ISTANBUL BILGI UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

CONSUMPTION AND PERFORMING OF MODERN MUSIC IN

XIX. CENTURY OTTOMAN EMPIRE

GRADUATION THESIS

HASAN ÖMER KORGUN

ADVISOR: CİHANGİR GÜNDOĞDU

ISTANBUL, 2023
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Introduction

The historical works for music in Turkey started to be studied almost since the last fifty,

sixty years. The main discourse, sources, and materials for that field of work originate from the

musicians and academics of the early republican period and academics like Rauf Yekta Bey,

or Hüseyin Sadeddin Arel. However, the first published music history works are lack of

historical methodology and knowledge. The thesis aims to create a more historical context in

case of 19th century Ottoman modern music, and determine the people integrated with music

during the century. With the help of the primary sources of the Directorate of State Archives,

and the studies of consumption and Turkish/Ottoman musicology, an ideal discourse and

narrative of 19th century Ottoman music, and its consumption situation is going to be explained

in this graduation thesis.

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Literature Review

This literature review analyzes the closest studies and sources of Turkish/Ottoman

music that can be related to today’s musicology. Academic works investigating the sources of

early Republican Turkish/Ottoman history of music are scarce. The history of music has been

cast as an arena of musical studies rather than history. In addition, for understanding the

methods of consumption in music, review analyzes consumption studies in the Late Ottoman

Empire by Donald Quataert and, studies of 19th century Istanbul in case of daily lives, social

accommodations, and interior lives.

The lack of historical studies on music has motivated me to analyze the changing

musical taste in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire from a historian’s perspective. I argue that

the change in 19th century Ottoman music cannot be studied without understanding the

changing social, cultural, political, and economic dynamics in the Ottoman Empire. The claim

is that the empire’s integration into the global market in the 19th century changed the music

consumption, life, jobs, economy, and tastes in the empire.

The works by the first musicians and history enthusiasts of the Republic lead to certain

academical discussions. Writings by Cem Behar1 and Yalçın Tura2 are good examples to

discuss the wide variation of approaches on music during the early Republican period. The

discussion on traditional music during the twentieth century will invoke different approaches

on music; on top of that, the ideal historian should determine the reliability of different

approaches before elaborating a consistent historical narrative. The books, compilations,

encyclopedias, and articles about Ottoman/Turkish music -which is going to be explained in

1
Cem Behar, Musikiden Müziğe: Osmanlı/Türk Müziği: Gelenek ve Modernlik, 4th ed. (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi
Yayınları, 2022).
2
Yalçın Tura, Türk Musikisinin Mes’eleleri: Gözden Geçirilmiş ve Genişletilmiş Yeni Baskı, 3rd ed. (İstanbul: İz
Yayıncılık, 2017).
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further paragraphs- maintained academic discussions. Consequently, this work aims to analyze

different approaches and detect their deficiencies before establishing a historical discourse.

The first systematic studies of Turkish/Ottoman musicology started after the foundation

of the Turkish Republic. The first major proto musicology3 researchers like Rauf Yekta Bey

(1871-1935), Hüseyin Sadeddin Arel (1880-1955), and Dr. Suphi Ezgi (1869-1962) conducted

crude musicological research in the light of the musical revolution called Musiki İnkılabı of the

Republic during the 1930s. This “music revolution” had the intention of nation-building and

creating the new modern Turkish citizenship. Even one of the pioneer composers of the

revolution Cemal Reşit Rey (1904-1985) composed a symphonic poem called “Turkey” with

the setting of Western orchestration to show how Turkey is modernized at least in music.4 In

all, traditional Turkish/Ottoman compositions with monophonic instruments and compositions

were replaced with “European style” ensembles, and musicians were encouraged to produce

modern compositions for creating ideal, modern, western Turkish musical culture.5 Therefore,

the traditional features of Ottoman music, which are the amalgam of Byzantine, Arabic and

Islamic cultures with unique way of thinking and performance (Huge written culture and legacy

which dates upon three hundred years) were considered a threat to the new Republic’s modern,

secular identity and legitimacy. Ottoman traditional music was banned from radios, and its

presence was forbidden in stages.6 New clubs and casinos like “Caddebostan Mehtap, Maksim,

Taksim Belediye Gazinosu, and Kervansaray”7 started to perform Jazz. In short, the Republican

“musical revolution” approached Ottoman music as a conservative, degenerate cultural waste

and the revolution promoted Western polyphonic music to show that Turkish musicians should

3
The reason why I used “proto musicology” is because in stated years roughly 30’s and 40’s, the academics
studied the subject of music history did not entitle themselves or their works as products of musicology. The
concept of musicology developed afterwards.
4
Cemal Reşit Rey, “Turkey”, “X. Allegro giocoso”
5
Ünsal Deniz, “Türk Musiki İnkılabı Bağlamında Klasik Türk Musikisi Çalgıları”, İnönü University Journal of
Culture and Art, Vol. 3, No. 1, (2017): 28-47.
6
Alaturka Musiki banned in Republic on 2 November 1934.
7
Doruk Yurdesin, “İstanbul Eğlence Hayatı ve Caz,” Babylon Dergisi no. 6 (Winter 2010),
https://bantmag.com/arsivden-istanbul-eglence-hayati-ve-caz/.
 5

compose symphonies with Western orchestral settings. Later, this cultural policy affected

historians and musicologists, and a debate began between the “old” traditional Ottoman music

and the “new” Western, Republican Turkish one. Musicians like Tuna Ötenel, Erol Pekcan,

Kudret Öztoprak felt the disappearance of Ottoman musical folk, arabesque and türkü culture

and its features from Turkey.8 Hence, Turkey’s first published jazz record9 in 1978 is a fusion

album with the characteristics of traditional Ottoman tunes connected with jazz standards for

reviving a huge musical identity and legacy.

