MODULE 2: Waste Water Treatment Methods GODS GRACE

1 What is a fluidized bed bioreactor short note?

A Fluidized-bed reactors (FBR) are the most popular reactor configurations employed for

reactions involving solid reactants. In the FBR, a fluidization medium (gas or liquid) is

passed through the bed of solid reactants at high enough velocities to suspend the solid.

2 Write a notes on Anaerobic Fluidized Bed Reactor?

A An anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR) utilizes sand and activated carbon as the
media for microorganism growth. Wastewater enters the reactor through the bottom of
the reactor. Media are kept in the fluidized state by controlling the up-flow velocity of the
wastewater stream in such a way that the weight of the media particles equals the drag
force exerted by the wastewater. The height of the fluidized bed is stabilized. On average,
a packing size of 0.3-0.8 mm and up-flow wastewater velocities of 10-30 m/h can be used
in order to provide 100% bed expansion. The depth of the fluidized bed ranges between
4 and 6 m (Figure 1).

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 However, in the AFBR process, due to the decrease in particle density of the media after
the accumulation of biomass on the surface, particle density can drop. As a result, particles
tend to wash Influent out from the reactor. Therefore, it is necessary to remove the
attached biomass from a portion of the media from time to time. After cleaning, the
particles are returned to the reactor and the separated biomass is wasted as sludge. Due to
high turbulence and the thin biofilms developed in the AFBR, biomass capture is
relatively weak; therefore, an AFBR is better suited for wastewater with mainly soluble
COD

FIGURE 1 Anaerobic fluidized bed reactor (AFBR)

3 What are fluidized bed reactors, Principle and Advantages?

A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor that can perform a wide range of
multiphase chemical processes. In this reactor, a fluid (gas or liquid) is transported at high
enough speeds through a solid granular material (typically a catalyst) to suspend the solid
and force it to behave like a fluid. Fluidization, as a result of this process, provides a
number of significant benefits to an FBR.
As a result, FBRs are used in a variety of industrial settings.

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Principle behind fluidized bed reactor
In a fluidized bed reactor, the solid substrate material (the catalytic material upon which
chemical species react) is often supported by a porous plate known as a distributor. The
fluid is then driven up through the solid material via the distributor. The solids stay in
place while the fluid travels through the voids in the material at lower fluid velocities. A
packed bed reactor is what this is called. The reactor will reach a point where the force of
the fluid on the solids is sufficient to balance the weight of the solid material as the fluid
velocity is raised. At this low fluidization velocity, this stage is known as incipient
fluidization. When this minimal velocity is exceeded, the contents of the reactor bed
expand and swirl around, similar to an agitated tank or a boiling pot of water.
The reactor has been converted to a fluidized bed. Various flow regimes can be observed
in this reactor depending on the operating parameters and solid phase features. When this
minimal velocity is exceeded, the contents of the reactor bed expand and swirl around,
similar to an agitated tank or a boiling pot of water.
Fluidized Bed Reactors in waste water treatment plants-
Natural wastewater accumulates in the plant and flows freely through it. To optimize
the physical and biological processes, an integrated limitation ensures that the flow is
equalized. There are no revolving pieces in the wastewater with this method. Sludge is
transported using compressed air and a maintenance-free airlift pump.
Advantages of Fluidized Beds Reactors
1: Uniform particle mixing: Fluidized beds do not suffer from poor mixing like packed
beds do because of the solid material's inherent fluid-like nature. This thorough mixing
ensures a consistent result, which can be difficult to obtain in other reactor designs.
Elimination of radial and axial concentration gradients improve fluid-solid contact. It is
critical for reaction efficiency and quality.

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 2: Temperature gradients that are consistent: Many chemical reactions necessitate the
addition or removal of heat. Localized hot or cold areas inside the reaction bed, which are
common in packed beds, are avoided in a fluidized environment like an FBR. Local
temperature fluctuations, particularly hotspots, can cause product degradation in other
reactor types. As a result, FBRs are ideal for exothermic processes. Researchers
discovered that FBRs have significant bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients.
3: Continual operation of reactor: The fluidized bed allows for continuous product
withdrawal and introduction of new reactants into the reaction vessel. Due to the
elimination of start-up circumstances in batch processes, manufacturers may create their
various goods more effectively when they operate in a continuous process mode.
4: Maintenance is very low: FBP requires maintenance once or twice a year to ensure
proper operation.
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DISCUSS FLUIDIZED AEROBIC BED REACTOR
The FBR process is the latest advance in attached growth aerobic biological treatment
technology. FBR employs neutrally buoyant bio film carrier elements, to achieve
outstanding BOD/COD removal productivity from a compact bioreactor. In Fluidized Bed
Reactors, the liquid to be treated is pumped through a bed of small media at a sufficient
velocity to cause fluidization. In the fluidized state the media provide a large specific
surface for attached biological growth and allow biomass concentrations in the range 10-
40 kg/m3 to develop. For aerobic treatment processes the reactor is aerated. This is done
by recalculating the liquid from the reactor to an oxygenator where air, or possibly
oxygen, is bubbled. To overcome problems related to high re-circulation rates, needed
when there is high oxygen demand in the reactor, the reactor might be aerated directly.
The basis for the use of fluidized bed systems is the immobilization of bacteria on solid
surfaces. Many species of bacteria (and also other microorganisms) have the ability for
adhering to supporting matrices. In this process, a volume of Ring Pac media is immersed

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 in water and is fluidized (kept in constant motion) through the movement of gas and liquid
in the treatment reactor. As the media supports a biomass concentration several times that
achievable in activated sludge systems, treatment is significantly more productive.

