Chapter 1

Introdution

The study of the forces and moments acting on an aerofoil in a uniform flow field as a function
of the angle of attack is a fundamental concept in fluid dynamics. These forces and moments are
represented by three dimensionless coefficients: the lift coefficient (C L), drag coefficient (CD),
and moment coefficient (Cm).

Dimensional analysis, a key tool in fluid dynamics, determines the values of these coefficients by
relating the forces and moments to important physical parameters such as fluid density, velocity,
aerofoil chord length, and angle of attack. Students can learn about the behavior of aerofoils in
fluid dynamics by comparing experimental and theoretical coefficient values.

Aside from learning about aerodynamic coefficients and dimensional analysis, the laboratory
provides students with essential experience in laboratory techniques, data analysis, and
experimental result interpretation. This can assist them in developing crucial abilities in
experimental design, data gathering, and analysis, which are required in a variety of professions
ranging from engineering to physics.

Objective
The experiment's objective is to introduce students to laboratory procedures and experimentation,
such as using wind tunnels, force and moment sensors, and data-collecting devices. We have to
measure the forces and moments operating on an aerofoil at various angles of attack and
freestream velocities and use this information to compute the corresponding coefficient values.
To validate the experiment's outcomes, they will compare these values to the theoretical values
acquired by dimensional analysis.

Introduction:
TQ TD1002A is Linear Heat Conduction apparatus used to measure the thermal conductivity of
the material. The apparatus has heating as well as cooling sections, which are connected or
interchangeable intermediate sections between them, as per required conditions. The heating
temperature difference between the cooling and heating ends of the walls of one material results
in the flow of the heat linearly through the wall by conduction.
Thermocouples are fixed to measure the temperature difference between the heated and cooled
sections at uniform intervals of 20mm. The pressure regulator is required to reduce regulate or
maintain the pressure from the supply pressure.

Figure 1: Linear Heat Conduction Apparatus Setup

The rate of heat transmission (Q) through a material affects the material's thermal conductivity.
A material's capacity to efficiently and quickly transport heat energy is measured by its thermal
conductivity. By sandwiching a sample material between an electric heater and a heat sink in the
linear heat conduction unit, which absorbs the heat energy sent through the material, the thermal
conductivity of the sample can be determined.

QL WL
K= =
∆T × A ∆ T × A
In conclusion, the rate of heat transfer (Q) is proportional to the thermal conductivity of the
material and can be determined by measuring the temperature difference across the material and
calculating the rate of heat transfer using the above equation.

Thermal resistance (R) is a measure of how effectively a material or object resists the flow of
heat through it. It is the reciprocal of thermal conductance and depends on the size and thermal
conductivity of the material. In contrast to a substance with low thermal resistance, a material
with high thermal resistance will be a poor conductor of heat.

By dividing the thickness of the material or object by its thermal conductivity, one may
determine its thermal resistance. This provides a figure in Kelvin per Watt (K.W-1), which
measures the maximum temperature difference that can be maintained across a material or object
for a specific heat flow.

L
R=
KA

Objective:
 Throughout the explanation of a linear heat conduction apparatus, its working
mechanism, and parts
 Explanation of linear conduction in the simple bar using the linear conduction apparatus.
 Determine the Co-efficient of heat conduction and verified Fourier’s law of heat
conduction.

Theory:
Conduction:
Conduction is like the transfer of heat from one surface of the material to the other surface
through the vibration of the molecules at the microscopic level. Basically, it’s about the
movement of particles of less energy to the particles of more energy within the material of the
surface. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to collisions as well as diffusion of one molecule
with the other molecule during their random motion. Whereas in solid particles, heat is
transferred due to free electrons which is present inside the surface of the material.

Fourier law of heat conduction:

Fourier law is about to energy transfer by conduction of the system is basically the heat transfer
per unit area of the system which is proportional to the normal heat gradient of the system.

q ∂T
A ∂x
∂T
q=−kA
∂x

Steady State Conduction:

It is the state where the temperature difference between the surfaces is constant during the heat
transfer. At constant temperatures, all the partial derivatives of the temperature of the system
become zero. At a constant state, the amount of heat entering the system is equal to the amount
of heat leaving the system.

Transient Conduction:
Transient conduction is basically the non-constant conduction in which the temperature of the
system changes with time at any place within the object. This condition appears when the forced
temperature difference is maintained at a boundary of an object. The temperature difference also
occurs when the change of heat is abruptly introduced within an object, causing the temperatures
changing near the source or sink to change in time.

Relativistic Conduction:
Relativistic conduction is basically related to the theory of relativity. Fourier law is not referred
to the theory of relativity but it acknowledged the infinite speed of the propagation of heat
signals.

Quantum Conduction:
Quantum Conduction is like the quantum mechanical system in which thermal conduction is
formed due to wave-like motion, rather than the normal mechanism of diffusion.

Procedure:
 First, make sure that the power supply will be off, and then insert a brass conductor linear
module and clamp it together.
 Turn the power supply and heat start flowing throughout the bar connect the heat sensors
and digital readouts will be illuminated.
 Turn the switch on and measure the heating temperatures at different sections of the bar
with the help of temperature sensors.
 First set the voltage at 29.9W and time is required for steady state condition to be
achieved and check out the temp at 7 different points with the help of temperature
sensors.
 After taking out the values, make the graph between actual thermal conductivity and
theoretical thermal conductivity.

Observations:
Power T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
W C C C C C C C
29.9 59.7 53.4 47.2 41.5 36.6 30.8 25.1
 70
59.7
60
53.4
50 47.2
41.5
Temprature (C) 40 36.6
30.8
30 25.1

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance from T1 (mm)

Figure 2: Temperature Chart