CERTIFICATE

It is certified that the investigation reported in the project work entitled Air
Pollution is a record of bona fide work carried out by Parijat Patra under
my supervision. She is submitting the work to fulfill the partial requirement
of his BSc. Course of Vidyasagar University. The work of the project has
been submitted for the award of any other degree under my supervision and
guidance.
I wish her success in life.

Mahenga Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany
Kharagpur College
 Acknowledgments
I take this opportunity to express my profound respect and deep sense of gratitude to Prof.
Mahenga Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Kharagpur College under
Vidyasagar University for their constant careful guidance and inspiration which enabled
me to complete this project work.

I would like to acknowledge Dr.Bidyut Samanta, Principal, Kharagpur College, for his
extraordinary enthusiasm, inspiration and active guidance during my work.
I wish to pay respect to my beloved family members for their love and blessings during my
project work. I would also like to thank my batch mates and friends for their uninterrupted
support and enthusiasm that kept me motivated throughout my study

Parijat Patra

BSc. Physics (Hons.)

2nd Sem, Kharagpur College
 CONTENTS
1. PREFACE
2. INTRODUCTION
3. What is air Pollution?
4. Historical overview
5. Definition of terms and scale conversion
6. Unit of measurement
7. Sources of Air Pollution
 Natural sources
 Emission factors
8. Pollutants
9. effect of air pollution on health
10. Health effects by air pollution
11. Mortality
12. Impacts on ecosystem by air pollution
13. Why invertebrates are affected
14. Impacts on communication by air pollution
15. Air pollution control
16. Air pollution regulation and mitigation
17. CONCLUSIONS
 Air Pollution
PREFACE

Shortage of appropriate textbooks that could meet the need for training
professionals on the nature and the magnitude of ambient and indoor air
pollutions and their effects have been one of the outstanding problems in
the existing higher health learning institutions in Ethiopia. Therefore, a well-
developed teaching material to produce the required qualified health
professionals, who are considered to shoulder the responsibility of
preventing and controlling of air pollutions by creating awareness and
entertaining some interventional measures among the communities, is
obvious. The present lecture note on “Air pollution” is therefore, prepared to
be used as a teaching material to train mainly environmental health and
other students of health category in Ethiopia. It is believed this teaching
material plays a significant role to solve the critical shortage of reference
books and text on the subject. The lecture note is designed to make the
training somehow a practical application to the actual indoor and outdoor
air pollutions in the country. It contains five chapters in which the major
current out/ in-door air pollution problems with their suggested solutions
are discussed. Each chapter is presented in simple language and is provided
with learning objectives, body introduction, exercises, and suggested reading
as appropriate. Text books, journals, internet sources and other lecture
manuscript are used to develop this lecture material. We have also
incorporated the useful ideas of different instructors of the course to
standardize it to its present status, which the authors hope to further
improve the draft through the consultations, pretest and revisions. It is also
hoped that this lecture note will be of particular use not only for students of
health category in colleges and universities, but to those graduates working
in health care service institutions and environmental protection agencies.

INTRODUCTION
Learning Objective
1. Describe the importance of Air as the basic health requirement of human
life
2. Define what air pollution means and other related terms
3. Enumerate different types of air pollutants
4. List physical forms of pollutants
Introduction to the course

Air is essential for life itself; without it we could survive only a few minutes.
It constitutes immediate physical environment of living organisms. It is a
mixture of various gases like nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and
others in traces; along with water vapor perceptible as humidity and
suspended solids in particulate form. The atmosphere is layered in to four
distinct zones of contrasting temperature due to differential absorption of
solar energy. The four atmospheric layers are: Troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and thermosphere. Understanding how these layers differ and
what creates them helps us understand atmospheric function.

TROPOSPHERE

The layer of air immediately adjacent to the earth‟s surface is called the
troposphere. Ranging in depth from about 16 km (10 mile) over the equator
to about 8 km over the poles, this zone is where most weather events occur
.Due to the force of gravity and the compressibility of gases, the troposphere
contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere .Air temperature
drops rapidly with increasing altitude in this layer, reaching about -600C at
the top of the troposphere. A sudden reversal of this temperature gradient
creates a sharp boundary, the tropopause, that limits mixing between the
troposphere and the upper zones. Other characteristics of troposphere
• All life activities occur in this zone
• Contains water vapor, gases and dust
• The residence time of particle in the troposphere is short due to rain (ppt),
gravity, air movement
• Mixing time is rapid due to wind or turbulence