That is how the musical development occurred in Turkey during the early Republican

period through the 1970s. Despite the above details, the historiography and musicology of

Ottoman music in the academy are controversial. Historians and musicologists like Yalçın Tura

approached Ottoman music with nostalgic and conservative feelings which in today’s sense

contains biased historical arguments about Ottoman Empire. More to that, studies of Tura and

Cem Behar signifies the comparison of traditional Ottoman music with Western classic and

romantic periods can be problematic. Hence, these considerations can provoke the

consideration of assimilation of Ottoman music to Western polyphonic ensembles and

compositions. Moreover, these approaches can lead to certain taken-for-granted conclusions.

Musicologist Cem Behar, on the contrary, finds those kinds of approaches (like Yalçın Tura’s

works) irrelevant and political. For this reason, he argues that they wipe away the real essence

of knowledge behind Ottoman music.10 Behar states the errors of the first musicologists of the

Republic, like Rauf Yekta Bey, and indicates the catalogs of manuscripts from the French and

British National Library for more ideal approaches that rely on historical sources and data.

These catalogs contain important works of musicologists and musicians of the 17th, 18th, and

19th centuries. Behar wanted to take an ideal historical stance in his studies on Ottoman

8
Batu Akyol (Director), Türkiye’de Jazz, (İstanbul: Loyka Productions, 2013).
9
Tuna Ötenel, Erol Pekcan, Kudret Öztoprak, Jazz Semai, (London: Electric and Musical Industries Ltd. 1978).
10
Cem Behar, Musikiden Müziğe: Osmanlı/Türk Müziği: Gelenek ve Modernlik, 4th ed (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi
Yayınları, 2022).
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musicology. Therefore, he believed depoliticization of musicology from the state’s concern on

culture and identity is a must to create more ideal, relevant consciousness of Ottoman history

of music.11

The book by Behar, Musikiden Müziğe, contains chapters about biographies, primary

materials, and articles. It covers biographies of important Ottoman musicians who lived

between the 17th and 20th centuries. These ‘musicians’ manuscripts and note sheets12 were

crucial sources because Ottoman musicology had limited primary sources. One of the important

musicians of the period was Ali Ufki Bey (Wojciech Bobowski), 1610-1675, who wrote many

compositions with Western techniques. Ali Ufki should be considered in his time and should

not understood as a participator of a general progression of Ottoman music due to his

uniqueness and his documents that he left behind. These compositions, which can be found at

the French National Library, indicate that Western composition techniques were implemented

much earlier than the usual knowledge. However, musicologists like Tura did not realize that

Ottoman music’s modernization and its features can be observed during 17th century with the

partake of Western musicians. In contrast, Tura created a historical narrative that Ottoman

musical modernization immediately during the reign of Selim III. (r. 1789-1807) and Mahmud

II. (r. 1808-1839).13 Usually, the abolishment of the Mehteran Band in 1826 and the foundation

of “Mızıka-i Hümayun” the next year were considered the threshold of Ottoman musical

modernization. The introduction of the Türk Musikisinin Meseleleri by Tura starts with the

same mistake by accepting this false notion.14 In short, this narrative creates a sharp

transformation of music through the 19th century. Even during Selim III’s reign, the

11
Behar, Musikiden Müziğe: Osmanlı/Türk Müziği: Gelenek ve Modernlik, 7-9.
12
Cem Behar acquired most of his primary sources and manuscripts from French National Library “Bibliothéque
Nationale de France.”
13
Tura, Türk Musikisinin Mes’eleleri: Gözden Geçirilmiş ve Genişletilmiş Yeni Baskı, 9-11.
14
Ibid., 9-11.
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transformation of the Mehteran Band can be observed in the firsthand sources of Mahmud Raif

Efendi’s (1760-1807) writings.15

Along with Ali Ufki, Charles Fonton (1725- 179?) had important works on Oriental

music. Fonton’s essays focused on the music practiced during the 18th century Ottoman capital,

Constantinople. Include with Fonton’s biography, Behar translated Fonton’s writings into

Turkish in order to contribute primary sources to history.16 Fonton was a “dragoman” who

worked in Istanbul for seven years. His writings usually compared Eastern and Western

musical concepts, and Behar considers them important because of Fonton’s reputation and

rarity of sources. Behar also includes musicologists who lived through the transition period to

Republic. Zekai Dedezade Hafız Ahmed Efendi (1869-1943) and Hayri Tümer (1902-1973)

played a considerable role in publishing 19th century Ottoman music. Behar’s main sources

were usually manuscripts from French and British national libraries. He states that Turkish

libraries like Ankara National Library (Milli Kütüphane) and Süleymaniye Yazma Eser

Kütüphanesi lack decent catalogs regarding Ottoman/Turkish musical studies. Lastly, Behar

also includes several documents written in the Karaman language in his book. According to

him, these documents were important for understanding the music’s connection with Greek,

Byzantine, and Orthodox cultures during the late Ottoman period.17

As explained, Behar believed the first musicologists of the Turkish Republic made

irrelevant arguments about Ottoman music. Musicologists could not objectively investigate the

reasons behind the transformation of listening habits because of their lack of historical

education and political/national biases. However, Yalçın Tura, one of the Republic’s important

musicology pioneers, has quite the opposite argument. Tura mentions and commemorates his

