THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The skeletal muscle is the bulk of the body’s muscle because it is attached
to the skeleton. It accounts for about 40% of the total body weight and helps
from the contours of the body.
Skeletal – 40%
Smooth and cardiac muscle 10%

*Myology – study of muscles

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The primary function of the muscle in general is CONTRACTION or

shortening- one of the unique property or characteristic, which makes it different
from other tissues. With this property, muscles are primarily responsible in
nearly all body movements.
In particular, the skeletal muscles are responsible for the following roles:

1. For locomotion and body movements

The skeletal muscle is responsible for all movements such as walking,
running, swimming, jumping, etc and allow the person to respond quickly to
changes in the external environment – jump out of the way of the running car,
and making several facial expressions.

2. Maintenance of body posture

The skeletal muscle functions almost continuously by making one tiny
adjustment after another so that we can maintain erect or seated despite the
downward pull of gravity.

3. Stabilization of joints
As muscles produce movements, they stabilize the different joints of the
skeleton. And one of these structures that help stabilize the joints are the
“tendons”.

4. Heat production
The metabolism that occurs in the large mass of muscle tissue of the body
produces heat as a by-product of muscle activity. This is important in the
regulation and maintenance of normal body temperature. How?...
As ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used to produce muscle contraction,
energy escapes as heat. This heat, therefore maintains body temperature.
When the external environment is cold, there will be an increased muscle activity,
more ATP is used, thus, there will be more muscle contractions and as muscle
contracts, it releases energy in the form of heat.

5. Communication
Skeletal muscles are involved in all aspects of communication such as
speaking, writing, typing, gesturing, and facial expression.

6. Respiration
Muscles of the thorax are responsible for the movements necessary for
respiration.

7. Heart beat
Cardiac muscle contractions causes the hear to beat, sending all blood to
all parts of the body.
8. Constriction of Organs and vessels
The walls are of internal organs and vessels are made up of smooth
muscles, the contraction of which causes constriction. This action helps move
and mix food and water in the digestive tract, move secretions from organs and
regulate blood flow through vessels.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

1. Contractility
The ability to shorten forcibly or with force, when adequate stimulus is
received, therefore producing movement of the structures to which they are
attached. Although it shortens forcibly, it lengthens passively either due to
gravity or the contraction of opposing muscles.

2. Excitability / Irritability
The ability to respond to a stimulus through nerve cells.

3. Extensibility
The capacity to be stretched and after a contraction, they can be stretched
to their normal resting length and beyond to a limited degree after a contraction.

4. Elasticity
The ability to recoil to their original resting length after they have been
stretched.

STRUCTURES OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

Each skeletal muscle is separated from adjacent muscles, held in portion
and surrounded by layers of dense (fibrous) connective tissue called FASCIA

This layer of connective tissue projects a cordlike structure at the end of

its muscle fibers which attaches the muscle to bone called TENDONS

In other cases, it forms a broad, fibrous sheet which attaches muscles

indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings of adjacent muscles
called APONEUROSIS – sheet of fibrous connective tissue or an expanded
tendon, serving as the origin or insertion of the flat muscle.

The network of fascia that surrounds and penetrates the muscles is called
“deep fascia”; which is continuous with a portion of fascia, that lies beneath the
skin called “subcutaneous fascia”. The network is also continuous with a
fascia, that forms the layer of serous membrane covering the visceral organ and
lining the body cavities where these organs is located called “subserous fascia”.

Each skeletal muscle is also surrounded by a tougher tissue that lies

beneath the fascia called EPIMYSIUM. The epimysium closely surrounds
several fascicles and blended into tendons and aponeurosis. The layer of
epimysium which extends inward, and separated each fasciculus called
PERIMYSIUM. While the layer perimysium which extends inward and separates
each muscle fibers is called ENDOMYSIUM.

It consists of bundles of muscle fibers called FASCICLE. Each fasciculus

consists of several MUSCLE FIBERS (skeletal muscle cell) – fairly large, long,
cigar shaped cells ranging from 10-100 micrometer in diameter and up to 30cm
in length, that are multinucleated – with many oval NUCLEI within its
SARCOPLASM or located beneath the plasma/cell membrane called
SARCOLEMMA.
Connective tissue – surrounds and protects muscle tissue

Fascia – sheet or broad band of fibrous connective tissue that supports and
surrounds muscle and other organs of the body.