STRATOSPHERE

The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km. Air

temperature in this zone is stable or even increases with higher altitude.
Although more dilute than the troposphere, the stratosphere has a very
similar composition except two important components: water and ozone. The
fractional volume of water vapor is about one hundred times lower, and
ozone is nearly one thousand times higher than in the troposphere. Ozone is
produced by lighting and irradiation of oxygen molecules and would not be
present if photosynthetic organisms were not releasing oxygen. Ozone
protects life on the earth surface by absorbing most incoming solar ultra
violet radiation. Recently discovered decreases in stratospheric ozone over
the Antarctica (and to a lesser extent over the whole planet) are of a serious
concern if these trends continue, we would be exposed to increasing amount
of dangerous UV rays, resulting in:
• Higher rate of skin cancer
• Problem with eyes (Cataract, conjunctivitis etc.)
• Genetic mutations
• Crop failures &
• Disruption of important living organisms
Other characteristics of stratosphere
• Contain no water vapor and dust
• Amount of ozone vary depending on location and season of the year. Ozone
concentration are lowest above the equator, increasing towards the poles,
they also increased markedly between autumn and spring
• Mixing time is lower
• Pollution entering in this region tends to remain long time due to low
mixing

MESOSPHERE

Above the stratosphere, the temperature diminishes again creating the

mesosphere, or the middle layer. The minimum temperature in this region is
about -80°C.

THERMOSPHERE

At an altitude of 80 km, another abrupt temperature change occurs. This is

the beginning of the thermosphere, a region of highly ionized gases,
extending to about 1600 km. Temperatures are very high in the
thermosphere because molecules there are constantly bombarded by high
energy solar & cosmic radiation The lower part of the thermosphere is called
the ionosphere; this is where the aurora borealis (northern lights) appears
when showers of solar or cosmic energy causes ionized gases to emit visible
light. There is no sharp boundary that marks the end of the atmosphere.
Pressure and density decreases gradually as one travels away from the earth
until they become indistinguishable from the near vacuum of interstellar
space. The composition of the thermosphere also gradually merges with that
of interstellar space, being made up mostly of He & H2.

The immediate concern of human beings is that the nature of air they
breathe for oxygen and respiratory should always be access to human body.
The thermal comfort experienced and
the smell and hearing sense activated through the medium of air are of
other area of health concern.
What is air Pollution?

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain

substances are present in such concentrations that they can produce
undesirable effects on man and his environment. These substances include
gases (SO2, NO2, CO, HCs, etc) particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes,
aerosols) radioactive materials and many others. Most of these substances
are naturally present in the atmosphere in low (background) concentrations
and are usually considered to be harmless. The background concentrations
of various components of dry air near sea level and their estimated residence
times are given in
Annex-1 Thus, a
particular substance
can be considered as
an air pollutant only
when its
concentration is
relatively high
compared with the
back ground value
and causes adverse
effects. Air pollution
is a problem of
obvious importance
in most of the world Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1)
that affects human, greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased
plant and animal UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone
concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides
health. For example,
there is good evidence that the health of 900 million urban people suffers
daily because of high levels of ambient air sulfur dioxide concentrations. Air
pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems in societies at
all level of economic development. Air pollution can also affect the properties
of materials (such as rubber), visibility, and the quality of life in general.
Industrial development has been associated with emission to air of large
quantities of gaseous and particulate emissions from both industrial
production and from burning fossil fuels for energy and transportation.
When technology was introduced to control air pollution by reducing
emissions of particles, it was found that the gaseous emissions continued
and caused problems of their own. Currently efforts to control both
particulate and gaseous emissions have been partially successful in much of
the developed world, but there is recent evidence that air pollution is a
health risk even under these relatively favourable conditions. In societies
that are rapidly developing sufficient resources may not be invested in air
pollution control because of other economic and social priorities. The rapid
expansion of the industry in these countries has occurred at the same time
as increasing traffic from automobiles and trucks, increasing demands for
power for the home, and concentration of the population in large urban
areas called mega cities. The result has been some of the worst air pollution
problem in the world. In many traditional societies, and societies where
crude household energy sources are widely available, air pollution is a
serious problem because of inefficient and smoky fuels used to heat
buildings and cook. This causes air pollution both out door and indoors. The
result can be lung disease, eye problems, and increased risk of cancer. The
quality of air indoors is a problem also in many developed countries because
buildings were built to be airtight and energy efficient. Chemicals produced
by heating and cooling systems, smoking and evaporation from buildings
materials accumulate indoors and create a pollution problem. In Ethiopia,
like many traditional societies, the problem of indoors air pollutions resulted
from in efficient and smoky fuels used to heat buildings and cook. In the
rural households of Ethiopia, most of the children and women are staying in
overcrowded condition of a one roomed /thatched roof /Tukul/ house that
exposed them for the indoor air pollution. It is also known that mothers and
children are spending more than 75% percent of their day time at home.
Identification of the problems of both at out doors and indoors air pollutions
in the societies one has to make interventions to alleviate the health related
problems and promote safe ventilation of air in the living and working areas.
First, however, some basic science is needed to understand air