15
Kemal Beydilli, İlhan Şahin, Mahmud Raif Efendi ve Nizam-ı Cedid’e Dair Eseri, Vol. 2, No. 36, (Ankara:
Türk Tarih Kurum Basımevi, 2001): 15.
16
Cem Behar, Klasik Türk Musikisi Üzerine Denemeler, 1st ed. (İstanbul: Bağlam Yayınları, 1987).
17
Behar, Musikiden Müziğe: Osmanlı/Türk Müziği: Gelenek ve Modernlik: 244-265.
 8

superiors and supports their arguments about Ottoman music, which Behar finds highly

political, national, and irrelevant.18

Unlike Cem Behar, Tura included Dmitrie Cantemir (1673-1723), an 18th century

Ottoman historian and musicologist. Cantemir or “Kantemiroğlu” in Turkish, had saved an

important amount of Ottoman musical composition with notation techniques developed by him.

Tura also asks key questions like “What is the use of music?” or “Why are we listening to

music?”. These questions which I find like Marc Bloch’s question “What is the use of

history?”19 which are relevant to my study, are also highly helpful in understanding the

listening habits and consumption of the Ottoman music composed in the 19th century. Tura’s

book contains key firsthand materials like the words of Naser Abdülbaki Dede (1765-1821),

who lived through the 19th century and explained music as such: “Enjoying the sound of the

melodies is basic human nature. Humans tend to sing when they are melancholic or happy.

Nobody can enjoy music from peasant to lord without knowing the essentials of the music

theory because it cures the soul and the body. For certain people, music is the form of God and

its illumination.”20

One of the problematic arguments of Tura’s book is about the musical concerns through

early Ottoman Istanbul. According to him, after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman

rulers like Mehmed II. (r. 1451-1481) and his son Bayezid II. (r. 1481-1512) considered music

as an important substance in the capital city.21 Tura legitimizes his arguments about the music

in the Empire’s early years by referring to some “documents” but did not mention their names,

places, or any features. The bibliography of the book also does not have any source relevant to

the fact that Mehmed II’s reforms regarding music. Tura also mentions certain notation

18
Yalçın Tura, Türk Musikisinin Mes’eleleri: Gözden Geçirilmiş ve Genişletilmiş Yeni Baskı, 3rd ed (İstanbul: İz
Yayıncılık, 2017).
19
Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
20
Tura, Türk Musikisinin Mes’eleleri: Gözden Geçirilmiş ve Genişletilmiş Yeni Baskı, 46.
21
Ibid., 95.
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techniques that were tried during the late Ottoman period for record-keeping and music’s

relation with the human spirit in the late Ottoman period.

Understanding music’s stance in history from the perspective of Orientalism will also

indicate ideas about Ottoman high society or elites’ understanding of music. Hence, Namık

Sinan Turan also remarks on this relation and writes about how Edward Said22 established

music’s connection with ideology, nationalism, state, and policy making.23 Turan advises

historians to study more about culture, art, and music. He finds music as a time machine that

enables us to hear voices and sounds from hundreds of years ago. When we listen to and analyze

the 19th-century Ottoman music, we will understand the listening habits, pleasures even the

mere spirit of the old. In fact, Turan claims that listening to certain musicians’ compositions

like Ali Ufki or Dmitrie Cantemir will provide us insights into 19th century Istanbul, the

Ottoman palace, and musical circles. Turan aims to create this 19th century Ottoman high

society by using music as his historical source. Notes were like words and sentences and Turan

states they provide important historical facts about Istanbul at late Ottoman period. According

to him, music also shows signs of power relations and should study with an interdisciplinary

method.24 Turan also complains about the scarcity of works done by interdisciplinary methods

in Turkey. Cantemir mentioned, and Turan also include Evliya Çelebi’s writings about Western

music.

The 19th century Ottoman elite music, which spread out from royal palace to mansions,

became a more different kind of consumption material. Music gained a new symbolic meaning

through the “Westernization” quest and became a commodity that people started to pay. Even

well-known musicians who affected the period’s romantic music like Franz Liszt, had a concert

22
Edward W. Said, Musical Elaborations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
23
Namık Sinan Turan, Portede Saklı Tarih: Toplumsal Tarihin Merceğinden Müzik, 1st ed. (İstanbul: Bilgi
Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2022).
24
Turan, Portede Saklı Tarih: Toplumsal Tarihin Merceğinden Müzik, 11-13
 10

in Istanbul.25 This concert, which was staged in Franchini Mansion at Büyükdere,26 is a good

example of understanding the music’s new place in Istanbul. Another venue for music

consumption was opera, and Turan writes about Sultan Abdülhamid II. (r. 1876-1909) and his

passion for opera.27

All the mid-20th century authors that I have cited above have complained about the

rarity of the sources of Turkish music. However, when we get closer to the 21st century,

reaching the information becomes easier. Musicologist and historian Ahmet Şahin Ak believes

the literature and sources of Turkish music were quite rich and satisfying in 2003.28 This shows

that in recent years, the sources for music history? In 21st century became easier to reach and

available for historians. Ak, also one of the first music historians, who was able to use modern

research technologies like computer and internet in case of research in his work and he stated

its emphasis on the field. For Ak, studying Turkish/Ottoman musical culture is essential in a

post-modern 21st century environment. It is the century of global popular culture where

everyone talks, wears, and listens to the same materials. However, Turkish musical culture is

inveterate. A culture has been progressing even before Islam and great migrations. Ak’s

primary motivation is to keep this culture alive and pass it on to his colleagues. Ak here, has

an important point for cultural studies to work on history. In other words, Ak’s research

possibly has had become a material for understanding certain coterie’s daily lives, their habits,

hobbies, and activities. In short, his consideration of working the cultural history -in this thesis’

case music- can conclude certain historical materials to work on.