Advantages

 The FBR requires very less hydraulic retention time (HRT) compared to an
extended aeration or activated sludge process to perform the same BOD reduction
duty.

 High resident biomass concentration, intense mass transfer conditions and

aggressive biomass-sloughing

 action enable the process to rapidly respond to variations in process load

 Less area required for installation.

 Less operation and maintenance cost during plant operations.

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AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL PROCESS

Biological treatment is an important and integral part of any wastewater treatment plant
that treats wastewater from either municipality or industry having soluble organic
impurities or a mix of the two types of wastewater sources. The obvious economic
advantage, both in terms of capital investment and operating costs, of biological treatment
over other treatment processes like chemical oxidation; thermal oxidation etc. has
cemented its place in any integrated wastewater treatment plant. Biological treatment
using aerobic activated sludge process has been in practice for well over a century.

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 Increasing pressure to meet more stringent discharge standards or not being allowed to
discharge treated effluent has led to implementation of a variety of advanced biological
treatment processes in recent years.
6 Anaerobic Biological Process
The up flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) is a single tank process in an
anaerobic centralized or decentralized industrial wastewater or blackwater treatment
system achieving high removal of organic pollutants. Wastewater enters the reactor from
the bottom, and flows upward. A suspended sludge blanket filters and treats the
wastewater as the wastewater flows through it. Bacteria living in the sludge break down
organic matter by anaerobic digestion, transforming it into biogas. Solids are also retained
by a filtration effect of the blanket. The up-flow regime and the motion of the gas bubbles
allow mixing without mechanical assistance. Baffles at the top of the reactor allow gases
to escape and prevent an outflow of the sludge blanket. As all aerobic treatments, UASB
require a post-treatment to remove pathogens, but due to a low removal of nutrients, the
effluent water as well as the stabilized sludge can be used in agriculture

Advantages

 High reduction of BOD & COD

 Can withstand high organic loading rates

 Low sludge production (and, thus, infrequent desludging required)

 Biogas can be used for energy (but usually first requires scrubbing)

 No aeration system required (thus little energy consumption)

 Effluent is rich in nutrients and can be used for agricultural irrigation

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  Low land demand, can be constructed underground and with locally available
material.

7 Write a short note on aerated lagoon?

An aerated lagoon (or aerated pond) is a simple wastewater treatment system consisting
of a pond with artificial aeration to promote the biological oxidation of wastewaters. There
are many other aerobic biological processes for treatment of wastewaters, for example
activated sludge, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors and bio-filters. They all
have in common the use of oxygen (or air) and microbial action to reduce the pollutants
in wastewaters.

Advantages:

• Lagoon systems can be cost effective to design and construct in areas where land is
inexpensive.

• They use less energy than most waste water treatment method.

8 What is the characteristic of an aerated lagoons?

Aerated Lagoons are relatively simple plants to operate and maintain. However, they
require large land areas and are therefore rarely found in densely populated urban areas.
The AL process normally comprises two or three lagoons in a sequence. The first lagoon
has surface aerators, which are like large "paddle mixers".
9 Aerated Lagoons: Types

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Types of Aerated Lagoons:
Aerated lagoons are deep waste stabilization ponds in which sewage is aerated by
mechanical aerators to stabilize the organic matter present in the sewage, rather than
relying only on photosynthetic oxygen produced by algae. Thus, aerated lagoons represent
a system of sewage treatment that is intermediate between oxidation ponds and activated
sludge systems.

(i) Facultative aerated lagoons and

(ii) Aerobic aerated lagoons.

(i) Facultative Aerated Lagoons:

Facultative aerated lagoons are those in which some solids may leave with the effluent
stream and some settle down in the lagoon since aeration power input is just enough for
oxygenation and not for keeping all solids in suspension. As the lower part of such lagoons
may be anoxic or anaerobic while the upper layers are aerobic, these are termed as
facultative aerated lagoons.

Further the facultative aerated lagoons are also known as partially mixed type aerated
lagoons because these are operated at a low rate of aeration which is not adequate to keep
all the solids in suspension.

(ii) Aerobic Aerated Lagoons:

Aerobic aerated lagoons are those which are fully aerobic from top to bottom as the
aeration power input is sufficiently high to keep all the solids in suspension besides
meeting the oxygenation needs of the system. No settlement of solids occurs in these
lagoons and under equilibrium conditions the new (microbial) solids produced in the
system equal the solids leaving the system.

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 Thus, in this case the solids concentration in the effluent is relatively high and some
further treatment is generally provided after such lagoons. If the effluent is settled and the
sludge recycled, the aerobic aerated lagoon, in fact, becomes an activated sludge or
extended aeration type lagoon.

10 What is Oxidation Ditch?

Oxidation ditch is a particular type of extended aeration process, where aeration tank is
constructed in the ditch shape (oval shape). It is a modified activated sludge biological
treatment process that makes use of long solid retention times to remove biodegradable
organic matter.
Oxidation ditches are commonly made of impervious material such as reinforced
concrete, asphalt and clay. The oxidation ditch process is a secondary wastewater
treatment technology, applicable in any situation where activated sludge treatment
(conventional or extended aeration) is appropriate. Oxidation ditches are provided in
wastewater treatment plants that require nitrification of effluent because the oxidation
basins can be sized using an appropriate SRT to achieve nitrification. This technology is
effective and finds its application in small installations, small communities, and isolated
institutions, because it requires more land than conventional treatment plants.

