SOCIAL FORCES BEHIND THE EMERGENCE

OF SOCIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

In this part, we will look at two of the most significant events in human history.
These are the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. We will focus
our discussion on the causes and consequences of these revolutions, as well as
their impact on the emergence of Sociology. The French Revolution, which
occurred in 1789, wrought significant changes in the social and political lives of
the French people and influenced the rest of the world. The Industrial
Revolution, on the other hand, which began in England and spread to other parts
of Europe (such as Germany, Belgium, Italy, France, and so on) as well as
America (particularly Northern America), brought about significant changes in
technological and socioeconomic development. Both of these events, as well as
their impact, were crucial in the development of Sociology.

FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted until 1799, was a
period of social and political upheaval that ushered in significant changes in the
country's socioeconomic and political landscapes. The revolution ushered in a
new era for society, uprooting the "old regime" based on absolute monarchy,
feudalism, social inequality, and a church-state alliance, among other things. It
spawned new political ideals, such as "liberty, equality, and fraternity," as
encapsulated in the French slogan. "A revolt against royal despotism, hereditary
privilege, and economic oppression, and a revolt in the name of democratic
government, political equality, and human rights," wrote Edward Royce. The
French Revolution is divided into three phases, each of which can be considered
a "revolution in and of itself." The first phase of the revolution was carried out
by the National Assembly (1789-1791) and the Legislative Assembly (1791-
1792). The "old regime" or "absolute monarchy" was replaced by
"constitutional monarchy" during the first phase, which was referred to as
"liberal." The formation of the "National Convention" kicked off the second
phase (1793-1795). This second phase was the most "radical," with the Jacobins
faction of the National Convention taking the lead. The "constitutional
monarchy" was replaced during this period, and France was declared a "republic
nation." The period under "The Directory" (1795-1799) is known as the third
phase of the Revolution, and it lasted until Napoleon Bonaparte took power.

Factors of the Revolution

Although there is scholarly debate about the exact causes of the French
Revolution, the following factors can be cited as causes in general:

➢ To begin with, the "old regime" is frequently referred to as the "Age of

Absolutism." During this time, the Monarchs, or kings, wielded absolute power.
Furthermore, French society has been based on inequality and hierarchy since
the Middle Ages. "Clergy," "Nobility," and "Commoners" were the three orders
or estates that made up French society. Each of these estates had its own set of
responsibilities and privileges. Priests and churches made up the "First Estate,"
or "Clergy." The "Second Estate" or "Nobility" was mostly made up of wealthy
landowners. Everyone else, including the middle and working classes, as well as
the peasantry, made up the "Third Estate" or "Commoners." Despite being made
up of the vast majority of the French population, the third estate was at the
bottom of the estate hierarchy. However, the two estates, "Clergy" and
"Nobility," had many privileges, including tax exemption, whereas the third
estate, "Commonwealth," was responsible for the majority of the nation's taxes.
Furthermore, there was an economic structure known as "Feudalism" in France
and some other European countries. Many nobles (known as seigneurs) owned
land, and peasants worked on their lands in exchange for the nobles' ability to
tax the peasants who lived on their land. Second, during the Revolution, the
writings of Enlightenment thinkers had a significant impact. The Enlightenment
was a period of intellectual advancement that produced a variety of new
intellectual frameworks on social, political, and economic issues. The writings
of thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire,
and others influenced this greatly. The issue of "Divine rule" as well as issues of
equality, liberty, and freedom were discussed in their writings. Third, the
financial crisis that France had experienced was one of the most important
causes of the Revolution. France's participation in the Seven Years' War and
support for the American Revolution against the British resulted in a massive
national debt, and by the late 1780s, the government was on the verge of
declaring bankruptcy. Furthermore, widespread crop failures in 1787 and 1788
wreaked havoc on the French economy. Crop failure resulted in grain shortages,
driving up food prices, which disproportionately impacted the poor. This was
also a major factor in the Revolution's emergence.