Ak’s work periodizes Turkish music into different fragments, and the footnote of his

book shows that most of the knowledge derived from the encyclopedia of Turkish music by

25
Turan, Portede Saklı Tarih: Toplumsal Tarihin Merceğinden Müzik, 189-199.
26
Ibid., 195.
27
Ibid., 209-220.
28
Ahmet Şahin Ak, Türk Musikisi Tarihi, 4th ed. (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2018), 13-14.
 11

Yılmaz Öztuna (1930-2012).29 Öztuna’s encyclopedia is essential for music research and

contains a neat categorization of music and its history. Ak uses Öztuna’s encyclopedia to

explain Turkish music’s history and geography. He also includes Oriental and Arabesque

music’s influence over Western classical compositions. Many musicians but most knowns like

Mozart (1756-1791)30 and Beethoven (1770-1827)31 used Ottoman, Arabesque and Oriental

music’s features, patterns, and forms. Then he explains notation techniques back in the Empire.

He mentions the name of musicians like Ali Ufki, Dmitrie Cantemir, and Hamparsum

Limonciyan (1768-1839). He also states the musical education institutions in the Empire like

mevlevihanes, convents, mosques, mehterhane, private institutions and lastly, European

conservatory style “darülelhan”.32 Lastly, Ak’s work indicates different periods of Turkish

music through history and its one of the most comprehensive works in case of content. Along

with Öztuna’s encyclopedia, one other encyclopedia especially about musicians of Turkish

music attract my attention through the research. “Türk Bestekarları Ansiklopedisi”33 gives little

biographies and work samples of musicians who lived through 19th century Ottoman Empire

to early Republican period. The list of different musicians with different ethnicities,

backgrounds and cultures effects their vision of music and contribute different aspects and

means.

Lastly, biography samples and other theses are included in the literature review. One of

the influential musicians of the 19th century Istanbul is Giuseppe Donizetti (1788-1856). He

came to Istanbul in 1826 and became the headmaster of the “Muzika-i Hümayun”. Donizetti

composed many influential marches like Mahmudiye and Mecidiye with the first European

29
Yılmaz Öztuna, Türk Musikisi Ansiklopedisi, (İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 1976).
30
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, “Piano Sonata No. 8 in A Minor”, “Rondo Alla Turca”.
31
Ludwig van Beethoven, “Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125”, “Turkish March, Op. 113 No. 4”.
32
Ahmet Şahin Ak, Türk Musikisi Tarihi, 4th ed. (Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 2018), 37-39.
33
Nihat Uzcan, Başlangıçtan Günümüze Kadar Türk Bestekarları Ansiklopedisi: Şarkı Güfteleri ve Türküler,
(İstanbul: Genel Dağıtım İtimat Kitabevi, 1978).
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style of march, orchestra, and polyphonic texture. Emre Aracı, as the writer of this biography,34

includes Donizetti’s background in Napoleon’s army, his visit with Franz Liszt using important

primary materials like compositions, mails, and photographs.

The final historical research of the literature review is about 19th century Ottoman

musical circle. 19th century experienced dozens of transformations in social consumption

habits. Music is one aspect of that, and a new instrument dominated this consumption. Piano

as a product and instrument finds its place in the empire in 19th century and became one of the

most popular and characteristic Western instruments. Arif Güzel’s master thesis35 explains the

musical evolution by explaining western pianists’ entry into palace. Through this period, new

education institutions and foreign teachers will emerge, new piano sheets published, and certain

people or group became related with this instrument. This new music style was one of the

western materials that Istanbul experienced through 19th century and important for

understanding the “modernization” in the Ottoman intellectual’s mind. The reason why the

inclusion of Aracı’s and Güzel’s writings is their contemporary dates. As modern samples of

historic, musical works, they indicate the transformation of change in historiography through

musical topics.

However, none of the above cited works excluding Namık Sinan Turan and Arif Güzel,

discuss the importance of social change and the transformation of consumption dynamics

through 19th century Ottoman high society. Music will become a luxurious pleasure material

and its meaning and usage will differentiate. Early musicologists and historians completely

ignored this transformation of meanings and created a very limited historical context. Almost

none of the works about Ottoman/Turkish music had an intention to create this historical

context before explaining the history of music thus it caused certain sandcastle arguments.

34
Emre Aracı, Donizetti Paşa: Osmanlı Sarayının İtalyan Maestrosu (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2006).
35
Arif Güzel, “XIX. Yüzyılda Sultanın Mülkünde Piyano” (MA diss., Balıkesir University, 2020).
 13

Therefore, the works on history of Ottoman/Turkish music creates debates and polemics. The

motivation here is to create more reliable and solid base by working social dynamics, formation

of Ottoman high society, and create a historical context around their needs and demands. Even

commercial documents about instruments, payrolls of foreign (usually Western) music

teachers, manuscripts about how to learn certain instruments can say something about people’s

understanding about music. When the transformations and the formation of new consumption

habits in the society studied firmly, understanding the music will be more coherent and viable

in a historical context.
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Historical Context

Ottoman music in urban areas, especially in Istanbul during the 19th century, embodied

the musical features of many different cultures. Mostly, Arabic and Greek music contributed

to the structure and instrumentation. In addition, music that played around the city had

synthesized, especially with Byzantine music’s features such as form and instrumentation.36

After the 19th century, with the introduction of European music37 to the Empire, the city

experienced a new musical taste and pleasure. The reason why I gave such an example before

explaining Istanbul’s historical context is that cities like Istanbul are described as “provinces

ruled under despotic monarchies without any characteristic texture” by historians and authors

like Machiavelli, Montesquieu, or Weber.38 On the contrary, recent studies show the opposite.