1. Superficial fascia/ Subcutaneous layer – separates muscle from skin

2. Deep fascia – line the body wall and limbs and holds the muscles with
similar function together
- allows free movement of muscles, carries nerves, blood
vessels and lymphatic vessels and fills spaces between muscles.

3 LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Extend from the deep fascia to further protect and strengthen skeletal
muscles.
 Continuous with the connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to
other structures such as bone or another muscle.
 May extend beyond the muscle fibers to form tendons

a. epimysium – outermost layer, encircling the whole muscle

b. perimysium - surrounds groups of 10-100 or more individual muscle

fibers separating them into bundles called fascicles/fasciculi

c. endomysium - separating individual muscle fibers from one another

Nerve and blood supply (skeletal)

> artery and veins
> somatic motor neurons – each somatic motor neuron axon extends from the
brain and spinal cord to a group of skeletal muscle fibers. The axon is
wrapped with myelin (produced by Schwann cells)
> capillaries
> neuromuscular junction – structural point of contact and functional site of
communication between motor neuron and muscle fiber

MUSCLE - composed of hundreds to thousands of cells called muscle fibers

with elongated shapes

SARCOPLASM – with glycogen and myoglobin

- cytoplasm of a muscle fiber

MYOGLOBIN - oxygen binding, iron containing protein present in the

sarcoplasm of muscle fibers
>contributes to red color of muscle
>myoglobin releases oxygen when mitochondria need it for ATP
production.

MYOFIBRILS – threadlike structure, extending longitudinally through a muscle

fiber consisting mainly of thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments
(actin, troponin and tropomyosin.)
- contractile elements of muscle fiber

The sarcolemma has along its surface many tube like invaginations or
inward extensions called TRANSVERSE TUBULES OR T-TUBULES. These
tubules are located at regular intervals along the muscle fiber and wrap around
Sarcomeres where actin and myosin myofilaments overlap. They served as
“relays” between the sarcolemma and a highly organized smooth ER called
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (encircles each myofiber). The sarcoplasmic
reticulum contains high concentration of Ca ions which play in an important role
in stimulating muscle contraction.

Aside from nuclei and MITOCHONDRIA, the sarcoplasm also contains

numerous long ribbon-like perfectly aligned organelles composed of bundles of
myofilaments called MYOFIBRILS – contractile elements of the muscle fiber.

2 Major kinds of protein fibers

 Actin
 Myosin myofilaments

ACTIN MYOFILAMENTS (thin) resemble two minute strands of “pearls”

twisted together. There are TROPONIN molecules attached at specific intervals
which serve as “Calcium-binding sites” on the actin myofilaments. Aside from
these, there are also TROPOMYOSIN filaments located along the groove
between the twisted myofilaments when calcium is not bound to TROPONIN.

TROPININ - molecules attached at specific intervals which serve as “calcium

binding sites” on the actin myofilament

TROPOMYOSIN – filaments located along the groove between the tweisted

strands of actin myofilaments; which exposes attachment sites on the actin
myofilaments when calcium is not bound to troponin.

MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS (thick), resemble bundles of minute “golf

clubs”. The parts of the myosin myofilaments that resemble golf club heads are
called MYOSIN HEADS or CROSS-BRIDGES, which bind to the attachments
sites on the actin myofilaments.

The actin and myosin myofilaments are arranged into highly ordered
repeating units along the myofibrils called SARCOMERES.

SARCOMERE - basic structure and functional unit of skeletal muscle because it

is the smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of contraction.

The segment of a myofibril that extends from one Z line to the next Z line,
which are actually the contractile units of the myofibrils, are called sarcomere.

The arrangement of two myofilaments gives the myofibril a banded

appearance or striation.

A light band consists only of actin myofilaments. It extends from ends of

myosin myofilaments and contains the Z line which forms the attachment sites
for actin myofilaments. (LIZ)

A dark central region is called A Band extends the length of the myosin
myofilaments. In the center of each sarcomere, there is a lighter central area
called H zone, which consists only of myosin myofilaments. The myosin
myofilaments are anchored in the center of the sarcomere at the dark-staining
band within the H Zone called the M line. (MHAD or DAHM).

SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM – fluid-filled system of membranous sacs, wraps

around each myofibril

 Terminal cisterns – dilated end sacs of sarcoplasmic reticulum

 Tubule
  Relaxed muscle fiber, the sarcoplamic reticulum stores Ca ions
 Release Ca from terminal cisterns of sarcoplasmic reticulum triggers
muscle contraction
 Relatively high concentration of Ca ions which play a major role in muscle
contraction

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION – structural point of contact between motor

neurons and muscle fiber.

SARCOMERE – actin and myosin filaments arranged into highly ordered

separating units along the myofibril.

MYOFILAMENTS – protein thread helping to form myofibrils in skeletal muscle

- thin myofilaments compose ACTIN
- thick myofilaments compose MYOSIN
 SUMMARY OF STRUCTURE

Bone

Tendon

Fascia

Epimysium

Perimysium

Endomysium

Fasciculus

Muscle fibers (muscle cell)

Nuclei

Sarcoplasm

Sarcolemma

Capillary

Myofibril

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

T-tubules

Myofilaments

Sarcomere

Actin myosin

Myofibrils – from 3 kinds of CHON:

a. contractile CHON
 actin (thin filaments)
 myosin (thick filaments) – motor CHON push or pull their cargo
to achieve movement
b. regulatory CHON – switch the contraction on and off
 tropomyosin
 troponin – part of actin filament
c. structural CHON – keep the thick and thin filament in proper alignment,
stability, elasticity and extensibility of myofibrils, link myofibrils to
sarcolemma and extracellular matrix.
 dyastrophin

Muscular atrophy – wasting away of muscle, muscle fibers decrease in size as a

result of progressive loss of myofibrils

Disuse atrophy – occurs if muscles are not used

 - bedridden or people with casts experience this atrophy because the flow
of nerve impulse to inactive muscle is decreased.

Denervation atrophy – nerve supply is disrupted or cut

- 6 months to 2 years muscle will be one quarter its original size and
muscle fibers will be replaced by fibrous connective tissue when complete,
cannot be reversed.

Muscular hypertrophy – increase in diameter of muscle fibers owing to production

of more myofibrils, mitochondria and SR.
- results from very forceful repetitive muscular activities such as strength
training.
- contains more fibrils capable of more forceful contractions

Exercise induced muscle damage

> intense exercise = muscle damage (torn sarcolemma, damaged myofibrils and
disrupted discs
> 12-48 hours after strenuous exercise = muscle often becomes sore
> delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) – accompanied by stiffness,
tenderness and swelling.

MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Motor neuron – nerve cells that carries action potential to skeletal muscle fiber

Action potential

AXON of these neurons sends out branches to several muscle fibers through

Axonal terminal\\Neuromuscular junction (myoneural junction) (SYNAPSE)

MOTOR NEURONS are nerve cells that carry ACTION POTENTIALS to

skeletal muscle fibers. The axons of these neurons send out branches to several
muscle fibers through the AXONAL TERMINALS. Each branch/terminal forms a
junction with a muscle fiber called a NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION (myoneural
junction) or SYNAPSE.

The junction is formed by an enlarged AXONAL TERMINAL (pre-synaptic

terminal) resting in an indentation of the SARCOLEMMA – cell membrane of the
cell (post synaptic membrane). The space between these structures, filled with
synaptic fluid is called SYNAPTIC CLEFT.

Each axonal terminal contains many small “vesicles” called synaptic

vesicles, which contain neurotransmitters called acetylcholine (Ach). There are
“receptor sites” located on the sarcolemma, which bind with acetylcholine
released by the synaptic vesicles.

The neuromuscular junctions are located near the center of muscle fibers.
One motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells it innervates are called a
motor unit. The number of motor units determine the strength of muscle
contractions.
How action potentials is produced and results to MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. When the nerve impulse reaches the axonal terminals, acetylcholine is
released and diffused across the synaptic cleft then binds with the receptor sites
on the sarcolemma.

2. The release of acetylcholine (Ach) into synaptic cleft results to temporary

permeability of sarcolemma to Na ions.

3. Diffusion of Na ions into the cells chages the electrical condtions of

sarcolemma and generates an electrical current called action potential.

4. From the sarcolemma, these action potential travels into the T-tubules and
initiates physiologic activity within the muscle that results in muscle contraction.
In the synaptic cleft, the Ach that was released is rapidly broken down by an
enzyme acetylcholinesterase to ensure that one action potential will result in only
one muscle contraction.