Immediate context of the Revolution: Estates General and Rise of National

Assembly (1789-1791)

As the French government faced a major financial crisis, King Louis XVI
enlisted the help of a number of financial advisors to assess the situation and
find ways to reduce the deficit. Finally, Charles Alexandre de Calonne was
appointed as the controller general of finances by the king. He proposed a tax
reform that included a universal land tax, which would no longer be exempt
from the privileged classes. Both the first and second estates would have to pay
taxes as a result of this. As a result, a meeting of the "notables" was convened in
order to discuss the proposal. However, the proposal failed because neither of
these estates supported the reforms and suggested that the "Estates General" be
renamed. The "Estates General," which had not met since 1614, is the
representative body of all three estates. On May 5, 1789, at Versailles, the
meeting's agenda was set. Though the "Estates General" played an important
role in the past, the French society was changing, and the Estate General's
importance was dwindling. The Estate General or the meeting was troubled
from the start, primarily over the issue of the 'voting' process. Each estate used
to have a single vote. This meant that, despite the fact that the third estate
represented the majority of the population, they could be outvoted two to one by
two other estates. As a result, the members of the third estate desired to reform
the voting system. It was also during this time that concerns about the third
estate were raised. In a pamphlet titled "What Is the Third Estate?" published in
January 1789, Abbe Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes emphasised the importance of the
third estate. The concept, which can be summarised in the words "What is the
third estate?," had a huge impact on the Revolution's course. Everything. What
has the political order been up to this point? Nothing. What is it requesting to
be? Something”. As a result, the third Estate began to mobilise the populace in
support of equal voting representation and the abolition of the noble veto. In
other words, they desired headto-head voting rather than status-based voting. By
the time the debate over the voting process had devolved into violence, the third
estate had declared themselves to be the true representative body of France,
claiming to be the "National Assembly." Members of the other estates were also
invited to join the National Assembly. The King (Louis XVI) wanted the
National Assembly to be disbanded and its meeting place locked up. In
response, the National Assembly moved to a nearby tennis court on June 20th
and swore that they would continue to meet until a new constitution was
produced. The Tennis Court Oath was the name given to the oath they took.
The Bastille Attack

Fear and violence swept the capital as rumours spread that the King was
amassing troops against the National Assembly. By the time the National
Assembly resumed its work on a constitution at Versailles, the rumours that the
King was amassing troops against the National Assembly had spread. Fear was
spread among the population as a result of the troop gatherings, and in response,
a popular riot broke out in the streets of Paris. On July 14, in an attempt to
ransack the city's largest prison, the Bastille, which was also supposed to be a
symbol of royal power, people stormed the Bastille in search of gunpowder and
weapons. The Bastille fell (on July 14, 1789) after a long battle between the
crowd and the prison guards. It marked the end of the King's ability to enforce
his authority and became a remarkable symbol of the revolution.

Working on the Constitution

A series of events occurred, as discussed below, that increased the likelihood of

enacting a new constitution. The King remained at Versailles after refusing to
accept the National Assembly's Declaration of Rights and the abolition of
feudalism. Thousands of women marched to Versailles on October 5, 1789, to
persuade the King to accept the National Assembly's measures. The king and
his family were returned to Paris and essentially imprisoned in the Tuileries
Palace. Civil Constitution of the Clergy: As France's economy remained in
shambles, the National Assembly decided to confiscate and nationalise all
church property, as well as cancel all special taxes and powers held by the
Church. On July 14, 1790, the National Assembly passed a new "Civil
Constitution of the Clergy." All priests were to be elected and paid by the state
under this new law, and they were also required to sign an oath to the new
constitution. The National Assembly's anti-church measures caused a schism in
French society. A significant portion of the population, the majority of whom
were devout Catholics, viewed these measures as anti-church. Louis XVI and
his family attempted to flee France at the same time that the National Assembly
was busy restructuring the relationship between the state and the church. Since
the Bastille attack, many members of the nobility have fled France, becoming
known as émigrés, and seeking assistance from other European rulers to combat
the revolution. In such circumstances, the King and his family attempted to flee,
but were apprehended in Varennes. This attempt to flee further tarnished Louis'
reputation in the eyes of the public. Rift in the National Assembly: There was a
schism among the members of the National Assembly as they worked on a new
constitution. The Girondins (moderates) and Jacobins were the two most
powerful factions (radicals). The Girondins supported the constitutional
monarchy, whereas the radical Jacobins wanted to depose the king and give the
people more power, as well as support the republic. Outside the Assembly, there
were also émigrés who desired monarchy. The National Assembly introduced a
new constitution in September 1791, after much debate and discussion. France
became a Constitutional Monarchy under the new constitution, with the king
reduced to a figurehead with little power. Finally, on September 29, 1791, the
National Assembly decided to cease governing France and was replaced by the
Legislative Assembly. The Jacobins, who wanted the monarchy to be abolished
completely, did not support the new constitution, and while the National
Assembly or Legislative Assembly did succeed in drafting a constitution, the
relative peace was short-lived.

