Introduction

to Well Testing
 Objectives
• List the more common objectives of well testing.
• Describe the diffusivity equation by explaining
– its purpose and applications
– assumptions made in its derivation and how it is
derived
– its form for one-dimensional radial flow.
• List, define, give the units for, and specify typical sources
for each of the variables that influence responses in a well
test.
• Compute the total compressibility for different reservoir
systems (undersaturated oil, saturated oil, gas).
 What Is A Well Test?
• A tool for reservoir evaluation and characterization
– Investigates a much larger volume of the reservoir
than cores or logs
– Provides estimates of
– permeability under in-situ conditions
– near-wellbore conditions
– distances to boundaries
– average pressure
How Is A Well Test Conducted?
q
Well is
allowed to q
produce Production
normally remainst
constant

Sensor is p Pressure
lowered stabilizes
into well

t
How Is A Well Test Conducted?
q=0
Production drops to 0
Well is
shut in q

Sensor is p
lowered Pressure
into well rises
t
 Fundamental Concepts

• Applications and objectives of well testing

• Development of the diffusivity equation
• Definitions and sources for data used in well
testing
Types and Purposes of Well
Tests
• Pressure transient tests
– We generate and measure pressure changes with time

• Deliverability tests
– Well controlled production

• (Production Analysis)
– Use of production data for goals usually achieved by
well testing
 Production data analysis
• Reservoir properties (permeability, skin
factor, fracture half-length, etc).
• Reservoir pore volume (estimated using
long-term production performance).
• Estimated ultimate recovery
(EUR)—movable fluid volumes.
Well Test Applications
 Well Test Objectives
• Define reservoir limits
• Estimate average drainage area pressure
• Characterize reservoir

• Diagnose productivity problems

• Evaluate stimulation treatment effectiveness
Single-, Multiwell Tests
q
Well is
allowed to
produce
normally

Sensor is
lowered
into well
Single-, Multiwell Tests

Well is shut in,

pressure is
measured
Single-, Multiwell Tests

Well is
shut in . . . pressure is
measured at
Sensor is offset well(s)
lowered
into
offset
well
Kinds of Well Tests
q
Produce well Plot
at constant pressure
rate response

Lower Pwf
sensor
into well
t
Kinds of Well Tests
Shut in well
Plot
Produce
pressure
well at
response
constant
rate

Lower Pws
sensor
into well
t
Kinds of Well Tests

Plot
pressure
Inject fluid response
into well at
constant rate p

t
Kinds of Well Tests
q=0
Shut in well
Measure
Inject fluid pressure
into well at response
constant rate
p

t
 Multiwell Tests

. . . measure pressure
response at offset
well(s)

Produce
one well at
constant
rate . . . p

t
 Multiwell Tests
q
. . . measure
pressure
response at
offset well(s)
Alternately
produce and
shut in one
well . . . p

t
 PTA: Single-Well Tests
– one well in which the pressure response is measured
following a rate change.
• pressure buildup test
– shut in after controlled production
• drawdown or flow test
– (specific drawdown tests: are called reservoir limits tests
• pressure falloff test
– similar to a pressure buildup test, except it is, conducted
on an injection well
• injectivity test
– Inject into the well at measured rate and measure pressure
as it increases with time
– analogous to pressure drawdown testing.
 PTA: Multiwell Tests
• Flow rate is changed in one well
• Pressure response is measured in one or more other
wells
• Directional variations of reservoir properties
(orientation of natural fractures)
• Presence or lack of communication between two
points in the reservoir
• Ratio of the porosity-compressibility products of the
matrix and fracture systems
 Multiwell tests:
• Interference tests
– The active well is produced at a measured, constant
rate throughout the test
– (Other wells in the field must be shut in so that any
observed pressure response can be attributed to the
active well only.)
• Pulse tests
– The active well produces and then, is shut in, returned
to production and shut in again
– Repeated but with production or shut-in periods
rarely exceeding more than a few hours
– Produces a pressure response in the observation wells
which usually can be interpreted unambiguously (even
when other wells in the field continue to produce)
 Deliverability tests (DT)
• production capabilities of a well under
specific reservoir conditions
• primarily for gas wells
• absolute openflow (AOF) potential
• inflow performance relationship (IPR) or gas
backpressure curve
 DT: Flow-After-Flow Tests
(referred to as gas backpressure or four-point tests)
• producing the well at a series of different stabilized
flow rates
• measuring the stabilized bottomhole flowing pressure
at the sandface
• typically, with a sequence of increasing flow rates
 DT: Single-Point Tests
• low-permeability formations