Advantages of Oxidation Ditch

The main advantages of the oxidation ditch is that it can commonly be installed as ‘fit and

forget’ technology with low operational requirements and maintenance costs. Some of the

advantages of oxidation ditches include:

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 i) This process is reliable over other biological treatment processes owing to a constant

water level and continuous discharge;

ii) Resilient to the impact of shock load or hydraulic surge due to long hydraulic retention

time and complete mixing;

iii) Production of less sludge than other biological treatment processes. Only 15 % of

original BOD ends up as sludge;

iv) Energy efficient operations results in reduced energy costs.

Disadvantages of Oxidation Ditch

i) Suspended solids concentrations of wastewater are relatively higher;

ii) Requires a larger land area, limiting the feasibility of oxidation ditches in urban,

suburban, or other areas where land acquisition costs are relatively high.

11 What is a rotating biological contactor?

A rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a type of attached-growth biological wastewater

treatment system and a widely used biological wastewater treatment technology. It
employs a series of rotating discs to support microbial growth and promote the removal
of pollutants from wastewater.

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Rotating biological contactors (RBC), also called rotating biological filters, are fixed-bed
reactors consisting of stacks of rotating disks mounted on a horizontal shaft. They are
partially submerged and rotated as wastewater flows through. They are used in
conventional wastewater treatment plants as secondary treatment after primary
sedimentation of domestic grey- or blackwater, or any other biodegradable effluent. The
microbial community is alternately exposed to the atmosphere and the wastewater,
allowing both aeration and assimilation of dissolved organic pollutants and nutrients for
their degradation. In the Rotating Biological Contactor, wastewater is purified using
microorganism membranes which are attached to disks. The disks slowly rotate with
approximately 40% of surface area submerged in the wastewater.
Rotating biological contactor is very effectively used for treatment of wastewater to
remove the very high organic loading. And now a days, the RBC is used for aerobic
treatment process for removal of organic concentration, also anaerobic RBC is used for
de-nitrification process.

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A series of circular lightweight rotating discs are mounted on a shaft through which
wastewater flows. The partially submerged discs rotate through the wastewater slowly.
The disks are most commonly made of high-density plastic sheets (e.g., Polyethylene,
polystyrene or polyvinylchloride) and are usually ridged, corrugated, or lattice-like to
increase the specific surface area. The surface of the disks provides an attachment site for
bacteria and as the discs rotate, a film of biomass grows on their surfaces. This biofilm is
alternately exposed to either the air or the wastewater as it rotates. The oxygen necessary
for the growth of these microorganisms is obtained by adsorption from the air as the
biofilm on the disk is rotated out of the liquid. As the biofilm passes through the liquid
phase, nutrients and organic pollutants are taken up.

All oxygen, nutrients and organic pollutants are necessary for the growth of the
microorganism and the conversion of the organic matter to CO2. Nitrogen is removed by
nitrification and subsequent denitrification transforming it to gaseous N2, which is
released to the air. The process is optimized by adjusting the speed of rotation and the
depth of submergence. In some designs, air is added to the bottom of the tank to provide
additional oxygen in case of high-strength influents

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RBC can treat domestic black- or greywater and any other low- or high-strength
biodegradable wastewater (e.g., industrial wastewater from food processors or paper
mills). They have been found to be particularly effective for decentralized applications
(on the level of a small to medium community or industry/institution), where electricity
and skilled staff are available.

The performance of RBC systems depends on the design, the temperature, the
concentration of the pollutants, the rotating velocity and the hydraulic retention time.
RBCs can achieve biological oxygen demand (BOD) reductions of 80 to 90 %
(SANIMAS 2005; WSP 2007; WSP 2008). The removal of nitrogen (which is mostly
present as ammonia) by nitrification and subsequent denitrification is also high, because
both aerobic nitrifying bacteria and anaerobic denitrifying bacteria can simultaneously
live in the attached biofilm (HOCHHEIMER 1998), depending on weather they are
situated on the bottom of the film, close to the disc support (and thus in anaerobic or
anoxic conditions) or at the top of the film exposed to the air

Advantages

 High contact time and high effluent quality (both BOD and nutrients)

 High process stability, resistant to shock hydraulic or organic loading

 Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface

 Low space requirement

 Well drainable excess sludge collected in clarifier

 Process is relatively silent compared to dosing pumps for aeration

 No risk of channeling

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  Low sludge production

Disadvantages
 Continuous electricity supply required (but uses less energy than trickling filters
or activated sludge processes for comparable degradation rates)
 Contact media not available at local market
 High investment as well as operation and maintenance costs
 Must be protected against sunlight, wind and rain (especially against freezing in
cold climates)
 Odour problems may occur
 Requires permanent skilled technical labour for operation and maintenance

Applications:
RBCs can achieve a high removal of biodegradable organic pollutants form domestic
black- or greywater as well as from high-strength industrial wastewater (e.g., from dairies,
bakeries, food processors, pulp, paper mills, WSP 2008).

A great variety of applications are known, either as post-treatment for activated sludge
processes in conventional domestic wastewater treatment plants, or for decentralized
application at the level of small to medium-sized communities, industries or institutions.

They are adapted for urban areas mostly: land requirements are low, but continuous and
consequent energy supply as well as semi-skilled labour are indispensable.

12 Discuss on Anaerobic digestion process?

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A Anaerobic digestion is a process through which bacteria break down organic
matter—such as animal manure, wastewater biosolids, and food wastes—in the
absence of oxygen.