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

> Describes the contraction of muscle.

 muscle contraction occurs because myosin heads attach to

the thin filaments at both ends of a sarcolemma pulling the
thin filaments toward the M line.
 As a result of thin filaments slide inward and meet at the
center of the sarcolemma = Z discs come closer together
and sarcomere shortens.
 No change in length of thick and thin filaments
 Shortening of sarcomeres causes shortening of the whole
muscle fiber which leads to shortening of the entire muscle.

Excitation and Contraction

o an increase in Ca concentration in the cytosol starts muscle contraction
whereas a decrease stops it.
o Relaxed muscle fiber – Ca in its cytosol is very low
o Huge amount of Ca is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
o As muscle action potential propagates along the sarcolemma and into the
T-tubules, it causes calcium release channels in the SR to open

= Ca flows out into the cytosol around the thick and thin filaments

= Ca concentration in the cytosol rises ten fold as more Ca combine with

troponin

= moves the troponin-tropomyosin complex away from the myosin-binding

binding sites as actin

= myosin heads bind

= contraction begins

*one nerve impulse elicits one muscle action potential

Ach (Acetylcholine) – effect to binding lasts briefly because Ach is rapidly broken
down by acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This enzyme is attached to collagen
fibers – extracellular matrix of the synaptic cleft.

What happens during muscle contraction? Pulling thin filaments toward the M
line = sarcomere shortens = length of thick and thin filaments do not change.

The Sliding Filament Theory – skeletal muscle shortens during contraction

because the thick and thin filaments slide past one another

 When an action potential travels from the sarcolemma into the T-tubules,
calcium (Ca) ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 The release of Ca ions into the sarcoplasm causes a change in the
configuration of Troponin
 With this, Ca ions bind to Troponin and the binding causes the Tropmyosin to
move into the actin groove and expose he attachment sites for myosin
heads/cross bridges.
 Simultaneously, the ATP in the myosin heads is broken down to ADP so that
the myosin is energized and interacts with actin.
 The “energized” myosin heads attach to the actin myofiments and form the
cross bridges.
 With this, the myosin heads bend and pull the actin toward the center of the
myosin and slide past one another causing the sarcomeres to shorten
 During this mechanism, the H zones and I bands shorten or almost disappear
BUT the A band do not change in length.
 When new ATP (adenosine triphosphate) binds with the myosin, the cross
bridges detach and the cycle is repeated
 As long as Ca ions remains attached to the troponin and as long as ATP
remains available, the muscle continues to contract
 When action potential ends, Ca ions are reabsorbed and the muscle cell
relaxes until stimulated again by the release of acetylcholine
 After contraction, the muscle cell return to its resting state as a result fo the
following:
 diffusion of K ions out of the cell
 activation of Na-K pump – “active transport mechanism” that
moves Na and K back to their initial positions

Rigor mortis
> after death, cellular membranes start to become leaky, calcium ions leak out of
the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol and allow myosin heads to bind to
actin. ATP synthesis has ceased so cross bridges cannot detach from actin
resulting to muscles in state of rigidity (cannot contract or stretch)

> begins 3-4 hours after death and lasts 24 hours then disappears as proteolytic
enzymes from lysosomes digest the cross bridges.

Muscle Responses

 Each muscle fiber contracts according to All-or None Law

of Muscle Physiology, which states that when a muscle fiber
receives sufficient stimulus to contract, ALL sarcomeres
shorten at the same time. If there is insufficient stimulus,
then NONE of the sarcomeres contract.
 A muscle’s response to a single stimulus is called “muscle
twitch”
  When the muscle remains contracted between stimuli
without relaxing, the condition is called tetanus or tetany

Muscle Tone
 Muscle tone refers to the continued state of partial contraction
that is present in muscle
 Muscle tone is specially important in maintaining posture,
keeping the back and legs straight, the head erect and
abdomen from protruding and also helps to stabilize the joints
 Muscle contraction to sustain muscle tone produces heat to
maintain body temperature.
 Without stimulation to contract, a muscle loses tone, becomes
flaccid (weak, soft, and flabby) and results to muscle atrophies.