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in

the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living
beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials There are many
different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides,
methane, carbon dioxide and
chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both
organic and inorganic), and biological
molecules Air pollution can cause diseases,
allergies, and even death to humans; it can
also cause harm to other living organisms
such as animals and food crops, and may
damage the natural environment (for
example, climate change, ozone depletion Air pollution from a coking oven
or habitat degradation) or built
environment (for example, acid rain). Air pollution can be caused by both
human activities and natural phenomena.
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related
diseases, including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and
lung cancer. Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be
associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition, increased risk for
psychiatric disorders such as depression and detrimental perinatal health.
The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally
affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a
person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health
status and genetics. Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1 to 4.21 million
deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death.
Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million people
worldwide each year, or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9
years, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk. Indoor air
pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst
toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst
Polluted Places report. The scope of the air pollution crisis is enormous: 90%
of the world's population breathes dirty air to some degree. Although the
health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is often
haphazard.

Productivity losses and degraded quality of life caused by air pollution are
estimated to cost the world economy $5 trillion per year but, along with
health and mortality impacts, are an externality to the contemporary
economic system and most human activity, albeit sometimes being
moderately regulated and monitored. Various pollution control technologies
and strategies are available to reduce air pollution. To reduce the impacts of
air pollution, both international and national legislation and regulation have
been implemented to regulate air pollution. Local laws, where well enforced,
have led to strong public health improvements. At the international level,
some of these efforts have been successful – for example the Montreal
Protocol was successful at reducing release of harmful ozone depleting
chemicals or the 1985 Helsinki Protocol which reduced sulfur emissions,
while other attempts have so far been less successful in implementation,
such as international action on climate change.

Historical overview

Human have undoubtedly been coping with a certain amount of polluted air
ever since primitive Homo sapiens sat crouched by the warmth of a smoky
fire in his Paleolithic cave. An inevitable consequence of fuel combustion, air
pollution mounted as a source of human discomfort as soon as man begins
to live in towns and cities. It has become an extremely serious problem on
the world wide basis during the past century for two primarily reasons:
1. There has been an enormous increase in world population, particularly in
urban areas, and
2. The rapid growth of energy intensive industries and rising level of
affluence in the developed countries has led to record levels of fossil fuel
combustion Prior to the 20 th Century problems related to air pollution were
primarily associated, in public mind at least, with city of London. As early as
18 th Century small amount of coal from Newcastle were being shipped in
London for fuel. As the population and the manufacturing enterprises grew,
wood supplies diminished and coal burning increased, in spite of the
protestation of a long serious of both monarchs and private citizens who
objected to the odor of coal smoke. One petitioner to king Charles II in 1661
complained that due to the greed of manufacturers, inhabitants of London
were forced to “breath nothing but an impure and thick mist, accompanied
by a fuliginous (sooty) and filthy vapor, which render them obnoxious to a
thousand in conveniences, corrupting the lungs, disordering the entire habit
of their bodies. In spite of such railings, English coal combustion increased
even faster than the rate of population growth and by the 19th Century
London‟s thick,” pear soup” fogs had become a notorious trade mark of the
city, numerous well-meaning attempts at smoke abatement were largely
ignored during the hay day of laissez-faire capitalism, epitomized by the
industrialists slogan “where there is muck there is money“ The same
condition, which had made London air pollution capital of the world, began
to prevail in the United States as well during the 19th and early 20th
Century. St. Louis. Plagued by smoke condition. Passed an ordinance as
early as 1867 mandating that smoke stacks be at least 20 ft higher than
adjacent buildings The Chicago City council in 1881 passed the notion first
smoke ordinance. Pittsburgh, once one of the smokiest cities in the US was
the site of pioneer work at the Mellon In the harmful impact of smoke both
on property and human health .In spite of gradually increasing public
awareness of the problem, levels of air pollution and the geographical extent
of the areas affected continued to increase. Although by the late 1950‟s and
1960‟s large scale fuel switching from coal to natural gas oil had
significantly reduced smoke condition in many American cities, other newer
pollutants products of the new ubiquitous automobile had assumed
worrisome level. Today foul air has become a problem of global proportions;
no longer does one have to travel to London or Pittsburg or Los Angeles to
experience the respiratory irritation or the aesthetic distress. The
contaminated atmosphere can provoke in the 1990‟s virtually every
metropolitan area in the world New York, Rome Athens, Bombay, Tokyo,
Mexico City capitalist and communities industrialized and developing nation
alike are grappling with the problem of how to halt further deterioration air
quality with out impending