For example, Edhem Eldem’s studies about the metropolises of the Ottoman Empire especially

Istanbul, Izmir, and Aleppo, show that these cities had their own characteristic dimensions like

demography, relationship of different cultures, dimensions of coterie and the similarities and

differences of their consumption habits. For the sake of creating and understanding the

historical context of the 19th century Ottoman music, these dimensions should be studied by

historians of music.

Istanbul’s geography and inhabitants played a huge role in shaping the city’s musical

tastes. Its strategic location between the Levant and Black Sea, its huge natural harbors around

Golden Horn, today’s Eminönü, Karaköy, and Galata attracted merchants and traders from

various places. The Genoese merchants had a trade colony around the Galata district even

before the Ottomans conquered the city.39 After the conquest of Constantinople, Galata’s

36
For more precise understanding of Byzantine music, I recommend works such as Byzantine Ottoman Music in
Constantinople / 13th c. – 18th c. by Petros Tabouris Ensemble and The Greek Classics/Byzantini Mousiki 12os-
20os Aionas/The Best of Byzantine Music 12th-20th Century by Athens Byzantine Orchestra.
37
Mostly French and British
38
Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Masters, Doğu ile Batı Arasında Osmanlı Kenti: Halep, İzmir ve İstanbul
(İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2000), 13.
39
Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Masters, Doğu ile Batı Arasında Osmanlı Kenti: Halep, İzmir ve
İstanbul, 167.
 15

peaceful integration into the Empire, with concessions, transformed the district into a shelter

for Greek, Armenian and Jewish residents of the city and a stopover for foreign merchants like

Genoese and Venetians.40 Eldem also explains the demographic movements of the conquest to

the late periods of the Empire. In time, Muslim and Turkish residents inhabited those areas

while the Christian minorities, merchants, and bureaucrats started to reside in Pera.41 Eldem

contributes and states that Istanbul should not be studied only as a trade city.42 Its place and

harbors are very effective in the case of foreign trade, but on the other hand, the city also

traded/exchanged politics, ideas, culture, and power relations. Through the 19th century, non-

Muslims and foreign merchants played an important role in influencing foreign culture (in this

study’s case) music and instruments. With the influence of English, Dutch, French, and many

other colonial traders and diplomats, Istanbul experienced Western lifestyle and consumption

habits, especially around the elite coterie. During this time, western musicians became more

related to Istanbul, many different Western instruments started to have their place in palaces

and mansions, and Western music started to perform in the city.

For a foreign merchant, Istanbul was nothing more than Galata and today’s Karaköy

around the 19th century. These districts were the centers of foreign trade and foreign

consumption goods, where the ships dropped anchors around the safe waters of Galata, and the

goods made their way into the western-style shops etc., After getting off, Western traders and

seamen would roam around the Galata and probably stop by famous churches and brothels

during their trips. It is naturally expected that many quarrels with Muslim residents, and the

harbor area probably experienced fights and insults between different religions and cultures.

Furthermore, another foreign group was diplomats and ambassadors. Eldem’s research43 shows

40
Ibid., 167-169.
41
District that includes today’s Taksim, Şişhane and Cihangir.
42
Ibid., 155.
43
Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Masters, Doğu ile Batı Arasında Osmanlı Kenti: Halep, İzmir ve
İstanbul, 177.
 16

that many Western elite diplomat classes resided around the outskirts of Pera, Şişhane, and

today’s Cihangir during the early 19th century. Even the administrative branches of the Empire,

which had a foothold at Topkapı Palace, moved outside the city walls during these years. This

dynamism shows that Empire became more and more integrated with the foreign world during

the 19th century. Eldem recommends that the transitions above are the outcomes of the

economic integration of Ottomans during the 19th century. For a more accurate consumption

study, the thesis going to analyze the music’s place in the mentioned economic integration

period. All these demographic transitions, a rise of commerce and diplomacy with Europeans

during 19th century, eventually introduced new Western consumption habits to the Empire and

affected music in Istanbul. Districts that European diplomats and merchants resided became

the center for modern music. Even in today’s Istanbul, places like Pera are well-known with

their music and instrument shops.

The consumption habits of the Istanbul residents and elite groups also changed along

with their social formations. Donald Quataert states that the change in consumption started

around the Tulip Era (1718-1730).44 According to Quataert, consumption transformation first

started with the grocery goods like coffee and tobacco and later spread around textile and

luxurious materials.45 For example, the Ottoman dynasty and elites used the Piano as a

luxurious piece of furniture to decorate their interior and show how elegant and modernized

they were around late 19th century. Murat V’s46 (r. 1840-1904) daughter Fehime Sultan’s

photographs shows here around a piano, and these photographs are good examples for showing

the piano’s placement in the Empire. Fehime Sultan also holds a sheet book almost certainly

44
Donald Quataert, Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1992: An Introduction,
(New York: the State University of New York Press, 2000), 10.
45
Donald Quataert, Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1992: An Introduction,
10-11.
46
Nancy C. Micklewright, “Personal, Public, and Political (Re)Constructions: Photographs and Consumption” in
Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1992: An Introduction, ed. Donald Quataert
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2000), 274.
 17

with the expression of someone told her to hold the book while taking the photograph. It can

be a good example for understanding Western music perception in the Late Ottoman Period.