• flowing the well at a single rate until the bottomhole

flowing pressure is stabilized

– required by many regulatory agencies

– requires prior knowledge of the well's deliverability

behavior

– (from previous testing or from correlations with other

wells producing in the same field under similar conditions)

 DT: Isochronal Tests
• Specifically, the isochronal test is a series of
single-point tests developed to estimate stabilized
deliverability characteristics without actually
flowing the well for the time required to achieve
stabilized conditions
• The isochronal test is conducted by alternately
producing the well, then shutting in the well and
allowing it to build up to the average reservoir
pressure prior to the beginning of the next
production period.
 Issues
• Development Wells vs. Exploration Wells
• Producing Wells vs. Injection Wells
• Shallow Wells vs. Deep Wells
• Stimulated Wells vs. Unstimulated Wells
• Effects of Reservoir Properties
• Low Permeability vs. High Permeability
Formations
• Single Zones vs. Multiple Zones
• Safety and Environmental Considerations
• Sweet Gas vs. Sour and Corrosive Gases
• Other environmental Concerns
 Production data analysis
• Reservoir properties (permeability, skin
factor, fracture half-length, etc).
• Reservoir pore volume (estimated using
long-term production performance).
• Estimated ultimate recovery
(EUR)—movable fluid volumes.
End of Class
 The Diffusivity Equation
• Describes the flow of
– a slightly compressible fluid
– having constant viscosity
– in a porous medium
– at constant temperature
• Derived from basic relationships of
– continuity
– flow equation (Darcy’s law)
– equation-of-state
 The Continuity Equation

(Aρv) (Aρv)
1 2
Flow Equation (Darcy’s Law)

or, in differential form,

Equation of State for a Slightly
Compressible Liquid
 The Diffusivity Equation
One-dimensional, radial form:
 Formation Volume Factor

For oil: For gas: For water:

 Viscosity
• A fluid’s resistance to flow
– Gasoline—low viscosity
– Vaseline—high viscosity
Fluid Compressibility
Porosity
Permeability
Pore Compressibility
 Net Pay Thickness

h1

h2
h = h1 + h2 + h3
Shale
h3 Sand (No perforations
in this sand)
h4
 Net Pay Thickness

Vertical well, Vertical well,

horizontal formation slanted formation

Deviated well, Deviated well,

horizontal formation slanted formation
Saturations
Wellbore Radius

rw
Total Compressibility
Modeling Radial Flow
 Instructional Objectives
• State the Ei-function solution to the diffusivity
equation, and list all the assumptions on which it
is based. State practical rules for determining the
numerical values of the Ei-function.
• Given formation and fluid properties, be able to
calculate the radius of investigation at a given
time and the time necessary to reach a given
radius of investigation.
• Describe the effects of reservoir properties on the
radius of investigation.
Radial Flow Reservoir Model

Bulk
formation

rw
h

r
Ei-Function Solution
to the Diffusivity Equation
 Ei-Function Graph

6 Log
approximation

4
-Ei(-x)
Ei-function
drops to zero
2

0
0.00 0.0 0. 1 1 10
1 1 1 -x 0 0
Short-Time Approximation for
Ei-Function Solution

Applies when

(large radius or small time)

Long-Time Approximation
to Ei-Function Solution

Applies when

(small radius or large time)

 Pressure Profile
During Drawdown
2000

t=0 ri ri ri ri

t = 0.01 hrs

t = 1 hr
Pressure,
psi
t = 100 hrs

t = 10000 hrs

1000
1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
 Pressure Profile
During Buildup
2,000

t = 10,000 hrs
ri
1,800

ri
1,600 t = 100 hrs
Pressure,
psi
1,400
ri
t = 1 hr

1,200 ri
t = 0.01 hrs
t=0
1,000
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
Radius of Investigation Equations
• Radius of investigation for a
given time t:

• Time required to reach a given

radius of investigation ri:
Characterizing Damage and
Stimulation
 Instructional Objectives
• List factors that cause skin damage or geometric skin factor.
• Calculate skin factor for a given additional pressure drop due to
damage; conversely, calculate additional pressure drop for a given
skin factor.
• Calculate flow efficiency given the skin factor, wellbore pressure,
and average drainage area pressure.
• Express skin factor as an apparent wellbore radius; conversely,
express apparent wellbore radius as a skin factor.
• Express a given skin factor as an equivalent fracture halflength (for
an infinite-conductivity fracture); conversely, express fracture
half-length as an equivalent skin factor.
 Drilling Fluid Damage
Fines may clog pore
throats, reducing
effective permeability