Types of muscle contractions

 Isotonic contractions – the tension remains constant but the length of
the muscle changes (shortens) and movement occurs. SAME TENSION;
LENGTH DECREASES
 used for body movements and moving external movements

 Isometric contractions – the tension increases but the muscle do not

shortens or contracts and no movement occurs.
 stability same joints as others are moved for maintaining posture
and supporting objects in a fixed position
 never exceed the weight lead
 myosin heads generate tension but the thin filaments cannot slide
inward because the tension they generate is not large enough to
move the load on the muscle.

Try this!
 Pick your book off the desk and raise it to shoulder level. Then
hold the book steady in front of you at shoulder
 Flex your elbow then ask somebody to straighten it
 Push against a wall with your bent elbows.

Cardiac muscle tissue

 In response to a single action potential, cardiac muscle tissue remains
contracted 10-15 times longer than skeletal muscle tissue due to
prolonged delivery of calcium into the sarcoplasm.
 Contracts when stimulated by its own auto rhythmic muscle fibers.
 Contracts and relaxes about 75 times a minute
 Requires a constant supply of oxygen
 Mitochondria are larger and more numerous than skeletal muscle

Smooth muscle tissue

 Contraction starts more slowly and lasts much longer than
skeletal muscle tissue
 Prolonged presence of calcium in cytosol provides for smooth
muscle tone (state of continued partial contraction)
 Most smooth muscle fibers contract and relax in response to
action potentials from autonomic nervous system, stretching,
hormones or changes in pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide,
temperature and ion concentrations ex. epinephrine hormone =
 relaxation of smooth muscle in the airways and in some blood
vessels

Sources of Energy for Muscle Contraction

1. ATP is the only source of energy to power muscle activity
2. The immediate or initial source of energy for muscle contraction
is ATP.
3. Muscles have limited storage facilities for ATP. In working
muscles, the stored ATP is depleted in about 6 seconds
4. New ATP must be regenerated if muscle contraction is to
continue
5. There are three pathways for ATP regeneration / reproduction]]

 Creatine phosphate (CP)

o stored in the muscle

o formed from ATP while the muscle is relaxed

o an energy rich molecule found only in muscle fiber

o creatine kinase catalyzes the transfer of one of the high-
energy phosphate groups of ATP to creatine = forming
creatine phosphate and ADP

o 3-6 times more plentiful than ATP in sarcoplam and relaxed

muscle fiber

o when contraction begins and the ADP level starts to rise,

creatine kinase catalyzes the transfer of high energy
phosphate group from creatine phosphate back to ADP = form
new ATP molecules

o muscle store enough CP to regenerate sufficient ATP to

sustain contraction for about 10 seconds

o as ATP is being depleted, interactions between CP and ADP

result in transfers of high-energy phosphate group to CP and
ACP thus regenerating more ATP

 Aerobic respiration

 When adequate oxygen is available, glucose is metabolized by

aerobic respiration to produce ATP.

 Limited amounts of oxygen can be stored in muscle fibers

 Red fibers contain “myoglobin” which contain iron that attract and
temporarily bind with oxygen – found mostly in working muscle (red
meat)

 White fibers contain little myoglobin (white meat)

 The products of the aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide , water and
large amounts of ATP

 Anaerobic respiration

1. If adequate oxygen is not available, glucose is broken down by anaerobic

respiration

2. The products of these pathway are lactic acid and a small amount of ATP

3. When sufficient oxygen is available, the liver converts lactic acid back to
glycogen

NOTE: Aerobic pathway produces nearly 20 times more ATP per glucose than
the anaerobic pathway, BUT anaerobic pathway provides ATP
about 2 ½ times faster the aerobic pathway.

*glucose and fatty acids – primary sources of energy

Aerobic cellular respiration

 Series of ATP producing reactions that do not require oxygen

 When muscle activity continues and the supply of creatine phosphate is

depleted glucose is catabolized to generate ATP. Glucose easily passes
from blood into contracting muscle fibers via facilitated diffusion and it is
also produced by breakdown of glycogen within muscle fibers.

 Glucose is broken down / glycolysis produce pyruvic acid and ATP

 Pyruvic acid via glycolysis produce lactic acid and ATP

 Provide energy 30-40 seconds of maximal muscle activity

Aerobic cellular respiration

 series of oxygen requiring reactions that produce ATP in mitochondria

 if with sufficient oxygen, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria where it is

oxidized in reaction that generate ATP, carbon dioxide, water and heat
 slower and it yields more ATP

> each glucose molecule yields about 36 molecules of ATP

> each fatty acid molecule yields more than 100 molecules

 muscle tissue has 2 sources of oxygen:

 oxygen that diffuses into the muscle fibers from the blood
 oxygen released by myoglobin within muscle fibers
>oxygen binding proteins
 hemoglobin
 myoglobin

 provides enough ATP for prolonged activity so long as sufficient oxygen

and nutrients are available

 amino acids = yields ATP

  in activities that last more than 10 minutes, aerobic cellular respiration
provides more than 90% of the needed ATP.