The reason why Fehime Sultan poses with certain Western instruments and notation books is

due to the symbolized meanings of European culture. This culture, and in this photograph’s

case, music, symbolizes modernity, actuality, wealth, and power. Nevertheless, especially

elites and administrators of the Empire became more related to Western music during the 19th

century. In addition to that, Suraiya Farouqhi’s studies on consumption in Ottoman novels47

states a typical consumption habit during the 19th century. Elites in novels had an “alafranga”

European style of taste and consumption. Consequently, the 19th century changed the Ottoman

elite’s relationship with music and their motivation to consume music. Understanding why

these groups wanted to listen to or consume music is important. Studies48 by Farouqhi shows

that those kinds of activities are class identifiers. Being able to reach luxurious items, activities

and expensive events like balls are exclusive to wealthy people, and it creates a certain

protection of social status. In short, music and the activity of listening music evaluated to a

symbolic meaning during 19th century with other cultural aspects that had been imposed by

Western colonial countries, mainly France.49

Ottoman response to European musical goods such as instruments like the piano is

unique. Eldem’s study indicates that residents of Istanbul did not particularly prefer any

European goods in the market if there were cheaper local options during the early 19th century.

On the other hand, luxury goods like textiles are usually bought from Indians or other countries

rather than Europe. In short, France, British, and Dutch markets experienced a very limited

47
Suraiya Farouqhi, “Research on the History of Ottoman Consumption: A Preliminary Exploration of Sources
and Models” in Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1992: An Introduction, ed.
Donald Quataert (New York: State University of New York Press, 2000), 21.
48
Suraiya Farouqhi, “Research on the History of Ottoman Consumption: A Preliminary Exploration of Sources
and Models,” 39.
49
I did not include the palace music because, I focused on the influence of Western music over social classes and
how it changed the habits of the elites.
 18

number of buyers. Artisans and guilds also tended to organize against any monopoly chances

of the European traders. However, piano and other Western instruments were only crafted in

Western countries and did not experience any kind of market limitations during the 19th

century. In this period, the empire imported a considerable number of Western instruments and

maestros from abroad. Later, Eldem states that the Empire became more and more dependent

on Western goods in the late 19th century. Eventually, it created a huge divide between

modernists and traditionalists.50 Therefore, this separation will bring meanings and

understandings like modernization and progress to Western culture and music, also affected by

this new understanding.

Lastly, the study of music’s relation between different social groups can be useful in

understanding the historical background. Besides, the new consumption habits came to Istanbul

from various European cities like Paris, London, and Vienna. The formation of music’s

commercial aspect and marketing music started primarily around those cities. Derek B. Scott’s

research51 on the social classes and their relationship with music explains how the newly

formed social dimensions (workers, middle classes, aristocrats or bourgeoise) approach music.

Especially in the 19th century, music became more and more related to capitalism and the

luxurious, bourgeoise lifestyle. During this period, music became a cultural trade good, and

Scott uses two important terminologies, “commercialization” and “professionalization.” The

different social dimensions started to have their own taste in music. Pierre Bourdieu explains

it with zones of tastes in music by comparing different groups of society like intellectuals,

workers, or peasants. In addition, musicians also had to tendency to appeal to certain coteries

due to many reasons. The prices of tickets, prestige, and tastes were decisive in the case of

appealing to certain classes.

50
Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, Bruce Masters, Doğu ile Batı Arasında Osmanlı Kenti: Halep, İzmir ve
İstanbul, 224.
51
Derek B. Scott, “Music and Social Class” in The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Music, ed. Jim
Samson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 544.
 19

Bourgeoise concerts were certainly the most prestigious and profitable events for

musicians. However, these concerts addressed a limited amount of society. During the 19th

century, many renowned philharmonics were founded and started to perform in ballrooms and

theaters. In all, music has become more and more consumable through certain lifestyles. In

addition, music markets were founded, and note sheets were started to be purchased around

primary cities in Europe and later marketed around peripheries. No doubt, Istanbul became an

important target for the music trade due to demands by its elite and rich coterie, and the capital

of the Empire became an important hub for European musicians, merchants, and people who

are related to music.

 20

Primary Sources of Music During 19th Century Ottomans

In history of late Ottoman music, the composers and music itself are generally the main

subjects of academic studies. On the contrary, documents below show Ottoman administration

attach importance also to the certain people indirectly related with music.52 In here, opening of

the thesis will investigate the primary documents and people around modern, Western music

in the Empire during the 19th century, especially in the imperial capital. However, most

documents and sources are referring the piano because of its popularity in 19th century Europe

and the Ottoman Empire. Due to its popularity, piano was a dominant instrument in Europe

and Ottomans in the late 19th century. It became one of the luxury elements of Elite and high

society and masters of the piano started to correlate with certain high-class events. Thus, the

arguments and determinations of the thesis revolved around piano and accept the instrument as

a most dominant factor of the late 19th century case of music.

Most of the documents that musicology used for studying the Ottoman Empire

generally inspected the subjects like the important musicians and composers of the period.