The Directory (1795-1799)

After the reign of terror ended, the National Convention approved a new
constitution on August 22, 1795, which established France's first bicameral
legislature. It was divided into two houses, with 250 members in the upper
house (Council of Ancients) and 500 members in the lower house (Council of
Five Hundred). Furthermore, the executive body was made up of five officers
chosen by the parliament, known as the Directory. Despite the fact that the
Directory lacked legislative authority, it did have the power to appoint people to
various government positions. Inefficiency, financial crises, and political
corruption characterised the Directory era as well. To keep their power and
authority in the government, the directors mostly relied on the military. It was
unable to improve the country's economic situation. The new constitution also
replaced 1793's universal male suffrage with property-based limited suffrage,
which irritated the poor. The board of directors also ignored elections that did
not go their way. People, particularly Jacobins and royalists, criticised the
Directory in such circumstances. On the one hand, the Jacobins desired a
republic, while the loyalists desired a new king by installing Louis XVIII on the
throne. They attempted to overthrow the Directory, but were defeated by the
army. For example, in 1795, the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte put down a
revolt against the Directory. Napoleon Bonaparte gained popularity among the
Directory and was given command of French forces to fight the neighbouring
countries. The French army, particularly those led by Napoleon Bonaparte,
appeared unstoppable in the years that followed. Napoleon's army invaded Italy,
defeated Austrian forces, and advanced as far as Egypt before collapsing in
1799. Back in France, the Directory was frequently chastised for widespread
corruption and inability to address the country's economic problems. With the
country's political upheaval, Napoleon left his troops in Egypt and returned to
France, where he led a coup against the Directory. He deposed the Directory on
November 9, 1799. By this time, the French Revolution had ended, and a new
government known as the Consulate had been established, led by three consuls,
one of whom was Napoleon, who was dubbed the "first consul." Napoleon
quickly seized control of the entire government, ushering in a period of military
rule in France.

Despite the fact that the French Revolution was a contentious topic with
differing viewpoints on its significance and consequences, the "outlook"
changed as a result of the revolution. It questioned the monarchy's "divine
right," questioned clergy and nobility privileges, and raised issues of inequality,
freedom, and so on. The changes that occurred in France during the Revolution
were significant. They provided sociologists with a broad framework to study
society.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution, which occurred in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, was a pivotal period in European economic history. The Industrial
Revolution began in England and gradually spread to other European countries
such as Germany, France, Belgium, and Italy, as well as America (particularly
Northern America). The term 'Industrial Revolution' was coined by economic
historian Arnold Toynbee in the late 1800s to describe the social, demographic,
economic, and technological changes that had occurred in Britain. Although
there is much debate and disagreement about the definition of the Industrial
Revolution, it broadly refers to the transition from a primarily agricultural-based
economy to an industrial or factory economy, the transition from a rural to an
increasingly urban and industrial society, the transition from handicraft or
human labour to increased use of machines, advancements in communication
and transportation, mass production, and so on. The United Kingdom is known
as the "first industrial nation," and several factors are cited as reasons for this:
To begin with, natural resources such as iron ore and coal are readily available.
Second, there was a lack of navigable rivers and natural harbours, which
hampered domestic and international trade. Third, Britain was the world's
leading colonial power, with a strong economy that served as a source of raw
materials and a market for manufactured goods. Fourth, Britain underwent an
energy revolution in a matter of years, transitioning from animal power to water
power to steam power (the steam engine was an important source of power
during the Industrial Revolution). Finally, but certainly not least, Britain went
through a "agricultural revolution" (discussed below), which aided and
accelerated the industrial revolution. The following are some of the most
important aspects of the industrial revolution:

Innovations

The Industrial Revolution was a time when science and technology advanced,
with new materials (iron, steel, etc.) being used, new energy sources (coal,
steam engines, etc.) being used, and new machines being invented. The most
significant change was in the field of textiles, as no other industry had
progressed as quickly as the textile industry. James Hargreaves' "spinning
jenny," which could produce multiple spools of thread at the same time, was
one of the most significant textile innovations. Later, Samuel Compton's
"spinning mule," which combined spinning and weaving in one machine,
improvised "spinning jenny." Edmund Cartwright's "power loom," which was
mechanised and powered by steam for fast weaving, was another major textile
innovation. Textiles could be manufactured in factories rather than at home,
with far less human labour and far greater speed, efficiency, and profit. It's
worth noting that technological advancements, particularly in the field of
textiles, have had the opposite effect on traditional textile workers. Workers
who used to work from home with simple tools such as a hand-operated
spinning wheel became inefficient in the face of the new machines and were
unable to compete. As a result of these changes, a revolt known as the "Luddite
movement" erupted, led by a group of workers later dubbed "luddites." The
luddites were textile workers or self-employed weavers who feared that
advances in technology would lead to the end of their trade and, as a result, a
life without work. As a result, they rose up against newly developed
technologies. Steam power, which could be used to operate machines and
transportation, was one of the most important and game-changing innovations
of the Industrial Revolution. Thomas Newcomen invented a steam engine in the
early 1700s that was primarily used to pump water from mines. By the 1770s,
James Watt had improved Newcomen's work to the point where it could power
factory machines, locomotives, and ships. The iron and steel industry's
development was also crucial to the Industrial Revolution. The production of
cast iron and steel, as well as the process of refining them, advanced during this
time. For example, Abraham Darby discovered a less expensive, easier, and
more efficient method of producing cast iron in the early 18th century by using
a coke-fuelled furnace instead of a charcoal-fired furnace, and Henry Bessemer
developed the first low-cost steel production process in the 1850s. Iron and steel
became indispensable materials for everything from tools and machines to
ships, buildings, and other infrastructure.