Mud filtrate
invasion

Filtrate may cause

clays to swell,
causing damage
 Production Damage

p > pd P< pd p < pb p > pb

Gas Condensate Oil Reservoir

Reservoir Free gas reduces
effective permeability
Immobile condensate
ring reduces
effective permeability
 Injection Damage

‘dirty’ incompatible
water water
 Reservoir Model
Skin Effect
Bulk
formation
Altered
zone

ka h k
rw

ra
 Reservoir Pressure Profile
2,000
Pressure, psi

1,500

1,000
Δps

500
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
Skin and Pressure Drop
Skin and Pressure Drop
Skin Factor and Properties
of the Altered Zone

rw rds
h

r
Skin Factor and Properties
of the Altered Zone
Effective Wellbore Radius
Minimum Skin Factor
 Minimum Skin Factor
Example
Converging Flow to Perforations

Geometric Skin
 Partial Penetration

hp

Geometric Skin
 Incompletely Perforated
Interval

h1

ht
hp

Geometric Skin
 Partial Penetration
Apparent Skin Factor
Geometric Skin
Deviated Wellbore

Geometric Skin
 Deviated Wellbore
Apparent Skin Factor
Well With Hydraulic Fracture

Lf
rwe

Geometric Skin
 Completion Skin
rw

kdp rdp
rp
kR

Lp

kd

rd
Gravel Pack Skin
Cement

Lg
Productivity Index
Flow Efficiency
Flow Efficiency and Rate
Semilog Analysis
For Oil Wells
 Instructional Objectives
• Analyze a constant-rate drawdown test using semilog
analysis.
• Analyze a buildup test following a constant-rate flow
period using the Horner method.
Ei-Function Solution

4
-Ei(-x)
2

0.00 -x 10
 Reservoir Pressure Profile

2,00
0

Negative skin
(s = -2)
Pressure,
psi Unsteady-state pressure
(s=0)

Positive (damage) skin (s = +5)

50
0 1 1 10 1,00 10,00
0
Distance 0 of wellbore, 0
from center 0
ft
 Incorporating Skin into the
Ei-Function Solution
• For r = rw

• For r > ra
Log Approximation to the
Ei-Function

y = mx + b
Use |m| in computations
from this point forward
Estimating Permeability and
Skin
 Drawdown Test Graph
1,20
0
Usually several cycles apart

(t2, pwf2) p1hr is p at

1 hr on
Pressure, best-fit line
psi
Plot pressure vs. time (t1, pwf1)

Powers of 10
70
0 0. 1 1 10 1,00
1 0 0 0
Elapsed Test Time, hrs
 Example
• q = 250 STB/D pi = 4,412 psia
• h = 46 ft φ = 12%
• rw = 0.365 ft B = 1.136 RB/STB
• ct = 17 x 10-6 psi-1 μ = 0.8 cp
 Example
• q = 250 STB/D pi = 4,412 psia
• h = 46 ft φ = 12%
• rw = 0.365 ft B = 1.136 RB/STB
• ct = 17 x 10-6 psi-1 μ = 0.8 cp
 Example
3,60
0 Extrapolate to get p1 hr
slope = p10 hr-p1 hr
p1hr ≅ 3,540 psi
≅ -100
m ≅ 100
Pressure,
psi p10hr ≅ 3,440 psi
One log cycle
Plot data points
from field data

3,30
0 1 1 10
0 hrs
Time, 0
 Example
• q = 250 STB/D pi = 4,412 psia
• h = 46 ft φ = 12%
• rw = 0.365 ft B = 1.136 RB/STB
• ct = 17 x 10-6 psi-1 μ = 0.8 cp

p1hr ≅ 3,540 psi

m ≅ 100
 Problems with Drawdown
Tests
• It is difficult to produce a well at a strictly constant
rate
• Even small variations in rate distort the pressure
response
 Alternative to Drawdown
Tests
• There is one rate that is easy to maintain – a flow
rate of zero.
• A buildup test is conducted by shutting in a
producing well and measuring the resulting
pressure response.
Buildup Test - Rate History
q
Rate during production of +q.
0 tp +
Δt
Δ
0 t
Rate after shut-in of -q
-q

q
Sum after shut-in
of 0.
0 Δ
tp
t
Buildup Pressure Response
0
Pressure normally declines
during production...
tp +
Δt
…but rises during the
‘injection’ (buildup) period...
0 Δ
t
…yielding a pressure curve that is the
sum of the two rate curves:
0