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt

 after periods of strenuous exercise or activity, there is accumulation of
lactic acid in the muscle. This causes temporary muscular pain and
cramping or “muscle cramps” as well as muscle fatigue – wherein the
muscle is unable to contract even though it is still being stimulated

 the ATP and CP are depleted and need to be replenished. This creates
an ”oxygen debt”

 additional oxygen is needed to convert the lactic acid into glycogen

 collectively, the presence of acidity and lack of ATP and oxygen cause
a less effective muscle contraction or inability of the muscle cell to
contract altogether even if it is stimulated

Effects of exercise on muscle

 regular exercise increase muscle size, strength and endurance

 aerobic or endurance exercises such as jogging, biking and

participating in aerobic class result in stronger, more flexible
muscles with greater resistance to muscle fatigue.

 Aerobic exercises make overall body metabolism more efficient

 It does not cause the muscles to increase much in size

 Resistance or isometric exercises require very little time and

little or no special equipment.

 There is increased in muscle size and strength because it

produced different patterns of muscle response

 These may include weightlifting, pushing against the wall and

other body building exercises.

* regular, repeated activities: jogging or aerobic dancing increase oxygen

* weight lifting – rely more on anaerobic production of ATP through glycolysine
*anaerobic activities stimulate synthesis of muscle CHON and result over a
period of time an increased muscle size (muscle hypertrophy)
* aerobic training builds endurance for prolonged activities
* anaerobic training builds muscle strength for short term feats

Control of muscle tension

Single nerve impulse in a motor neuron elicits a single muscle action
potential in all muscle fibers with which it forms synapses.

Motor unit – consists of a somatic motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle
fibers it stimulates

 A single motor neuron makes contact with an average of 150

muscle fibers and all muscle fibers in one motor unit contract in
unison
  Each skeletal muscle fiber has only a single nerve muscular
junction, the axon of a motor neuron branches out and forms
neuromuscular junctions with many different muscle fibers

Red Muscle fibers - have high myoglobin (oxygen-binding CHON) content, more
mitonchondria and blood capillaries than white muscle fibers

White muscle fibers - with low content of myoglobin

Muscle movements
 Most muscles extend from one bone to another and cross at least
one joint
 Muscle contraction causes most body movements by pulling one of
the bones toward the other across the movable joint
 However, some muscles like facial muscles are not attached to
bone at both ends but still cause movements when they contract
 Origin (head) is the point of attachment that is movable (stationary)
or less immovable bone; while insertion is the ends of a muscle
attached to the bone undergoing the greatest movement
 The part between the origin and insertion is the belly
 At these attachment points, the muscle is connected to the bone by
a cord-like extension of connective tissue called tendon while
some muscle is connected by a broad, sheetlike tendons called
aponeurosis

Types of body movements

1. flexion / extension
2. abduction / adduction
3. rotation / circumduction
4. pronation / supination
5. inversion / inversion
6. dorsiflexion / plantar flexion

SKELETAL MUSCLE NOMENCLATURE

Muscles are named based on several criteria. Most muscles have names
that are descriptive. Some muscles are named according to their location, origin
and insertion, number of heads, origins, and function. Other muscles are named
according to their size, shape, or orientation or direction of muscle fibers. Often
these criteria are combined into one name.

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

o functions / movements
o direction of the muscle fiber
o relative size of the muscle
o location in relation to the bone
o number of origin
o location in relation to the origin
o insertion or the attachment sites
o shape
o action
1. Direction of the muscle fibers
o Muscles are named in reference to some imaginary lines in
the body – midline of the body and long axis of a long bone
o Can be rectus (straight), transverse (across), oblique
(diagonal or slant) and orbicularis (circular)

Examples:
o Rectus femoris muscle of the thigh (straight)
o Transversus abdominis muscle of the abdominal walls (across)
o External oblique muscle of the abdomen (diagonal or slant)
o Orbicularis oris muscle around the mouth (circular)

2. Relative size of the muscle

o Can be vastus (huge), maximus (large), longus (long), minimus (small)
and brevis (short)

Examples:
o Gluteus maximus – largest gluteal muscle
o Gluteus minimus – smallest and deepest gluteal muscle
o Vastus lateralis – a huge muscle on the lateral portion of the thigh
o Adductor longus – a long medial thigh muscle involved in adduction of
the thigh
o Peroneus brevis – a short lateral muscle of the leg that everts and
plantar flexes the foot.