 Anaerobic digestion for biogas generation occurs in a sealed vessel known as

a reactor, which can be designed and built in a variety of forms and sizes
depending on the site and feedstock circumstances.
 The waste is broken down (or digested) in these reactors, which produce biogas
and digestate (the solid and liquid material end-products of the AD process),
which is expelled from the digester.

Anaerobic Digestion- Process

 Acetic acid-producing bacteria (acetogens) and methane-producing archaea

are among the microorganisms that influence anaerobic digestion
(methanogens).
 In the conversion of biomass to biogas, these organisms support a number of
chemical processes.
 Physical containment keeps gaseous oxygen out of the process.
 Anaerobes acquire electron acceptors from a variety of sources other than
oxygen gas.
 These acceptors might be derived from the organic material itself or from
inorganic oxides present in the input material.
 When anaerobic systems get their oxygen from organic matter, the
'intermediate' end products are mostly alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids,
as well as carbon dioxide.

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  The intermediates are transformed into the 'final' end products of methane,
carbon dioxide, and trace quantities of hydrogen sulphide in the presence of
specialized methanogens.

Anaerobic Digestion- Process Stages

 Hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis are the four main

stages of anaerobic digestion.
 The overall process can be characterized by a chemical reaction in which
anaerobic microbes biochemically degrade organic material such as glucose to
produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).

C6H12O6 → 3CO2 + 3CH4

Hydrolysis

 Large organic polymers make up the majority of biomass.

 These chains must first be broken down into their smaller constituent parts in
order for the bacteria in anaerobic digesters to access the material's energy
potential.
 Other bacteria can quickly access these constituent parts, or monomers, such
as sugars.
 Hydrolysis is the process of breaking these chains and dissolving the smaller
molecules into a solution.

Acidogenesis

 Acidogenesis is a biological process that causes acidogenic (fermentative)

bacteria to break down the remaining components.

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  Fatty acids, as well as ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide, as
well as other byproducts, are produced here.
 Acidogenesis works in a similar fashion to how milk spoils.

Acitogenesis

 Acetogenesis is the third stage of anaerobic digestion.

 Simple molecules produced during the acidogenesis phase are digested
further by acetogenins, resulting in acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.

Methanogenesis

 The biological process of methanogenesis is the final stage of anaerobic

digestion.
 Methanogens utilize the intermediate products from the previous stages to
produce methane, carbon dioxide, and water.

Anaerobic Digestion- Advantages

 Net Energy Producer: It is a net energy-producing process that generates

biogas, which is a renewable energy source.
 Sanitizes the Feedstock: It sanitizes the feedstock/waste that passes through
it as long as the temperature remains above a set point for a set amount of
time (pasteurized).
 Decreases Stench: It decreases stench to levels below that of unprocessed
trash. Consider the difference between spreading manure and spreading the
same material after anaerobic digestion, which is known as "digestate."

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 Less Pollution: It is far less likely to pollute the environment than dumping
untreated organic waste on land.

Anaerobic Digestion- Disadvantages

 Huge Investment: Commercially, it necessitates a significant investment in

huge tanks and other process vessels on farms and at wastewater treatment
works (WwTWs).
 Foul Odor: When run inefficiently, the process of anaerobic digestion can
produce a foul odor.
 Low-Efficiency of Carbon Conversion: Does not convert as much of the
carbon in the biomass to biogas as gasification can.
 Longer Initiation Period: Because methane-producing organisms develop at
a slower rate than aerobic species, it takes longer to start the process.

Anaerobic Digestion- Applications

 Anaerobic digestion is well adapted to organic material and is extensively used

for the treatment of industrial effluent, wastewater, and sewage sludge.
 Anaerobic digestion is a simple procedure that can significantly reduce the
amount of organic waste that would otherwise be deposited at sea, buried in
landfills, or burned in incinerators.
 In developed countries, pressure from environmental legislation on solid waste
disposal methods has expanded the use of anaerobic digestion as a mechanism
for lowering waste volumes and producing usable byproducts.

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 Conclusion

Anaerobic digestion of organic waste has garnered a lot of attention since it has a
multitude of environmental and economic benefits. Anaerobic digestion is a viable
option for treating organic waste, meeting local energy demands, reducing trash, and
improving energy security and air quality. Materials that would normally be
discarded get a second chance using this procedure. As a result, in order for the
anaerobic digestion technology to reach its full potential, policymakers should adopt
a standardizing procedure that encourages the redirection of "waste to landfill" to
"waste to reuse," as well as the use of low-carbon gas for energy generation.

13 Explain Anaerobic filter?

An anaerobic filter is a fixed-bed biological reactor with one or more filtration

chambers in series. As wastewater flows through the filter, particles are trapped and
organic matter is degraded by the active biomass that is attached to the surface of the
filter material.

This technology is efficient in removal of suspended solids and BOD. When used as
a primary treatment followed by secondary aerobic treatment, it is efficient in

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 removal of BOD, COD and nutrients of high strength effluent at a lower open. This
is a simpler and robust anaerobic treatment. We have successfully installed anaerobic
filters for bulk drugs and gasket manufacturing industries.