Transportation and Communication

There was an increase in demand for transportation systems to move raw

materials and finished products as a result of the innovations, increased
production, and high demand for manufactured goods. During the 18th century,
the demand for transportation was met by the contraction of canals and the
improvement of the road system; however, the transportation system was
radically improved with the introduction of railway lines and steam-powered
boats or ships. Prior to the invention of the steam engine, goods were
transported by horse-drawn waggons, boats, or sail ships, along canals and
rivers, all of which were time-consuming and labor-intensive. Transportation of
raw materials and finished industrial products became easier and faster after the
introduction of steam boats, ships, and railroads. Furthermore, advancements in
communication, such as the telegraph, allowed for faster news and commercial
information exchange than ever before.

Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution

Most people lived in small, rural communities before the Industrial Revolution,
and their daily lives revolved around farming. For centuries, farming dominated
the British economy because it was the most common occupation. In Britain,
the 'Agricultural Revolution' was a period of technological advancement in
farming that resulted in increased productivity and prosperity for farmers during
the 18th and early 19th centuries. New tools, harvesting techniques, and
fertilisers were introduced during the 'agricultural revolution,' such as Jethro
Tull's mechanical'seed drill,' which was introduced in 1701. Previously,
broadcasting (evenly throwing) seeds by hand and lightly harrowing the soil to
cover the seed was the most common method of sowing. Jethro Tull's "seed
drill" was an improvised technique for evenly dispersing seeds across a plot of
land at the correct depth. Another important farming tool was the Dutch-
developed improvised version of Joseph Folijambe's cast iron plough, which
was lighter than the traditional plough and could be pulled by fewer oxen or
horses. The most important innovation during the agricultural revolution was
the 'crop rotation' system, among other things. Previously, primarily during the
middle ages, farming was done in a "open field system" (discussed in the next
paragraph), with two or three fields of crop rotation and one field left fallow or
unplanted to recover plant nutrients. In a 'three field crop rotation,' for example,
two fields would be cultivated with wheat and oats, while the third field would
be left fallow, and the fields would be rotated every year. The 'four field crop
rotation' system was a new pattern introduced during the agricultural revolution.
There was no requirement in this new pattern to keep a field fallow. Crops like
turnip and clover were introduced to achieve this. In a 'four field crop rotation,'
four fields were cultivated with wheat, oats, turnip, and clover (turnip and
clover help the soils recover nutrients), and the crops were rotated every year.
As a result, it was no longer necessary to leave a field fallow, because the turnip
and clover recover nutrients that were previously lost when the soil was left
fallow. Crop and livestock yields increased as a result of the new crop rotation
patterns, which improved soil fertility and reduced fallowness. In general, the
agricultural revolution improved farming techniques, resulting in increased
agricultural production and farmer prosperity. As a result, the average English
family did not have to spend nearly all of their earnings on bread or food, but
instead could spend it on manufactured goods. As a result, there was an increase
in demand for higher-quality clothing and household goods, which boosted
urban industries as well. Some of the wealthier families even invested in
industrial ventures.