Most popular among them were Giuseppe Donizetti and Callisto Guatelli, who composed

impactful pieces of the period. Even Sultans were preoccupied with composing at that time,

and many among them like Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839), Abdülaziz (r. 1861-1876), or Mehmet

VI. (r. 1861-1926) had their own compositions, and those pieces are acknowledged as

important contributions in the history of Turkish and Ottoman music. However, as studying

music through archives in Istanbul, I found that the Directorate of State Archives contains

documents about bills for certain foreign teachers and notices about the international travels of

musicians and teachers. During this period, many musicians and manufacturers who were

related to Western musical instruments were rewarded with orders and medals. Besides, during

52
The word “indirectly” used for certain people like sellers, craftsmen, merchants, repairers, tutors, masters, etc.
 21

studying through the archives, I encountered documents of trade, the importation of modern

musical instruments, and their marketing. All these showed how the relations were established

and shaped around these unique goods. Therefore, my curiosity emerged after encountering the

documents and consequently, thesis will introduce important documents that apprise 19th

century music in Istanbul.

As a result, The Directorate of State Archives contains frequent amounts of documents

about music thus due to the aim of the subject, research’s focus limited to particular topics, and

the investigation focused on certain instruments like piano.53 The piano had certain

characteristics in the Late 19th world and Ottoman Empire. Most obvious is that the piano is

the most modern instrument of the period, and it symbolizes the idea of modernity. First

diagrams and plans of the piano can be seen in the letters exchanged between instrument maker

Bartolomeo Cristofori54 and poet Scipione Maffei in 1711.55 The design and materials of the

instrument will evolve afterward, and the piano will become one of the most popular

instruments at the threshold of the 19th century. On the other hand, the impact of the instrument

can be seen in the Ottoman Empire merely after hundred years, when the Ottoman market

started to influx with Western goods.

Most of the documents about the piano contain information about diplomatic coterie,

ambassadors, and high society. For example, many proceedings can be found in the Directorate

of State Archives which contains information like diplomatic meetings. Particularly one of

them was between American ambassador Bolan, the bride of the Doctor Filori and a piano

53
My research led me to believe there are numerous primary sources around piano in the late period of the empire.
For example, when I search the keyword “piano” in the state archives, I encounter at least 232 primary sources
and documents about the subject. These subjects include palace musicians, merchants, repairmen, manufacturers,
teachers, and their salaries. In addition, archives include sources about manufactories and shops from abroad,
certain diplomatic acts about music and bills of sale of instruments. The actors of the documents are usually the
foreign, elite and intelligentsia section of the Empire and music plays an important role in the diplomatic and
administrative field of the late 19th century.
54
Known as the inventor of the modern-day piano.
55
Stuart Isacoff, A Natural History of the Piano (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 48-52.
 22

master Mis Harbikli as a guest.56 These kinds of documents show the location of the piano

started to shape around mansions, embassies, palaces, and important households. Certain

masters of the instrument started to have time with high society. Also, there are many

documents that state a certain ceremony, in order to giving certain orders like “Osmaniye

Nişanı”57 or “Mecidiye Nişanı”58 for certain piano masters, players, and composers. In 1857,

Austrian piano master Josef Mesmer was rewarded with an Order of Medjidie because of his

composed marches.59 In addition to Josef Mesmer, piano teacher Dö Seb60 Doled Efendi, as

well as piano merchant Komeno Nikr, were rewarded with orders in the 1880s.61 Similarly, in

1894, Monsieur Galiston, who is responsible for tuning62 pianos, was rewarded with the Medal

of Industry.63 Thus, especially in the second half of the 19th century, people related to Western

instruments like the piano (but especially the piano) started to get rewarded with imperial

orders, and they became more frequent in the diplomatic, and elite milieu. These sources point

certain group of musicians and music workers started to become frequent and valuable in late

19th century Ottoman Empire. On the other hand, not only masters or teachers but also Komeno

Nikr’s example shows that people that are related to the trade of the instrument got certain

imperial orders. This example shows that the piano’s commerce was important, as well as its

visual and tonal value in palaces and mansions. In short, it is possible to argue that the music

played an important cultural role in Empire’s last decades. Groups of musicians, traders and

workers related to music became valuable for Ottoman administration. Some of them played

56
D.S.A.O.A., HR.MKT., 196/92, 16/11/1273.
57
Order of Osmaniah.
58
Order of Medjidie.
59
HR. MKT., 225/20, 10/06/1274.
60
I could not find any evidence on the name “Dö Seb”. Probably it was the Turkish pronunciation and abridgment
of “Sebastian” or another name “Dosab”. However, it is my guess and except for this document, I could not find
any knowledge about a piano teacher named Sebastian or Dosab in the Ottoman Empire. In the thesis, the names
that I could not find with the original or English writing, will be on the thesis as their original appearance on
Ottoman texts.
61
İ.. DH.., 836/67240, 02/10/1298; İ.. DH.., 854/68476, 07/06/1299.
62
Tuning is adjustment of an instrument for establishing correct pitches and intervals.
63
İ.. TAL., 65/3, 04/05/1312.
 23

their roles in important diplomatic and ambassy meetings and gatherings by simply performing

or playing music. Others manufactured, repaired, or maintained expensive instruments in order

to facilitate Empire’s modern image.

Furthermore, many entries with music contain data about the orders. These orders were

given to not only the Empire’s musicians and composers, but also many shops, institutions, and

people from abroad rewarded with this imperial order. To give an example, one document

states an imperial order was sent to the Prussian King during 1860s.64 However, the document

states Ottoman administration intended and requested the Prussian King to put the imperial

order on his personal piano. In 1893, Chamber of Commerce65 rewarded Veysioğlu Mustafa

Efendi with a medal of industry due to manufacturing of a piano.66 These kinds of events

showed that during the 19th century, the Ottoman administration encouraged the manufacture

of such goods as Western instruments and put a value on them.