14 Explain activated sludge process?

Activated sludge refers to a mass of microorganisms cultivated in the treatment

process to break down organic matter into carbon dioxide, water and other inorganic
compounds. The activated sludge process has three basic components: 1) a reactor in
which the microorganisms are kept in suspension, aerated and in contact with the
waste they are treating; 2) liquid-solid separation; and 3) a sludge recycling system
for returning activated sludge back to the process. There are many variants of
activated sludge processes, including variations in aeration method and in the way
the sludge is returned to the process.
This technology is very effective for BOD, COD and nutrients removal and provides
cost-effective treatment with minimal maintenance however it requires large area and
power supply. We have successfully executed EPC contracts and supplied package
plants for waste water treatment based on ASP for Dairy, Food, Pesticide, Textile,
Bulk Drugs, Pharma Formulation, Chemical industries, buildings and domestic
effluent.

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15 Explain Anaerobic contact process

The anaerobic contact process is a type of anaerobic digester. Here a set of reactors
are created in series, where biomass is separated and returned to the complete
mixture. This recycled material is pumped up into the bottom of the first reactor, an
up-flow reactor.
The essential feature of the anaerobic contact process is that the washout of the active
anaerobic bacterial mass from the reactor is controlled by a sludge separation and
recycles system. The major problem in the practical application of the contact process
has always been the separation (and concentration) of the sludge from the effluent
solution. For this purpose, several methods have been used or were recommended for
use, e.g., plain sedimentation.
settling combined with chemical flocculation, with vacuum degasification, floatation
and centrifugation. A basic idea underlying the contact process is that it is considered
necessary to thoroughly mix the digester contents e.g., by gas recirculation, sludge
recirculation, or continuous or intermittent mechanical agitation. This is generally
used for concentrated wastewater treatment such as distillery wastewater.

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 Several procedures, such as plain sedimentation, settling mixed with chemical
flocculation, vacuum degasification, flotation, and centrifugation, have been
employed or advised for this purpose. The contact process is based on the premise
that completely mixing the digester contents is required, such as by gas-recirculation,
sludge-recirculation, or continuous or intermittent mechanical agitation. This is
commonly used to treat concentrated wastewater, such as that from distilleries.
16 Explain Disinfectant chlorination and Ozonation?

1. Chlorination: Chlorine is mixed with water in a chlorinator; which is a high

tower having a number of baffle plates water and required quantity of
concentrated chlorine solution are introduced from its top during their
passage through the tower. They get thoroughly from its top during the
passage through the tower. They get thoroughly mixed and then sterilized
water is finally taken out from the bottom.
Cl2 + H2O -- HOCl + HCl
Germs + Hoc -- Germs are killed.
Advantages:
(i) less space is enough
(ii) Effective and economical
(iii) Stable and no deterioration
(iv) Produces no salts
(v) Ideal disinfectant
Disadvantages:
(i) Excess of chlorine causes unpleasant taste and odour.
(ii) More effective at below pH 6.5 and less effective at higher pH
values.

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 2. Ozonisation Ozone is powerful disinfectant which can be prepared by
passing silent electric discharge through pure and dry oxygen. Ozone is
highly unstable and breaks down, liberating nascent oxygen.
This nascent oxygen kills bacteria as well as oxidises the organic matter
present in water.
Advantages: Removes colour, odour and taste.
Disadvantages: The method is costly.

17 Write notes on adsorption and filters?

Adsorption is the phenomenon of molecules of a material adhering to the surface of

a liquid or solid. The adsorbate is the material that gets adsorbed on a surface, while
the adsorbent is the substance on which it is adsorbed. The process takes place on the
surface of the interface.

18 What is a sand filter and explain the types of sand filters?

Sand filtration is primarily used for the removal of suspended matter. The yield in
this case varies between 50 and 99.99%, depending on whether support aids are used.
In addition to suspended matter, COD, BOD, organically bound nitrogen and
phosphate, and undissolved metals are also removed from the wastewater.

Water treatment in nature is done in various ways, one of the most important of which
is the removal of waste products from the water by passing it through a sand bed. In
designing and manufacturing sand filters, this nature-inspired behavior is less costly
than other water treatment methods such as ultrafiltration and nanofiltration to
remove suspended particles in water. Sand filters are actually a type of tank that has
an inlet and an outlet valve and nozzles with sand and silica coating. Particles

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suspended in water will not pass through the filter and nozzle covered with sand
grains, and eventually the water outlet will be clean and purified. The body of sand
filters is made of different materials, the most common of which are metal, fiberglass
and concrete bodies. The metal bodies of this equipment are made of galvanized
sheets and the type of concrete that is mostly used for high-capacity refineries is made
of concrete and is very strong. Fiberglass filters are made from pressed composites
and are also known as FRP sand filters.

Types of sand filters

A very important point in the design of a sand filter is the force that causes water to
pass through the nozzle. Accordingly, and according to the amount of pressure
applied to the water to pass through the filter, sand filters can be divided into several
general groups, which are:

 Slow Sand Filter

This type of sand filter is common in nature and operates without any pressure force.
The passage of water through the sand bed at a completely natural and calm speed in
an area of one square meter, in a day and night, finally produces 3 cubic meters of
purified water. Due to the very low speed of this group of water treatment methods,
it is mostly used for industrial and home environments where the need for treated
water is low. For example, in rural water network treatment plants, sand filter can be
a suitable and cost-effective option.

 Rapid Sand Gravity Filter

This group of sand filters is very similar to the slow and quiet type, and the only
difference is the area of the sand bed through which the water passes. In order to pass

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water with higher pressure and speed, a bed covered with low sand and silica and
about 40 to 100 square meters is considered. In the type of soft sand filter, the area
of the sand bed is considered to be about 300 to 800 square meters. One of the
advantages of this method is the higher purification speed than the slow type. Of
course, it should be noted that because water passes through a small bed of sand, the
speed of soiling of the sand bed increases and therefore requires more washing than
the slow type.