Enclosure Movement

One of the most important aspects of the Industrial Revolution was migration.
During the revolution, a large number of people moved from the countryside to
the cities in search of work. This migration was prompted in part by a loss of
"jobs," as many people lost their traditional occupations, such as weavers,
whose work became less efficient as new machines arrived. Migration was also
influenced by a government policy known as the "Enclosure Acts," which
resulted in a large number of farmers losing their land and being forced to
relocate to industrial centres and work as factory workers. The majority of the
Enclosure Acts were passed between 1750 and 1860, and they were a series of
Parliamentary Acts that enclosed a large amount of "open field" and "common"
land. Each village would have two or three large fields divided into many
narrow strips of land in the traditional agricultural practise known as "open field
system." Individual families, known as tenants, cultivated these strips as a
result. In addition to these open fields, the people had traditional and collective
rights or access to "waste" lands or unproductive fields, such as fens and
marshes, for pasture animals, collecting firewood, harvesting meadow grass,
and so on. The British government, on the other hand, proposed enclosing the
lands, claiming that large fields could be farmed more efficiently than
individual plots or strips, resulting in better crop production. Lands or strips
were enclosed, usually with walls, fences, or hedges around them, and
converted into large fields under the Enclosure Acts; the common lands were
also enclosed. The lands seized by the acts were then consolidated into
individual and privately owned farms, with the best plots of land going to large,
politically connected farmers. The displaced people, on the other hand, were
unable to afford the legal and other costs associated with enclosure acts. They
were stripped of their traditional right of access to the common and open field,
which they had enjoyed for generations. Although the displaced people were
given small parcels of alternative land as compensation, the land was of poor
quality. Furthermore, displaced people who were given small plots of land
found it difficult to compete with large landowners, and as a result, many of
them lost their land due to business failure. As a result, farmers who had lost
their land were left with few options other than to work in the industries as
labourers. A massive migration from the countryside to the industrial cities
occurred as a result of this process. The entire migration process is known as
'enclosure movement.'

Factory System

The "factory system" is the most important result of the Industrial Revolution.
England was under increasing pressure to produce more manufactured goods
due to population growth and increased demand. Prior to the industrial
revolution, the widespread manufacturing process was known as the "putting
out system" or "domestic system," and it was carried out in homes. The
merchant would "put out" or deliver the raw materials to the rural producers,
who usually worked in their own homes or in small workshops, used their own
tools (for example, a spinning wheel or a single loom in the case of textiles), set
their own working hours, and so on. The finished goods were then returned to
the merchants, who paid "wages" to the workers. However, as demand for more
production grew and new machines were introduced, the "putting out system"
became ineffective, as it couldn't compete with the new machines' efficiency.
As a result, the "putting out system" was phased out in favour of the "factory
system." The factory system resulted in significant changes in economic
activity: To begin with, the manufacturing process in the factory system is
primarily based on power-driven machineries, which has resulted in mass
production. Second, self-employed workers who used their own tools and set
their own schedules were reclassified as industrial labourers. The employers
provided the tools and other necessities, and the labourers were required to
adhere to the employers' timetables. To put it another way, the workers had no
say in the manufacturing process. Finally, the place of employment changed.
Previously, work was done in individual households, but now it is done in
factories or industries, and workers must commute from their homes to the
factories.

As a result of the Industrial Revolution, significant changes in society occurred.

However, in response to the changes, or in an attempt to understand the
changes, sociologists proposed a slew of theories on topics like division of
labour, capitalism, bureaucracy, migration, exploitation, and so on. Karl Marx,
Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Georg Simmel were the major classical
figures.
CONCLUSION

• The French Revolution had a profound impact on the social and political life
of French society, as well as on the rest of the world.

• The financial crisis that France had experienced was one of the most important
causes of the revolution.

• The Industrial Revolution occurred in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries.

• The Industrial Revolution began in England and gradually spread to other

European countries such as Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, and the United
States.

• The term "Industrial Revolution" refers to the transition from a primarily

agricultural-based economy to a factory-based economy.

• It also entailed a shift away from handicraft or human labour and toward
increased machine use, improved communication and transportation, and mass
production.

• The Industrial Revolution was a period in which science and technology

advanced, particularly in terms of the use of new materials (iron, steel etc.),

• The Industrial Revolution saw the introduction of new energy sources (coal,
steam engines, etc.) as well as the development of new machines.

• Technological advancements, particularly in the field of textiles, had the

opposite effect on traditional textile workers.
• Workers who used to work at home with simple tools such as a hand-operated
spinning wheel became inefficient in the face of the new machines and were
unable to compete.

• Increased production and high demand for manufactured goods were the result
of innovations.

• The "Luddite movement," led by a group of workers later dubbed "luddites,"

arose in opposition to new technology.

• Advances in communication, such as the telegraph, made it possible to

exchange news and other commercial information more quickly than ever
before.

• The Agricultural Revolution was also a result of technological advancement.

• Because machines could do the work of many people, many agricultural

labourers were forced to migrate in search of work.

• High demand for labour led to exploitation of workers by factory owners;

increased population led to the growth of slums; and thus, the Industrial
Revolution brought about significant changes in society.

Following these changes, social thinkers such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile
Durkheim, and Georg Simmel attempted to scientifically analyse society.