Definition of terms and scale conversion

Air pollution: - concentration of foreign matter in air in excessive quantity

which is harmful to the health of man.
Indoor air pollutions: - Pollutions from the housing made materials and
living and working activities of the house, such as: natural radiation-radon,
domestic combustion-coal gas, and human habits-tobacco smoking.
Out door air pollution: - Pollutions from outdoor services and
environmental mixings, such as: transportation-automobiles, industries-
refineries, atomic energy plant-nuclear, and community activities-cleaning
of streets.
Acute effects: - with in twenty four hours of sudden exposure to polluted
air illness would occur.
Delayed effect: - The cause and effect relationship of air pollution and
chronic effects on health is in a way difficult to prove due to long time
contact and accumulation effect.
Aerosols: - Small solid or liquid particles (fine drops or droplets) that are
suspended in air.
Dust: - aerosols consist of particles in the solid phase.
Smoke: - aerosols consist of particles in the solidand sometimes also liquid-
phase and the associated gases that result from combustion.
Ash: - aerosols of the solid phase of smoke, particularly after it settles into a
fine dust.
Particulates: - Small particles, that travel in air and settles or lands on
something.
Fumes: - are polydispersed fine aerosols consisting of solid particles that
often aggregate together, so that many little particulates may form one big
particle.
Inhalable fraction: - Particles less than 100 μm that can be inhaled into
the respiratory throat (trachea).
Thoracic fraction: - Those particles below 20 μm, that can penetrate into
the lungs.
Respirable range: - the greatest penetration and retention of particles is in
the range 10.0 to 0.1 μm.
Mist: - A cloud or dense collection of droplets suspended in air.
Vapour: - The evaporated compound in the gas phase.
Troposphere: - The first and lowest of the atmospheric layers is called the
“troposphere”.
Stratosphere: - The second layer of air is called the “stratosphere”.
Ionosphere: - Above the stratosphere is the “ionosphere” the top of which is
the border line space.
Thermosphere:- This is a region of highly ionized gases, extending to about
1600 km.
Mesosphere: - Above the stratosphere, or the middle layer.
Wind: - Is simply air in motion

Unit of measurement

Concentrations of air pollutants are commonly expressed as the mass of

pollutant per Unit volume of air mixture, as mg/m3, μg/m3, ng /m3
Concentration of gaseous pollutants may also be expressed as volume of
pollutant per million volumes of the air plus pollutant mixture (ppm) where
1ppm= 0.0001 % by volume. It is sometimes necessary to convert from
volumetric units to mass per unit volume and vice versa.
The relation ship between ppm and mg/m3 depends on the gas density,
which in turn depends on:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Molecular weight of the pollutant
The following expression can be uses to convert of between ppm and mg/m3
at any temperature or pressure.

Simply multiply the calculated value of mg/m3 by 1000 to obtain μg/m3

The constant 22.4 is the volume in liter occupied by 1 mole of an ideal gas
at standard concentration (0 0c and 1 atm.). One mole of any substance is a
quantity of that substance whose mass in grams numerically equals its
molecular weight
Sources of Air Pollution

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

These are mostly related to the burning of fuel.

 Stationary sources include:

o smoke stacks of fossil fuels and
biomass power stations (see for
example environmental impact of the
coal industry)
o burning of traditional biomass such as
Aviation is a major source
wood, crop waste and dung. (In of air pollution.
developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is
the major source of air pollutants. It is also the main source of
particulate pollution in many developed areas including the UK
& New South Wales. Its pollutants include PAHs.
o manufacturing facilities (factories)
 a 2014 study found that in China equipment-, machinery-
, and devices-manufacturing and construction sectors
contributed more than 50% of air pollutant emissions
o waste incineration (incinerators
as well as open and
uncontrolled fires of
mismanaged waste, making up
about a fourth of municipal
solid terrestrial waste)
o furnaces and other types of
Controlled burning of a field outside of
fuel-burning heating devices Statesboro, Georgia, in preparation for spring
 Mobile sources include motor planting
vehicles, trains (particularly diesel
locomotives and DMUs), marine vessels and aircraft.
 Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in
forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas
abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology
and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning
stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus
renewing the forest.
There are also sources from processes other than combustion:

 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other
solvents. These can be substantial;
emissions from these sources was
estimated to account for almost half
of pollution from volatile organic
compounds in the Los Angeles basin
in the 2010s.

 Waste deposition in landfills, which
generate methane. Methane is
highly flammable and may form
Smoking of fish over an open fire in
explosive mixtures with air.
Ghana, 2018
Methane is also an asphyxiant and
may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation
may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by
displacement.
 Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ
warfare and rocketry.
 Agricultural emissions contribute substantially to air pollution
o Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.