 Rapid Sand Pressure Filter

Rapid Sand Pressure Filter is one of the most widely used types of sand filter that is
mostly used in industrial and even home environments that need faster water
treatment. The passage of water with the pressure entered from the pump causes the
speed of its passage through the sand bed and nozzles to increase, and in a short time
the output of the treated water will be much higher than the previous two methods.
The most common type of pressure filter is pool filters, which are widely used in
home and public pools.

Application of sand filter:

As mentioned before, sand filters are widely used in home treatment plants,
swimming pools, industrial plants, etc. due to the mechanism used in them and
their relatively low cost.

Advantages of water purification with Sand filter:

Extensive use of sand filters shows their great advantages over other water
treatment methods, the most important of which are the following:

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 · Easy installation, maintenance and repair

· Cheap price of sand filter

· Very high diversity in terms of sand filter capacity and water passage rate

· High water purification power with removal of particles larger than 100
microns

· Easy back washing

19 What is the difference between primary and secondary treatment?

The most common initial treatment component is the septic tank which provides
primary treatment. Primary treatment occurs through sedimentation, which involves
the removal of floating (scum) and settleable materials (sludge) present in
wastewater, together with some anaerobic biological treatment and digestion of
accumulated sludge and scum. Secondary treatment involves the removal of
biodegradable organic matter (BOD) and suspended solids (TSS) through the
processes of aeration and filtration. Secondary treatment is typically characterized as
producing a treated wastewater effluent with a BOD of 25 mg/L or less and TSS of
30 mg/L or less. Secondary treatment can also include disinfection to remove harmful
microorganisms using chlorine of ultraviolet light. Tertiary treatment involves the
reduction of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) through more advanced treatment
processes.
20 Notes on screening for waste water treatment

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Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs). Screening removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals
to prevent damage and clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and
appurtenances. Some modern wastewater treatment plants use both coarse
screens and fine screens
1. Coarse Screen

It is meant to protect pumps, valves, pipelines, impellers, and other related

equipment. It is installed at the intake of wastewater before pumping, primary
settling, or grit chamber and is made up of a grid of rods or bars.

2. Fine Screen

These screens are located behind coarse screens and their openings range from 10 -
13mm. These screens are meant to prevent the entry of small debris such as sticks,
bark, leaves, fish, etc.

3.Fixed Screens

Fine Fixed screens are suitable when only a small amount of materials need to be
removed and are often placed just after a bar screen. The openings of these screens
range from 1 - 25mm

4. Band or Belt Screens

These are made up of flexible woven wire mesh screens normally installed for a river
supply. An adjoining bar screen made up of mild steel is also attached to the flexible
woven wire mesh. The movement of these screens is either vertical or horizontal in

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 direction. Jets of water are used from the inside of the screens to remove the debris
that has accumulated/clogged on the outer side of the screen.

Disc Screens

These screens operate in a circular direction. The diameter of these screens ranges
from 2 - 5m and move at a speed of about 0.05m/s

Drum Screens

These screens are made up of hollow drums. The waste water is passed through the
inside/hollow portion of the drum. The solid is retained inside the drum and the
screenings are removed through gravitational action. Jets of water from outside can
also be used to clean the drums through spraying.
21 Notes on grit removal for waste water treatment?

Grit chamber is used to remove sand and other heavy matters(grit) which are
inert inorganic such as metal fragments, rags etc. If not removed in
preliminary treatments, grit in primary settling tank can cause abnormal
abrasive wear and tear on mechanical equipment’s and sludge pumps, can clog
by deposition and can accumulate in sludge holding tanks and digesters.
Therefore grit removal is necessary to protect the moving mechanical
equipment and pump elements from abrasion

Types of grit chambers?

There are three primary categories that are used to categorise grit chambers.

1. Long grit channels with a regulated velocity and a V-shape

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 2. Square-shaped chambers with entrances and exits on opposite sides, a mild
hopper in the shape of a vortex cone, and
3. Centrifugal motion that deposits grit at the bottom of the chambers.

In addition, depending on a number of factors, such as the quantity and quality of the
grit that needs to be processed, the requirements for head loss, the space requirements,
the topography, and the economic considerations with regard to both capital and
operating costs, grit processing can be broken down into the following categories:

 Purified by means of a machine

 Cleansing done by hand

It’s possible that mechanization won’t be cost-effective for relatively small facilities.
When the flow rate at the sewage treatment plant is more than 10 MLD, the use of
mechanical grit removal devices is recommended.

Vortex-type grit chamber

In this particular variety of grit chambers, the sewage is supplied in a tangential

direction in order to generate a vortex-like flow. This form of flow will lead the grit
towards the chamber’s center, and it will then be sucked down to the bottom chamber.
The grit is kept suspended in the liquid with the help of an agitator.

Grit has a heavier specific gravity of 2.4 to 2.65 and settles down as a result of a flow
pattern that is characterized as a vortex. This grit is eventually emptied into a grit
filter bed by gravity or pumped into the beds. The use of this device is beneficial in
circumstances characterized by a wide range of sewage flow rates and durations.

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Aerated grit chamber

It is a specialized type of grit chamber that consists of a tank with air-diffusion tubes
fitted on one side of the tank and a spiral-flow aeration that flows through the tank.
The sewage is made to flow in a helical pattern when it enters the grit chamber due
to the design of the chamber as well as the air within the chamber.

