the character
(that is, on the virtues) of the people making decisions. It is important to note that,
strictly speaking, virtue ethics is very particular on character rather than on specific
actions.

The third part discourses on Kantian ethics where the rightness or wrongness
of actions neither depends on their consequences nor on the character of individuals
but rather on whether these actions fulfill our duty. There are certain types of actions
that are absolutely prohibited, even in cases where the action would bring about more
happiness than the alternative. This theory asserts that there is a supreme principle of
morality, an unconditional command or universal duty for all human beings.

The fourth part focuses on Utilitarian Ethics where moral judgments are based
on the outcomes of a decision or an action. If the outcomes of an action are considered
to be useful, workable and positive, or to give rise to benefits, then that action is held
to be morally right. Conversely, if the outcome causes harm, then the action is held to
be morally wrong. The judgement of right or wrong depends on the consequences of
the decision or action.

The last part discusses Rawls’ justice as fairness which he proposed as an

alternative to utilitarianism. Rawls asserts that each individual has certain rights that
cannot be sacrificed simply for others to obtain more benefits. His theory revolves
around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice which would, in turn,
guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the
right of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with the liberty
of others. The second principle states that social and economic positions are to be (a)
to everyone's advantage and (b) open to all.

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3. Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:
1. explain the three broad areas of ethical study;
2. evaluate the different ethical frameworks;
3. compare and contrast ethical frameworks and principles;
4. explain virtue ethics;
5. explain Kantian ethics;
6. explain utilitarian ethics; and
7. explain Rawl’s principle of justice and fairness.

4. Learning Content

Topics for Chapter IV

Topic 1: Basic Areas of Ethical Study
Topic 2: Virtue Ethics
Topic 3: Kant and Right Theory
Topic 4: Utilitarianism
Topic 5: Justice and Fairness

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

a. Activity Sheets
b. Textual Reading
c. Discussion

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading

“A Historical Survey of Western Ethics” (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/183836/9/08%20cha
pter%203.pdf
Baggini, Julian (2016). Philosophy: key texts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
De Guzman, Jens Micah, et al. (2018). Ethics: Principles of ethical behavior in
modern society. Philippines: MUTYA Publishing House, Inc.
Follesdal, A. (2015). John Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness. In Philosophy
of Justice (pp. 311-328). Springer, Dordrecht. Retrieved from
http://www.follesdal.net/ms/Follesdal-2014-Rawls-JasF.pdf
Grayling, A. C. (2019). The history of philosophy. United Kingdom: Penguin
Books UK
Kantian Ethics (n.d.) Retrieved from
https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/kantian%20ethics.htm#:~:t
ext=Kant's%20theory%20is%20an%20example,it%20as%20The%20C
ategorical%20Imperative.
Rachel, James and Stuart Rachels. (2018). Elements of moral philosophy, 9th
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rawls, J. (n.d.) A theory of justice. Retrieved from
https://www.csus.edu/indiv/c/chalmersk/econ184sp09/johnrawls.pdf

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7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Modular Distance Learning (MDL) – Module

Online Distance Learning (ODL) – VideoCon/Edmodo, Email,
Messenger, Zoom

8. Assessment Task

a. Reflection Paper
b. Reaction Paper
c. Module Exercises/Activity
d. Critique Paper
e. Situation Analysis

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 MODULE CONTENT

Topic 1: Basic Areas of Ethical Study

Nominal Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:
1. identify the three basic areas of ethical study; and
2. explain the three basic areas of ethical study.

Introduction

A framework is defined as a set of assumptions, concepts, values and practices

that constitutes a way of viewing reality (Framework, n.d.) We may understand basic
theories as frameworks in ethics as a system of rules, ideas, notions, theories, or
principles that assists man in his moral decisions and judgments.

In Ethics there are three major areas of study: meta-ethics, normative ethics,
and applied ethics. Under these major subject areas are various ethical theories as
frameworks.

1. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics was regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that considered
general ethical questions whose answers had some relatively direct bearing on
practice (Normative Ethical theories, 2020). In a sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus
test of proper behavior (Fieser, n.d.). Normative Ethics is concerned with the standard
and criteria by which we can judge man’s actions to be morally right or morally wrong.
This was the prevalent form of ethics in philosophy until the end of the 19th Century. It
includes a consideration of the importance of human freedom, and a discussion of the
limits of a human’s responsibility for moral decisions and for the consequences of
actions) (Ethics, 9).

The crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics is that there is only one ultimate
principle or standard of moral conduct, whether it is a solitary law or a set of rules. It
stresses three elements: the person who performs the act (the agent), the act, and the
consequences of the act. Generally, there are three categories of normative ethical
theories: deontology, teleological ethics and virtue ethics.

Deontology

Deontological normative ethical theories place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or duties (Deontological Theories 2002). It
emphasizes the correlation between duty and morality of human acts.

In deontological ethics an action is considered morally good

because of some characteristic of the action itself, not because
the product of the action is good. Deontological ethics holds that
at least some acts are morally obligatory regardless of their

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 consequences for human welfare. Descriptive of such ethics are
such expressions as “Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own
reward,” and “Let justice be done though the heavens fall.”
(Deontological ethics, n.d.)

Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested with what man does, not
with the consequences of his actions. It advises people to do the right thing because
it is the right thing to do and keep away from wrong things because they are wrong.
People are counseled to do the right thing, even if that produces more harm than doing
the wrong thing. People have a moral obligation to do the right thing, even if it produces
a bad result.

Teleological Ethics

This theory of morality derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or
desirable as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). It believes that the
rightness or wrongness of a human act is contingent on its outcome. Hence, a human
act is considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since the moral
goodness of a human act is dependent only on its results, the more good results a
human act produces, the better or more right that human act is. The results of a human
act generally eclipse all other considerations.

Every teleological moral theory locates morality in the outcomes of human

actions. Teleological ethical theorists contend that every human act is teleological in
the sense that man reasons about the means of realizing certain goals. Thus, all moral
conduct is goal-directed.

Virtue ethics

This is a broad term for theories that emphasize the role of character and virtue
in moral philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in order to bring
about good consequences (Athanassoulis, N. n.d.). Therefore, the fundamental
component of moral behavior is the person’s character rather than ethical duties and
rules about the acts themselves or consequences of particular actions. This moral
theory is character or person-based rather than action based because it places special
emphasis on the moral character of the person executing the act.

Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of character that

are essential to human flourishing, not with the enumeration of
duties. It falls somewhat outside the traditional dichotomy
between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It agrees
with consequentialism that the criterion of an action’s being
morally right or wrong lies in its relation to an end that
has intrinsic value, but more closely resembles deontological
ethics in its view that morally right actions are constitutive of the
end itself and not mere instrumental means to the end (Virtue
ethics, n.d.).

Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of individual acts, but it is also
a source of counsel as to the type of attributes and behaviors human beings should

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realize. It does not just focus its attention on particular moral acts, rather more
concerned with the whole of a person's life. It believes that a moral being is someone
who lives virtuously, someone who possesses and actually applies the virtues he has
learned.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words, they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
- Frank Outlaw

2. Meta-ethics

Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the status,

foundations, and scope of moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics, n.d.) It
is an inquiry about the nature of ethical assertions, attitudes, and evaluations. Meta-
ethics belongs to the three branches of ethics considered as framework, the others
being normative ethics and applied ethics.

Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three kinds of meta-ethical
problems, or three general questions:

1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? (moral semantics)

2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or defended? (moral epistemology)

The first meta-ethical problem or general question investigates the meaning of

the terms: good, bad, right and wrong. Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments. The third problem raises the question on
our ability to know if a human act is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen
(1967), argued that answers to the three basic questions are not unrelated, and
sometimes an answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an answer
to another.

Meta-ethical theories are commonly categorized semantically as either

cognitivism or non-cognitivism; substantially as either universalism or relativism; and
epistemologically as empiricism, rationalism, or intuitionism.

Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-Cognitivism

a. Moral Cognitivism holds that moral statements do express beliefs and that they
are apt for truth and falsity (Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism, 2018). It claims
that ethical sentences convey propositions that are capable being true or false. It
also declares that right and wrong are matters of fact. Moral realism and ethical
subjectivism are the two most common forms of cognitivism.

a.1 Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism) is the position that ethical
sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of the world, that
is, features independent of subjective opinion (Shafer-Landau,2015). It assumes

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 that moral values are objectively true and their truth does not depend or
are independent of our opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes of them.

a.2 Ethical Subjectivism is the meta-ethical view which claims that the truth or
falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the (actual or
hypothetical) attitudes of people (Brandt ,1959). Contrary to moral realism,
ethical subjectivism argues that there are no objective moral truths. The truth or
falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on our opinions, perception, beliefs,
feelings or attitudes towards them. Ethical sentences are arbitrary because they
do not convey unchanging truths.

b. Moral Non-cognitivism holds the view that ethical statements lack truth-
value which means they are neither true nor false. According to Garner and Rosen
(1967), noncognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that moral judgments are capable
of being objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world. If moral
statements cannot be true, and if one cannot know something that is not true,
noncognitivism implies that moral knowledge is impossible (Garner and
Rosen,1967). Moral truths are not the type of truths that can be known.

b.1 Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims that ethical sentences do not
express propositions but emotional attitudes (Garner and Rosen,1967). It
assumes that the purpose of ethical propositions is to convey emotions of
approval or disapproval. To a certain degree they are also imperatives meant to
sway the frame of mind of other people.

Moral Universalism versus Moral Relativism

a. Moral Universalism which is also called moral objectivism proposes

that ethical implications of an action is universally applicable to everybody,
regardless of circumstance. It believes that there is a universal moral
system which applies to anyone which transcends culture, nationality, race,
religion, sexuality or other distinguishing feature.

b. Moral Relativism is a philosophical position which believes that moral

judgments are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint (for
instance, that of a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is
uniquely privileged over all others (Westacott, n.d.). Moral judgments differ
from person to person and are all equally valid and no one’s belief of right and
wrong is really better than any other. There is no objective and ultimate
standard of morality, so each moral judgment about right and wrong is
relative to a person’s cultural, social, historical or personal circumstances and
preferences.

Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus Moral Intuitionism

a. Moral Empiricism is an ethical perspective which assumes that moral

knowledge is based on one’s experiences and observations. It claims that
moral learning and knowledge is not possible without experience. This ethical
view is an extension of empiricism in epistemology that states that knowledge
comes only or primarily from sensory experience (Psillos and Curd,

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 2010). Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation
of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions (Forrest and Kaufmann,
2008). Other forms of moral empiricism suggest that moral truths are reducible
to matters about man’s judgments and beliefs or cultural practices and
therefore are recognizable by observation and experience of their practices.

b. Moral Rationalism is a view in meta-ethics (specifically the epistemology of

ethics) according to which moral principles are knowable a priori, by reason
alone (Capps and Pattinson, 2017). It considers reason as the main source
and test of moral knowledge. Because of reason, certain moral truths exist and
that the intellect can directly grasp these truths.

c. Moral Intuitionism argued that moral truths are self-evident, that is, evident
in and of themselves and so can be known without the need of any proof or
reasoning. What is morally right or morally wrong is self-evident in nature and
cannot be known through human experience.

Intuitionism teaches three main things: (1) There are real objective moral
truths that are independent of human beings. (2) These are fundamental truths
that can't be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything except
other moral truths. (3) Human beings can discover these truths by using their
minds in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).

The concepts of right and wrong and objective moral truths do exist and
culture does not change those. A fundamental moral truth is like any
fundamental truth and no one can't attempt to break it down any further because
things that are moral good are simply morally good. Man has the ability to
intuitively know if something is right or wrong.

Intuitionism does not mean that all moral decisions are reached
by relying on intuition. Intuition enables the discovery of
the basic moral truths, and everyday moral decision-making then
involves thinking about the choices available and making moral
judgements in an ordinary sort of way. (Intuitionism, n.d.)

3. Applied ethics

Applied ethics, in a broad sense, refers to any use of philosophical methods

critically to examine practical moral decisions and to treat moral problems, practices,
and policies in the professions, technology, government, and the like (Applied ethics,
2020). As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives to find out the application of
moral knowledge into practice. In other words, it bridges ethical theory and practical
and feasible solutions. It has produced principle-based attitude toward ethical issues
which in many instances result in solutions to particular problems that are not globally
acceptable.

This discipline studies difficult moral questions and controversial moral issues
that human beings actually face in their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death penalty,
suicide, cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay or lesbian

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relations, war tactics, animal rights, capital punishments or nuclear war and
environmental issues.

Some of the key areas of applied ethics are: bioethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.