Natural sources

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little
vegetation or no vegetation
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of
food by animals, for example cattle
 Radon gas from radioactive decay
within the Earth's crust. Radon is a
colorless, odorless, naturally
occurring, radioactive noble gas that
is formed from the decay of radium.
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas
It is considered to be a health hazard.
Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings,
especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second
most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active
wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up
almost 75% of all air pollution by concentration.
  Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant
amounts of
volatile organic
compounds
(VOCs) on warmer
days. These VOCs
react with primary
anthropogenic
pollutants –
specifically, NO2,
SO2, and
anthropogenic
organic carbon E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie, Ghana using open-burning
compounds – to of electronics to access valuable metals like copper. Open
burning of plastics is common in many parts of the world
produce a without the capacity for processing. Especially without proper
seasonal haze of protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into
secondary the soil, and create water pollution and air pollution.

pollutants. Black
gum, poplar, oak and willow are some examples of vegetation that can
produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from these species
result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree
species.
 Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash
particulates

Emission Factors

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that

attempt to relate the quantity of a
pollutant released to the ambient
air with an activity associated
with the release of that pollutant.
These factors are usually
expressed as the weight of
pollutant divided by a unit weight,
volume, distance, or duration of Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a
smoggy day (right)
the activity emitting the pollutant
(e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). Such
factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air
pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available
data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of
long-term averages.
There are 12 compounds in the list of persistent organic pollutants. Dioxins
and furans are two of them and intentionally created by combustion of
organics, like open burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine
disruptors and can mutate the human genes.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a

compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial
sources.[42] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other
countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European
Environment Agency.

Pollutants

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on
humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid
droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made.
Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are
usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or
sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted
directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or
interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary
pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are
both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2): Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has

been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate
pollutant". Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the atmosphere,
essential for plant life and given off by
the human respiratory system. This
question of terminology has practical
effects, for example as determining
whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is
deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.
CO2 currently forms about 410 parts
per million (ppm) of earth's
atmosphere, compared to about The emissions from this power plant in
New Mexico contained excessive
280 ppm in pre-industrial times, and amounts of sulfur dioxide.
billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil
fuels. CO2 increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.
 Sulfur oxides (SO2): particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound
with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various
industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further
oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2,
forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain is formed. This is one of the causes
for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as
power sources.
 Nitrogen oxides (NO2): Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide,
are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also
produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be
seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is
one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air
pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp,
biting odor.
 Carbon monoxide (CO): CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas.[55] It is
a product of combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood.
Vehicular exhaust contributes to the majority of carbon monoxide let
into the atmosphere. It creates a smog type formation in the air that
has been linked to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural
environment and animals.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOC): VOCs are a well-known outdoor
air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-
methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas
which contributes to enhanced global
warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs
are also significant greenhouse gases
because of their role in creating ozone
and prolonging the life of methane in
the atmosphere. This effect varies
depending on local air quality. The
aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene Thermal oxidisers are air
and xylene are suspected carcinogens pollution abatement options for
and may lead to leukemia with hazardous air pollutants (HAPs),
volatile organic compounds
prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is (VOCs), and odorous emissions.
another dangerous compound often
associated with industrial use.
 Particulate matter/particles, alternatively referred to as particulate
matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny
particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol
refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur
 naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities,
such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and
various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of
aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols – those made by
human activities – currently account for approximately 10% of our
atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to
health hazards such as heart disease,[56] altered lung function and
lung cancer. Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can
be particularly harmful to those with conditions like asthma.
 Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are
linked to cardiopulmonary disease.
 Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Harmful to the ozone layer; Emitted
from products that are currently banned from use. These are gases
which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays,
etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they
come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layer. This
allows harmful UV rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to
skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
 Ammonia: Emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is a
compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas
with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly
to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a
precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or
indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and
hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen
and sulfur to form secondary particles.
 Odors: Such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes.
 Radioactive pollutants: Produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear
events, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive
decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

 Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds

in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog
results from large amounts of coal burning in an area, which
produces a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does
not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial
emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from
 the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the
primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3): Ozone is formed from NOx and VOCs. It is a
key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent
of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the ozone
layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of
the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by
night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human
activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant and a
constituent of smog.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5): similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

 A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are

regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air
Framework Directive.
 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to
particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are

resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and
photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in
the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in
human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.

effect of air pollution on health

Exposure to high levels of air pollution can cause a variety of adverse health
outcomes. It increases the risk of respiratory infections, heart disease
and lung cancer. Both short and long term exposure to air pollutants have
been associated with health impacts. More severe impacts affect people who
are already ill.

Up to 30% of Europeans living in cities are exposed to air pollutant levels

exceeding EU air quality standards. Around 98% of Europeans living in
cities are exposed to levels of air pollutants deemed damaging to health by
the World Health Organization's more stringent guidelines.
Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the
exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be expressed for an
individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighbourhoods or children living in a
country), or for entire populations. For example, one may want to calculate
the exposure to a hazardous air
pollutant for a geographic area,
which includes the various
microenvironments and age
groups. This can be calculated
as an inhalation exposure. This
would account for daily
exposure in various settings
(e.g. different indoor micro-
environments and outdoor
locations). The exposure needs
to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants,
children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations. The
exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air
pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting and the respective
inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the subgroup
is in the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking,
reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc.). For example, a small child's
inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged in vigorous
exercise will have a higher respiration rate than the same child in a
sedentary activity. The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent
in each micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in these
settings. The air pollutant concentration in each
microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the
exposure. For some pollutants such as black carbon, traffic related
exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since
high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation
in (motorized) traffic. A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short
peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks
and determine their frequency and health impact.