The lighter organic particles are transported along with a roll of the spiral motion and
are finally expelled from the tank, while the heavier grit particles are dragged down
due to the helical flow pattern that is present.

Horizontal flow grit chambers

Horizontal flow grit chambers are a lean open channel with a length of around 10-18
meters and depth of 1-1.3 meter. Velocity in these chambers should be set such that
it carries most organic particles through the chamber, re-suspending any that are
designed. This controlled velocity will allow the weightier grit materials to settle. It’s
advisable to keep a velocity of 0.3 m/s.

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In addition to these three types of grit chambers, a grit chamber is further classified
into two types, depending on the cleaning mechanism.

Mechanically cleaned

Mechanically cleaned grit chambers come with mechanical equipment that

accumulates and washes grit chambers, serving on either intermittent or continuous
basis.

Manually Cleaned

Manually run grit chambers are equipped with adequate capacity to hold the grits
between the time of cleaning.

Advantages of grit chamber:

 The purpose of this is to prevent abnormal wear and abrasion on moving

mechanical equipment in order to cut down on the amount of money spent on
maintenance and the number of times a digester needs to be cleaned because
of an excessive accumulation of grit.
 In order to stop the accumulation of heavy deposits in the pipes and channels,
a grit chamber is used.

Disadvantages of grit chamber:

 Hazardous odors and unstable organic compounds are more likely to be

discharged by them.
 Aeration system control and maintenance will require additional human
resources.

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  Compared to other methods of grit elimination, these methods consume more
energy.

22 Notes on oil removal for waste water treatment?

The removal of oils present in many industrial wastewater streams has become
increasingly necessary in order to accommodate stringent discharge regulations and
growing manufacturing costs. The utilization of ultrafiltration is an effective method
for achieving this separation, allowing for safe discharge or re-use.
23 What is flocculation water treatment?

Flocculation is a water treatment process where solids form larger clusters, or flocs,
to be removed from water. This process can happen spontaneously, or with the help
of chemical agents. It is a common method of stormwater treatment, wastewater
treatment, and in the purification of drinking water.

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 One of the requirements for treated water leaving wastewater plants is the removal of
suspended solids. Small solid particles affect the color of the water and carry
impurities into our natural water sources like rivers and the ocean.

Phosphorus content must also be limited in wastewater as a release of phosphorus

into rivers promotes algae growth. Uncontrolled releases of phosphorus have been
known to cause mass die-offs of fish and other aquatic life.

Some industrial applications generate high levels of phosphorus in their wastewater,

which may even require pre-treatment before releasing it to wastewater treatment
plants.
24 Notes on neutralization for waste water treatment
Neutralization may be used in order to treat acid wastewaters containing metals, the
method comprising increasing the pH of the acid waste by addition of an alkaline
reagent, to form a precipitate and collecting the precipitate.

Neutralization Reaction

When a strong acid reacts with a strong base the resultant salt is neither acidic nor
basic in nature i.e., it is neutral. For example, when HCl (Hydrochloric acid), a strong
acid, reacts with NaOH, a strong base, the resulting salt is sodium chloride and water.

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

When a strong acid reacts with a weak base the resultant salt is acidic in nature. For
example, Fe (NO3)3 is an acidic salt formed due to the neutralization of iron(III)
hydroxide (a weak base) with nitric acid (strong acid)

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 3HNO3 + Fe(OH)3 → Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O

Likewise when a strong base reacts with a weak acid then the resultant salt is basic
in nature. For example, K2CO3 is formed due to the acid-base reaction of potassium
hydroxide (strong base) and H2CO3 (weak acid).

H2CO3 + 2KOH → K2CO3 + 2H2O

When a weak acid and weak base react with each other complete neutralization does
not occur due to incomplete ionization of the acid and base.

25 Notes on coagulation for waste water treatment

Coagulation is the chemical water treatment process used to remove solids from
water, by manipulating electrostatic charges of particles suspended in water. This
process introduces small, highly charged molecules into water to destabilize the
charges on particles, colloids, or oily materials in suspension.
26 What is Coagulation?

Coagulation is a somewhat simple chemical process that involves bringing

insoluble materials together by manipulating the charges of particles, by adding iron
or aluminum salts, such as aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate, to a wastewater
stream. The primary purpose of using a coagulant besides removing vary fine
particles from suspension is that this process results also in less turbidity of the
water, i.e., clearer water.

With coagulants’ positive charge, the negatively charged particles in the water are
neutralized. This causes the suspended solids in the water to bind together into
larger flocs. These larger flocs begin to settle at the base of the water supply. The
larger the size of the particles, the quicker the floc settles.

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 Coagulation helps to remove a number of different pollutants that cause your water
to become dirty or toxic, including:

 Organic compounds and certain dissolved organic materials, commonly

referred to as Natural Organic Matter (NOM) or Dissolved Organic Carbon
(DOC)
 Suspended inorganic precipitates like iron and some metals
 Certain viruses and bacteria