Bioethics

This is branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical, social, and legal
issues arising in medicine and the life sciences (Chadwick, n.d.). Bioethics devotes its
time and attention in studying the moral controversies brought about by advances
in biology and medicine. It is concerned with scientific advances that can alter the way
we understand health and illness and, ultimately, the way we live and die. It is
multidisciplinary because it draws contributions from many different academic
disciplines or professional specializations such as philosophy, theology, history,
anthropology, law, medicine, nursing, health policy, social work and the medical
humanities.

Issues that are considered in bioethics include: cloning, surrogate motherhood,

human genetic engineering, genomics, stem cell research, organ donation and
transplantation, transplant trade, medical and genetic data privacy, cyber-
attacks against medical devices and systems, biohacking, biological differences based
on inequalities in wealth, bioterrorism, technological sexuality, assisted reproductive
technologies, ethical issues on brain imaging and testing, nanotechnologies (using
small particles to deliver medicine or other medical treatments), and genetically
modified food.

Environmental Ethics

This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human
beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human
contents (Environmental ethics, 2015). It deals with man’s moral obligation to the
preservation and care of the non-human world.

Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms on earth have
the right to live. Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other because
they depend on one another for their existence. Owing to their inseparable
relationship, the guiding principles of man’s life and his ethical values should include
it. By destroying the environment and its non-human contents, man unjustly and
immorally denies its right to live.

The topics for debate in environmental ethics include: global climate change,
the depletion of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems,
water and air pollution, waterways, the use of fertilizers, animal experimentation, and
endangered species preservation.

Business Ethics

This can be understood as the study of the ethical dimensions of productive

organizations and commercial activities (Business ethics, 2016). It is interested in the

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analyses of the ethical problems and principles in the manufacture, supply,
advertising, and selling of products and services.

Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong in the workplace.
Over and above their obligation to the law, business organizations must be conscious
of the moral impact of their activities on customers, employees, shareholders,
communities and the environment in all aspects of their operations.

More than knowledge and experience in managing a business the interests of

the community are of paramount importance. There should be a balance between the
purpose of business, which is to make money and its unwritten social responsibilities
to its employees and society.

Corporate governance, employee rights, unions, insider trading, bribery,

misleading advertising, discrimination, corporate social responsibility, fiduciary
responsibilities, and even slavery are some of the controversial subjects addressed in
business ethics.

Sexual Ethics

This is commonly understood as the study of human sexuality and sexual

behavior. It seeks to investigate thoroughly moral behavior regarding with whom
people have sex and how they do so. It is an attempt to bring about a comprehensive
understanding of the moral conduct of interpersonal relationships and sexual practices
from social, cultural, religious, medical, legal and philosophical perspectives.

Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation, abortion, contraception,

adultery, extramarital sex, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, polyamory, seduction,
flirting, prostitution, homosexuality, pornography, masturbation, incest, rape,
sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually transmitted infections, genital
modification and mutilation, teenage pregnancy, celibacy, and marriage.

Social Ethics

This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values, behaviors and

responsibilities people have toward themselves, each other, and the world as a whole.
The collection of social principles regulate relationships within a society, specifically
with regard to determining what is considered morally right, just and noble. The rules
which society judges acceptable are expected to be followed because they are meant
to guide people in their ethical choices and values.

Social ethics teaches what each person will and will not tolerate from each other
within society. To maintain social equilibrium, the welfare of society as a whole must
be placed ahead of the interests of any individual. People in a society cannot do as
they please. There are social norms and laws that prescribe boundaries and
encourage social responsibility.

Social ethics validates if people’s decisions and actions cause harm to society
or the environment. Each person is responsible to act in manner that benefits his
society and not solely himself.