3. Shape of the muscle

a. Some muscles have a distinctive shape that helps to identify them
b. Can be deltoid (triangular), latissimus (wide), rhomboid (like a rhombus
with equal and parallel sides), teres (round), trapezius (like a trapezoid
with a four-sided figure with two sides parallel)

Examples:
o Deltoid muscle in the shoulder (triangular)
o Latissimus dorsi in the lower back region (widest)
o Teres major – a round muscle in the lateral portion of the back that
extends, adducts and medially rotates the arm (larger)
o Trapezius - a large triangular muscle of the back that move the
scapula (trapezoid)

4. Location of origin
a. Some muscles are named according to the bone where they are
associated or in relation to body parts
b. Can be pectoralis (chest), gluteus (buttocks), brachii (arm), femoris
(femur), supra- (above), infra- (below), sub- (under or beneath),
lateralis (lateral or sides), medialis (medial or midline)

Examples:
o Frontalis
o Pectoralis major muscle of the ches
o Gluteus maximus muscle of the buttocks
o Biceps brachii muscle of the upper arm
o Rectus femoris muscle of the thigh
o Supraspinatus, intraspinatus, subscapularis muscles of the scapula
o Vastus lateralis and vastus medialis muscles of the thigh
5. Number or origin
a. Named according to the number of heads or point of attachments that are
fixed / immovable or the most stationary end of a muscle
b. Can be biceps (two heads), triceps (three heads) or quadriceps (four
heads)

Examples:
o Biceps femoris muscle of the posterior thigh
o Triceps brachii muscle of the posterior upper arm
o Quadriceps femoris muscle – a group of four muscles of the anterior
thigh

6. Origin and insertion

a. Named according to attachment sites – origin and insertion
b. Origin is the point of attachment that is attached to the immovable or less
movable bone
c. Insertion is the point of attachment that is attached to the movable bone

Examples:
o Sternocleidomastoid – origin: sternum and clavicle, insertion: on
mastoid process;
o brachioradialis – origin: brachiulnar area, insertion: on the radius

7. Action / Function of the Muscle

a. Named according to their actions / functions or types of movement
b. Can be adductor (to move a structure towards the midline), flexor (to bend
or to bring two bone together), extensor (to straighten or to increase the
distance or angle of two bones), levator (to lift or elevate a structure).

TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

Muscles can’t PUSH – they can only PULL as the contract – so most often
body movements are the results of the activity of group muscles working together
or against each other. In other words, muscles tend to function together to
accomplish specific movements.

1. Prime mover
a. Has the major responsibility for causing a particular movement
b. Pays the major role in accomplishing the desired movement
c. Has a primary role in providing a movement
d. “Gts all the credit” for causing certain movements
e. If the desired movement is flexion of the forearm, the prime mover is the
rachialis muscle.

*Flexing forearm at the elbow – biceps brachii – prime mover

- triceps brachii - antagonists

2. Synergists
a. “syn” – together, “erg” - work
b. Help the prime movers by producing the same movement or by reducing
undesirable or unnecessary movement
c. Muscles that work with or assist the prime mover to cause a movement
d. Work together to cause a movement
e. The brachialis and the biceps brachii muscles are in flexing the forearm
3. Antagonists
a. Oppose or reverse a particular movement
b. Can be “prime movers” in their own right
c. Muscles working in opposition to another muscle
d. The triceps brachii muscles are antagonists of biceps brachii muscle, by
extending the forearm. They are also the prime movers in
extending the elbow.

*Flexing forearm at the elbow –– triceps brachii - prime mover

- biceps brachii - antagonists

4. Fixators – stabilize the origin of prime mover

a. Specialized synergists
b. Muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the body while a usually
more distal bone is moved
c. Postural muscles that stabilize the vertebral column, and muscles that
anchor the scapula to the thorax are fixators.