27 What is clariflocculator in water treatment plant

Clariflocculator is a combination of flocculation and clarification in a single tank. It

has two concentric tanks where inner tank serves as a flocculation basin and the outer
tank serves as a clarifier.
The water enters the Clariflocculators flocculator, where the flocculating paddles
aid in the flocculation of the feed particles. The liquid flows radially upward in the
clarifier zone as heavier particles sink to the bottom. The cleared liquid is released
into the peripheral wash through a peripheral weir. The sludge is scraped to the
bottom at the central weir and channelled to the sludge chamber, where it is dumped.
It is a cost-effective and necessary component of wastewater treatment plants and
other raw water treatment facilities. The clarifiers come in a broad variety of forms,
depending on the plant. Large circular open-air clarifiers are preferred in large-scale
wastewater treatment plants. These clariflocculators are ideal for use in water
treatment, waste treatment, and effluent treatment plants. These clariflocculators,
which come in both centre and end driven types, are made up of concentric circular
chambers.
28 what are advanced treatment methods

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Advanced treatment strategies go beyond traditional treatment processes, such as the
typical treatment train of coagulation, flocculation, and filtration used in drinking
water utilities or the preliminary, primary, and secondary treatment used in
wastewater utilities. These processes take treatment to a higher level.
TYPES OF ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS

For suspended solids:

 Microscreening
 Ultrafiltration
 Chemical coagulation and clarification
For organic matter:

 Adsorption using activated carbon

 Biological oxidation
For the removal of Phosphorous:

 Chemical precipitation and clarification

 Chemical coagulation and clarification

TREATMENT BY CHEMICAL COAGULATION & CLARIFICATION

Chemical coagulation is the process of adding a chemical which can destabilize the
colloidal and suspended particles in the wastewater. As a result of destabilization, the
size of particles will increase and they settle as floc due to flocculation and
agglomeration. These settled flocs can be removed using a sedimentation tank and

36
 the supernatant will be the treated effluent. Typical coagulants used are natural and
synthetic organic polymers, metal salts such as Alum, Ferric sulfate etc.

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION

Biological oxidation is the process of converting carbon-based organic material present in

the wastewater into humus. This process is aided by either bacteria or fungi through their
enzymatic catalysis. When the organic matter is degraded CO2 is produced and the different
components present in the organic matter are assimilated by pants. This process can either
be anaerobic or aerobic depending upon the type of bacteria present in the organic matter to
decompose.

CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION

Phosphorus is presented in wastewater is generally seen in the form of organic

phosphate, polyphosphate or orthophosphate. This reaction consisting of adding
chemicals such as alum, ferric chloride into the wastewater and they coagulate the
phosphorous presented in it. The coagulated material will precipitate out such as
Aluminum phosphate and ferric and this can be clarified further.

29 What are the types of sedimentation tank?

Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Methods of Operation

A
Fill and Draw Type Sedimentation Tank
In case of fill and draw type sedimentation tank, water from inlet is stored for some
time. The time may be 24 hours. In that time, the suspended particles are settled at
the bottom of the tank. After 24 hours, the water is discharged through outlet. Then
settled particle are removed. This removal action requires 6-12 hours. So, one

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complete action of sedimentation requires 30-40 hours in case of fill and draw type
sedimentation tank.

Continuous Flow Type Sedimentation Tank

In this case, water is not allowed to rest. Flow always takes place but with a very
small velocity. During this flow, suspended particles are settled at the bottom of the
tank. The flow may be either in horizontal direction or vertical direction.

Horizontal flow type sedimentation tank

These tanks generally in rectangular shape. They have more length twice its width.
Because they need to flow more distance to settle all suspended particles. The
maximum permissible velocity in this case is 0.3m/sec.

Vertical flow type sedimentation tank

The vertical flow type sedimentations tanks are generally in circular shape and flow
takes place in vertical direction. Hopper bottom is provided at the bottom of the tank
to dispose the collected sludge.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Shape

Circular Tank
Circular sedimentation tanks are preferred for continuous vertical flow type
sedimentation tanks. In this case influent is sent through central pipe of the tank and
radial flow takes place. Mechanical sludge scrappers are provided to collect the
sludge and collected sludge is carried through sludge pipe provided at the bottom.
But circular tanks are uneconomical as compared to rectangular tanks but they have
high clarification efficiency.

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 Rectangular Tank
Rectangular sedimentation tanks are mostly preferred sedimentation tanks and are
used widely. The flow takes place in horizontal direction that is length wise in
rectangular tanks. Sometimes baffle walls are provided for rectangular tank to prevent
short circuiting. Maintenance costs are low in case of rectangular sedimentation
tanks. They are also suitable for large capacity plants.
Hopper Bottom Tank
In case of hopper bottom tank, a deflector box is located at the top which deflects the
influent coming from central pipe to downwards. Sludge is collected at the bottom
and it is disposed through sludge pump.
Types of Sedimentation Tanks based on Location
Primary Sedimentation Tank
Primary sedimentation tank is a normal sedimentation tank in which water is stored
at rest for some time and sludge collected at bottom and oily matter collected at top
are removed. After primary sedimentation process the wastewater is discharged into
aerobic filter where activated sludge process take place.
Secondary Sedimentation Tank
After activated sludge process the wastewater enters secondary sedimentation tank in
which suspended particles contains microbes are removed and are reflected towards
aerobic filter to maintain high microbe concentration in aerobic filter.
30 How many types of settling in the sedimentation tank are there?
There are 4 types of settling in the sedimentation tank, namely Flocculent, Discrete,
hindered settling and Compression.
Settling

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Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases –

 Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

 Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank
(underflow).

Purpose of Settling

 To remove coarse dispersed phase.

 To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
 To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
 To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking
filters.

Principal of Settling

 Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that
of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is
retarded by offering storage.
 Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
 Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank
is called the detention period.

Types of Settling
Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction
with neighboring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass
and settle at a faster rate.

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Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit
with individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.

Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that

sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure.

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