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 Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines problems such as:
environmental pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior, poverty,
malnourishment, lack of access to food and clean water, access to clean and
affordable living, unemployment, homelessness, discrimination and violence, drug
abuse, alcohol abuse, political corruption, prostitution, sexual abuse, rape, early
pregnancy, same-sex marriage, birth control, HIV/AIDS, prostitution, gay marriages,
gender issues, child labor, lack of proper access to education, the shortage of schools,
the lack of infrastructure, alcoholism, food and drug safety, suicide, drug abuse, capital
punishment, animal abuse, human rights, women's rights, children’s rights, world
population, organ & body donation, euthanasia & assisted suicide, death penalty,
consumer debt and bankruptcy, judicial reform, censorship, gun control, terrorism,
nuclear weapon production, immigration, tobacco, nuclear proliferation, cancer, health
care reform, religious conflict & war, political polarization, government accountability,
lack of access to credit, eating disorders, obesity and the lack of physical fitness
programs.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 1

Direction: Students will be grouped into ten. Each group will read the Shipwreck
situation and then illustrate how different theoretical approaches (e.g. deontology and
virtue ethics) will lead to different solutions that are both valid in terms of the particular
approach.

Imagine that you are involved in a shipwreck situation - a ship has started to
sink in the middle of the ocean. Eleven people have jumped into a life-boat that has
been designed for a maximum of ten people only, and the life-boat is also starting to
sink. What should the passengers do? Throw one person overboard and save ten
lives? Or stick to the principle of "do not kill", which means that everybody will drown?

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Assessment Task
Exercise 1
Name: _____________________ Course & Year:
_______________
Direction: Identify the following statements and write your answers in the space
provided.
____________________ 1. It is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the
status, foundations, and scope of moral values,
properties, and words.
____________________ 2. It holds that moral statements do express beliefs
and that they are apt for truth and falsity.
____________________ 3. It holds the view that ethical statements lack truth-
value which means they are neither true nor false.
____________________ 4. It is regarded as a branch of ethical inquiry that
considered general ethical questions whose answers
had some relatively direct bearing on practice.
____________________ 5. It is an ethical theory that places the locus of right
and wrong in autonomous adherence to moral laws or
duties.
____________________ 6. It is a theory of morality that derives duty
or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as
an end to be achieved.
____________________ 7. It refers to any use of philosophical methods
critically to examine practical moral decisions and to
treat moral problems, practices, and policies in the
professions, technology, government, and the like.
____________________ 8. It is a branch of applied ethics that studies the
philosophical, social, and legal issues arising
in medicine and the life sciences.
____________________ 9. It is the discipline in philosophy that studies the
moral relationship of human beings to, and also the
value and moral status of, the environment and its
non-human contents.
____________________ 10. It is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines,
values, behaviors and responsibilities people have
toward themselves, each other, and the world as a
whole.

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 Exercise 2
Name: _________________________ Course & Year: ______________
Essay: Choose one of the three basic areas of ethical study and explain how it
helps an individual understand his/her moral experiences? (15 points)

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Learning Resources
Books:
Baggini, Julian (2016). Philosophy: key texts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bradshaw, J. (2009). Reclaiming Virtue: How We Can Develop the Moral
Intelligence to Do the Right Thing at the Right Time for the Right Reason.
New York: Bantam.
Brickhouse, T.C..; Smith, N.D. (1990). Socrates on trial. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Capps, P. and Pattinson, S. (2017) (eds.). Ethical rationalism and the law.
Oxford: Hart publishing.
Carr, D. and Steutel, J. (eds.). (1999). Virtue ethics and moral education. United
Kingdom: Routledge.
Carr, W. (2005). What is the philosophy of education?. The Routledge Falmer
Reader in the Philosophy of Education, Oxon: Routledge.
Duignan, B. (2009). The 100 most influential philosophers of all time. New York:
The Rosen Publishing Group.
Garner, R. and Rosen, B. (1967). Moral philosophy: a systematic introduction
to normative ethics and meta-ethics. New York: Macmillan.
Grayling, A. C. (2019). The history of philosophy. United Kingdom: Penguin
Books UK.
Hursthouse, R. 1999, On virtue ethics, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Porter, J. (1994). The recovery of virtue. London: Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge.
Psillos, S. and Curd, M. (2010). The Routledge companion to philosophy of
science. London: Routledge.
Ramos, C.R. (2010). Introduction to philosophy. 2nd ed. Manila: Rex Bookstore
Inc.
Reyes, R. (1989). Ground and norm of morality; ethics for college students.
Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Shafer-Landau, R. (ed.) (2015). Oxford studies in metaethics, Vol. 10, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Soccio, D. J. (2007) Archetypes of wisdom: an introduction to philosophy. 7th
edition. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Stumpf, S. E. (1999). Socrates to Sartre: a history of philosophy. Singapore:
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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