Δ
tp
t
Buildup Test - Superposition

y = mx + b
Buildup Straight-Line
Analogy

Horner time ratio

 Buildup Test Graph
2,00
0 pi

Pressure,
psi

1,40
0 10,00 1,00 10 1 1
0 0 0 0
Horner time ratio
Estimating Skin Factor
From a Buildup Test
Horner Pseudoproducing
Time
Semilog Analysis
For Gas Wells
 Instructional Objectives

1. Identify range of validity of pressure,

pressure-squared, and adjusted pressure
analysis methods
2. Estimate pressure drop due to nonDarcy
flow
3. Analyze flow and buildup tests using
semilog analysis
 Outline
• Flow Equations For Gas Wells
– Pseudopressure
– Pressure-Squared
– Pressure
– Adjusted Pressure
• Non-Darcy Flow
• Example
 Diffusivity Equation - Liquids

• Continuity Equation
• Equation of State For Slightly
Compressible Liquids
• Darcy’s Law
 Real Gas Law

absolute pressure, psi

real gas
ideal
deviation
gas constant,
factor, 10.72
(ft3)(lb)/(mole)(in2)(°R)
dimensionless

pV znRT
pV=znRT number of moles
3
volume, ft temperature, °R
Real Gas Pseudopressure

absolute pressure, psi

 Gas Flow Equation
Real Gas Pseudopressure

• Continuity Equation
• Real Gas Law Equation of State
• Darcy’s Law
 Gas Flow Equation
Pressure-Squared

• Continuity Equation
• Real Gas Law Equation of State
• Darcy’s Law
• The term μz Is Constant
Pressure-Squared Ranges
0.1
6
SG=1.2
Fairly constant at
rates <2,000 psi
SG=1.0
mu*z, Tf = 200 °F
psi/cp SG=0.8

SG=0.6

0
0 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00
0 0 Pressure, 0psia 0 0
Gas Flow Equation: Pressure
• If p/μz is constant,

• Continuity Equation
• Real Gas Law Equation of State
• Darcy’s Law
 Pressure: Range Of
Application
25
0 Tf = 200°F SG=0.6

p/μ*z, SG=0.8
psi/cp
SG=1.0
(x103)
SG=1.2

Fairly constant at rates >3,000 psi

0
0 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00
0 0Pressure, 0psia 0 0
 Gas - Dependent Variables
• Pressure-Squared - Valid Only For Low
Pressures (< 2000 psi)
• Pressure - Valid Only For High Pressures (>
3000 psi)
• Real Gas Pseudopressure - Valid For All
Pressure Ranges
 Gas Flow Equation:
Real Gas Pseudopressure

Strong Variation
• Continuity Equation With Pressure

• Real Gas Law Equation of State

• Darcy’s Law
Real Gas Pseudotime
Adjusted Variables
Using Horner Time Ratio
With Adjusted Time
 Non-Darcy Flow
• Flow equations developed so far assume
Darcy flow
• For gas wells, velocity near wellbore is
high enough that Darcy’s law fails
• Non-Darcy behavior can often be
modeled as rate-dependent skin
Apparent Skin Factor
 Estimating Non-Darcy
Coefficient
From Multiple Tests
1
0

8
D=
5.1x104D/Mscf
6
Apparent
skin factor
4

s=
2 3.4

0
0 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00
0 0Flow rate,0Mscf/D 0 0
Estimating Non-Darcy Coefficient
From Turbulence Parameter
• Often, only one test is available
• If so, we can estimate D from
 Estimating Turbulence
Parameter
• If β is not known, it can be estimated from
Wellbore Storage
 Objectives
• Define wellbore unloading
• Define afterflow
• Calculate wellbore storage (WBS)
coefficient for wellbore filled with a
singlephase fluid
• Calculate WBS coefficient for rising
liquid level
Fluid-Filled Wellbore -
Unloading
Ei-function solution
assumes constant
Rat
Surface reservoir rate
e
Rate

Bottomhole
Rate Mass balance
0 equation resolves
Time
problems
Fluid-Filled Wellbore -
Afterflow
Bottomhole flow
Rat
e
Surface Rate continues after
shut-in
Bottomhole
Rate
Time
Rising Liquid Level
Rat Surface Rate
e
Bottomhole
Rate

Time

Liquid rises until

hydrostatic head in
wellbore matches
pressure in formation
 Wellbore Storage
Fluid-filled wellbore

Rising liquid level

General