In 2021, the WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles
from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is 75%
lower.
Indoor air quality

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often

spend the majority of their time.
Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is
exuded from the Earth in certain
locations and trapped inside
houses. Building materials
including carpeting and plywood
emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas.
Paint and solvents give off volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) as they
dry. Lead paint can degenerate into
dust and be inhaled. Intentional air
pollution is introduced with the Indoor air quality and Indoor air pollution in developing countries
use of air fresheners, incense, and
other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can
add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside
and out.[66][67] Indoor pollution
fatalities may be caused by using
pesticides and other chemical sprays
indoors without proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide poisoning and

fatalities are often caused by faulty
vents and chimneys, or by the burning
of charcoal indoors or in a confined
space, such as a tent. Chronic carbon
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India monoxide poisoning can result even
from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing
to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use
of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a
potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a
chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It
occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing
materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe dyspnea
(shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different
types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-
technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several
forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal
mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it
is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and
airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from
minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting
and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings,
inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins
and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and
mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen,
dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne
pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects by air pollution

Even at levels lower than

those considered safe by
United States regulators,
exposure to three
components of air pollution,
fine particulate matter,
nitrogen dioxide and ozone,
correlates with cardiac and
respiratory illness. In 2020,
pollution (including air
pollution) was a contributing factor to one in eight deaths in Europe, and
was a significant risk factor for pollution-related diseases including heart
disease, stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution
may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and
worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can
result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency
department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The
human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally
affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a
person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health
status and genetics. The most common sources of air pollution include
particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less
than five years who live in developing countries are the most vulnerable
population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air
pollution.
Mortality

The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every year air
pollution causes the premature death of some 7 million people worldwide.
Studies published in March 2019 indicated that the number may be around
8.8 million. Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung
cancer, and lung infections.

Urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million deaths

worldwide per year. Children are particularly at risk due to the immaturity
of their respiratory organ systems. In 2015, outdoor air pollution, mostly by
PM2.5, was estimated to lead to 3.3 (95% CI 1.61–4.81) million premature
deaths per year worldwide, predominantly in Asia. In 2021, the WHO
reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million
premature deaths worldwide in 2016. A 2020 study indicates that the global
mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years,
substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct
violence, albeit a significant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable. Moreover,
communities with the most exceptional aging have low ambient air
pollution, suggesting a link between air pollution levels and longevity.

A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that eliminating energy-

related fossil fuel emissions in the United States would prevent 46,900–
59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $537–$678 billion in
benefits from avoided PM2.5-related illness and death.

By region

India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also
has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the World
Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill
500,000 people in China each year. There is a positive correlation between
pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions.[83]

Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at

430,000 to 800,000. An important cause of these deaths is nitrogen dioxide
and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles. In a 2015
consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is
responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum. Across the
European Union, air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by
almost nine months.
Guidelines

The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to

65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths
nationwide in 2020 compared with the 75 ppb standard. The agency
projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional
26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed
work or school. Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public
health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for
ground-level ozone to 70 ppb. A new economic study of the health impacts
and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San
Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people
die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year
because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual
premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto
collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year.[90][91][92]
A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with
substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the
current European and North American standards and WHO guideline
values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines.[93][94]

Major causes

The largest cause is air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion –

mostly the production and use of cars, electricity production and heating. A
study by Greenpeace estimates there are 4.5 million annual premature
deaths worldwide because of pollutants released by high-emission power
stations and vehicle exhausts.

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate

matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using a well-
validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular
dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.

A study concluded that PM2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free
trade and consumption by the 19 G20 nations causes two million premature
deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about
~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average
age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be
able to implement countermeasures without external support or
internationally coordinated efforts.
Primary mechanisms

The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related

premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke. The
mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are
uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation.

Contemporary annual deaths

A study by scientists of U.K. and U.S. universities that uses a high spatial
resolution model and an updated concentration-response function
concluded in 2021 that 10.4 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7
million in 2018 – or a fifth – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel
combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially
subdivided mortality impacts.

According to the WHO air pollution accounts for 1 in 8

deaths worldwide.