At the end of the 19th century, precisely in the year 1900, one of the most famous piano

manufacturers, Steinway & Sons in New York, requested to put an Ottoman coat of arms in

their factory.67 Likewise, Austrian, imperial head pianist Monsieur Erbar requested the same

coat of arms for his shop in Vienna.68 These documents are important for understanding how

the Ottoman Empire’s approach to the industry and manufacturing of pianos, and how they

administer their relationship with Western industry. In short, the Ottoman administration, in

the last half of the 19th century, had the intention to encourage masters of the art, trade, and

manufacturing of this unique instrument. Many medals and orders were given to certain people,

and the relations between manufacturers and traders were established neatly. In a word, the

64
HR.TO.., 29/29, 23/03/1278.
65
“Dersaadet Ticaret Odası ve Numunehaneliği”
66
İ.. TAL., 27/8, 19/01/1311.
67
HR.TH.. 244/76.
68
DH. MKT., 2318/38, 12/11/1317.
 24

elites, Western ambassadors, and diplomats in the empire and their relationship with Western

music made the music and its instruments noteworthy for administration.

In all, the Ottoman administration must understand Western music’s importance and

impact through modernization. During diplomatic meetings and events, music and musicians

were actors among the administrative staff, elites, and statesmen. In addition, there were many

palace musicians granted certain imperial orders and medals during the late 19th century.

Nevertheless, it shows how the state places emphasis on encouraging Western musical practice.

It is crucial to understand that music is cultural, artistic, and fancy. The Ottoman administration

understood and approached Western music as a tool to grant the Empire’s progress through

modernization. Not only musicians but also traders, manufacturers, and repairmen played an

important role in music, and their role is mostly unnoticed by historians of music. Lastly, it

must be comprehended that music is an expensive institution to facilitate. There are no

alternative sellers of Western instruments, notebooks, and sheets. During the 19th century,

sources in the state archives show that the Empire could buy certain instruments only from

European countries like France, Britain, or from the United States. At the same time, musicians

and teachers of Western music also imported generally from the European continent, especially

from Austria-Hungary.

State archives also contain important economic documents about the instrument and

practices of music. There are several collections of revenue bills about pianos around different

mansions in Istanbul. The Ottoman state had a neat work about the documentation of the

instrument and recorded almost all of them in case of where it came from, who bought it, and

its whereabouts. This intention shows how the piano was economically important in the late

19th century. For example, the state recorded a piano that was bought for the Mirgun Mansion
 25

(today’s Emirgan) in 1858.69 Because of its expense, many of them were held at customs or

returned to their seller. In addition, archives also contain information about debts because of

purchasing a piano. Osmanoğlu Dynasty’s relation and padishahs’ propensity with Western

music were also decisive for the piano’s place in the Empire. One document indicates Cemile

Sultan (1843-1915)70 brought a piano from Austria, and photos from Nancy C. Micklewright’s

essay indicate Sultan’s daughters were interested in piano during the late 19th century.71

The salaries of the musicians and teachers (but piano teachers especially) take an

important part in the archives. The documentations of the yearly or regular salaries of the

teachers shows how the state attached importance to them. Being a musician with a job that

provides regular salary in 19th century is almost infeasible. However, Ottoman archives

contains several sources about musicians and teachers got paid regularly in palaces, mansions

and schools. For example, in the year 1892, piano teacher Madam Theresa had a salary of 600

kuruş.72 In addition, in the same year, piano teacher Hidayet Efendi, had a salary of 2000 kuruş

at the Izmir Sanayi-i Musikıye.73 In one particular document, state warned “Palas Rum İnas

Mektebi”74 directory for not paying the salaries of teachers. German piano teacher Mary von

Famer Locher in 1895 could not get her salaries due to the financial difficulties and it was one

of the State’s considerations.75 These kinds of documents are important for understanding how

the Ottoman administration took note of Western music’s importance during the late 19th

century. Clearly, the state puts an effort on paying the salaries of the piano teachers regularly

and considers complaints by them. Value of the people who related with Western music in the

69
HH,İ…, 32/15, 19/11/1275.
70
Abdulmecid’s daughter.
71
Nancy C. Micklewright, “Personal, Public, and Political (Re)Constructions: Photographs and Consumption” in
Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550-1992: An Introduction, ed. Donald Quataert
(New York: State University of New York Press, 2000): 274.
72
BEO, 233/17408, 22/12/1310
73
İ.., HUS., 17/95, 21/04/1311
74
Palace Rum Girl’s School.
75
MF.MKT., 259/62, 29/10/1312
 26

empire increased especially in the second half of the 19th century. Therefore, modernization of

the Empire inclines many musicians from abroad to come and give lessons in the Empire.
 27

Conclusion

The history of Ottoman music in Turkey (precisely 19th century modern music) is

studied by musicians and academics since the early republican periods of thirties and forties to

today’s world. The attitude, approach, and the methods of studying music’s history will be

developed through time and more historical works were started to be published in Turkey.

However, the analysis on the historical studies of Ottoman music signs the absence of a

narrative about certain people who works in the musical sphere. The Directorate of State

Archives contains primary sources about teachers, musicians, repairers, manufacturers, and

dealers who shaped and contribute the 19th century Ottoman modern music. The thesis

uncovers those certain people and introduce them into historical writing of Ottoman music and

contribute the general narrative with different sources.

 28

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