Cardiovascular disease

A 2007 review of evidence found that, ambient air pollution exposure is a

risk factor correlating with increased total
mortality from cardiovascular events (range:
12% to 14% per 10 µg/m3 increase)

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor

for stroke, particularly in developing countries
where pollutant levels are highest. A 2007
study found that in women, air pollution is
not associated with hemorrhagic but with
ischemic stroke. Air pollution was also found
to be associated with increased incidence and
mortality from coronary stroke in a cohort
study in 2011. Associations are believed to be
causal and effects may be mediated by Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air
pollution can be equivalent to
vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and
smoking multiple cigarettes per
atherosclerosis. Other mechanisms such as day, potentially increasing the risk
autonomic nervous system imbalance have of cancer, which is mainly the
result of environmental factors.
also been suggested.
Lung disease

Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma and

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from increased exposure to
traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated
with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD. COPD
includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952

compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of Gloucester,
Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from
chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to
59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects
exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and
dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased
sputum production and purulence. The differences were more pronounced
for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits,
so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed
differences. More studies have shown that air pollution exposure from traffic
reduces lung function development in children and lung function may be
compromised by air pollution even at low concentrations.

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban

environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have
shown that in urban areas people experience mucus hypersecretion, lower
levels of lung function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.

Cancer (lung cancer)

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a

risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data to conclude that long-term
exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of non-
accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5
was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer
(range: 15% to 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular
mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). The review
further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with
elevated risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths,
cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The reviewers also
found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated
with mortality from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases
mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid
conclusions. Another investigation showed that higher activity level
increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and
recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in outdoor space at
polluted areas.

In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of

lung cancer for people who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide
concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers
than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted
evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of
cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.

Kidney disease

In 2021, a study of 163,197 Taiwanese residents over the period of 2001–

2016 estimated that every 5 μg/m3 decrease in the ambient concentration of
PM2.5 was associated with a 25% reduced risk of chronic kidney disease
development.

Children

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, in
2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas –
regions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal
standards. These dangerous pollutants are known as the criteria pollutants,
and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health
are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India, where buses now use
compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog. A recent
study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase
blood pressure in children. According to a WHO report in 2018, polluted air
leads to the poisoning of millions of children under the age of 15, resulting
in the death of some six hundred thousand children annually.

Prenatal exposure

Prenatal exposure to polluted air has been linked to a variety of

neurodevelopmental disorders in children. For example, exposure to
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was associated with reduced IQ
scores and symptoms of anxiety and depression. They can also lead to
detrimental perinatal health outcomes that are often fatal in developing
countries. A 2014 study found that PAHs might play a role in the
development of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Researchers have also begun to find evidence for air pollution as a risk
factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In Los Angeles, children who
were living in areas with high levels of traffic-related air pollution were more
likely to be diagnosed with autism between 3–5 years of age. The connection
between air pollution and neurodevelopmental disorders in children is
thought to be related to epigenetic dysregulation of the primordial germ
cells, embryo, and fetus during a critical period. Some PAHs are considered
endocrine disruptors and are lipid soluble. When they build up in adipose
tissue, they can be transferred across the placenta.

Infants

Ambient levels of air pollution have been associated with preterm birth and
low birth weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on maternal and perinatal
health found a statistically significant association between low birth weights
(LBW) and increased levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions with
greater than average PM2.5 levels had statistically significant higher odds of
pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight infant even when adjusted for
country-related variables. The effect is thought to be from stimulating
inflammation and increasing oxidative stress.

A study by the University of York found that in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was
strongly associated with 18% of preterm births globally, which was
approximately 2.7 million premature births. The countries with the highest
air pollution associated preterm births were in South and East Asia, the
Middle East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan Africa.

The source of PM2.5 differs greatly by region. In South and East Asia,
pregnant women are frequently exposed to indoor air pollution because of
wood and other biomass fuels being used for cooking, which are responsible
for more than 80% of regional pollution. In the Middle East, North Africa
and West sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from natural sources, such as
dust storms. The United States had an estimated 50,000 preterm births
associated with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.

A study performed by Wang, et al. between the years of 1988 and 1991 has
found a correlation between sulfur dioxide (SO2) and total suspended
particulates (TSP) and preterm births and low birth weights in Beijing. A
group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four separate regions of Beijing, were
monitored from early pregnancy to delivery along with daily air pollution
levels of sulfur Dioxide and TSP (along with other particulates). The
estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3 g for every 100 µg/m3 increase
in SO2 and 6.9 g for each 100 µg/m3 increase in TSP. These associations
were statistically significant in both summer and winter, although, summer
was greater. The proportion of low birth weight attributable to air pollution,
was 13%. This is the largest attributable risk ever reported for the known
risk factors of low birth weight. Coal stoves, which are in 97% of homes, are
a major source of air pollution in this area.

Brauer et al. studied the relationship between air pollution and proximity to
a highway with pregnancy outcomes in a Vancouver cohort of pregnant
woman using addresses to estimate exposure during pregnancy. Exposure
to NO, NO2, CO, PM10 and PM2.5 were associated with infants born small
for gestational age (SGA). Women living less than 50 meters away from an
expressway or highway were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA infant.

"Clean" areas

Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO

guidelines, OWID

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects
can be significant and costly, since a large number of people breathe in such
pollutants. A study published in 2017 found that even in areas of the U.S.
where ozone and PM2.5 meet federal standards, Medicare recipients who are
exposed to more air pollution have higher mortality rates. A 2005 scientific
study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small
improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone
concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the Metro
Vancouver region in 2010. This finding is based on health valuation of lethal
(death) and sub-lethal (illness) affects.

In 2020, scientists found that the boundary layer air over the Southern
Ocean around Antarctica is 'unpolluted' by humans.

Central nervous system

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central
nervous system.

Air pollution increases the risk of dementia in people over 50 years old.[143]
Childhood indoor air pollution may negatively affect cognitive function and
neurodevelopment. Prenatal exposure may also affect neurodevelopment.
Studies show that air pollution is associated with a variety of developmental
disabilities, oxidative stress, and neuro-inflammation and that it may
contribute to Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center found that early

exposure to air pollution causes the same changes in the brain as autism
and schizophrenia. This study was published in the journal Environmental
Health Perspectives, in June 2014. It also showed that air pollution also
affected short-term memory, learning ability, and impulsivity. Lead
researcher Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that:

"When we looked closely at the ventricles, we could see that the white matter
that normally surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that
inflammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented that region of
the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to fill the
space. Our findings add to the growing body of evidence that air pollution
may play a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental
disorders."

In a study of mice, air pollution also has a larger negative impact on males
than on females.

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of significant episodic

(situational) cognitive impairment from impurities in indoor air breathed by
test subjects who were not informed about changes in the air quality.
Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University
and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24
participants in three different controlled laboratory atmospheres that
simulated those found in "conventional" and "green" buildings, as well as
green buildings with enhanced ventilation. Performance was evaluated
objectively using the widely used Strategic Management Simulation software
simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive
decision-making in an unconstrained situation allowing initiative and
improvisation. Significant deficits were observed in the performance scores
achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other factors constant. The highest
impurity levels reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office
environments. Higher PM2.5 and CO2 concentrations were shown to be
associated with slower response times and reduced accuracy in tests.

Impacts on ecosystem by air pollution

Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways. Ground-level
ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest
yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and
increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other
environmental stresses (such as harsh weather).

Agricultural effects

In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and
ground level ozone had reduced crop yields in the most affected areas by
almost half in 2011 when compared to 1980 levels.

Economic effects

Air pollution costs the world economy $5 trillion per year as a result of
productivity losses and degraded quality of life, according to a joint study by
the World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)
at the University of Washington.[18][19][20] These productivity losses are
caused by deaths due to diseases caused by air pollution. One out of ten
deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases associated with air pollution and the
problem is getting worse. The problem is even more acute in the developing
world. "Children under age 5 in lower-income countries are more than 60
times as likely to die from exposure to air pollution as children in high-
income countries." The report states that additional economic losses caused
by air pollution, including health costs and the adverse effect on agricultural
and other productivity were not calculated in the report, and thus the actual
costs to the world economy are far higher than $5 trillion.
Why invertebrates are affected
The Lancet Commission reported that pollution is the top environmental
risk to human health – responsible for 16% of all deaths worldwide. Of the
numerous air pollutants, particulate matter (PM) was estimated (in 2016) to
contribute to 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide per year, brought on
by cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. One of the biggest problems
related to air pollution is particulate matter (PM) which is a mixture of solid
particles and liquid droplets and comes from construction sites, road traffic,
power plants, etc. PM varies in size, shape and chemical composition and is
classified based on size – either less than 10 (PM10) or 2.5 (PM2.5)
micrometres in diameter. In the UK, particulate matter is the fourth greatest
threat to public health after cancer, heart disease and obesity.
Interestingly, there is evidence that air pollution also affects insect and plant
populations. Certain air pollutants decrease flower scents, and therefore,
impact an insect‟s ability to locate and forage. And some plants release
defensive metabolites in response to air pollutants which negatively affect
insect herbivores. Historically, honeybees and bee products have been used
to monitor environmental pollution due to their sensitivity to pollutants,
ability to transfer contaminants into their honey and high mobility and
monitoring area. However, the impact of particulate matter on bee health
and immunity is largely unknown. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster is
also used to study the impact of air pollution on health and immunity.
Particulate matter was found to shorten the lifespan of Drosophila as well as
induce inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic abnormality.
Therefore, air pollution is both an environmental/ecological risk, and a
human health issue.

To assess the putative biological impacts of exposure to air pollution, we will

use the wax moth (Galleria mellonella), as the innate immune responses,
notably phagocyte-mediated pathogen clearance, are highly similar to their
human and mouse counterparts. They are amenable to physiological
manipulations in their life history and ecology and are ethically more
acceptable than animal work. We and others have proved the validity of
using G. mellonella as a model organism to study toxicology and microbial
pathogenesis (e.g. human pathogenic yeast and bacteria). Now we want to
use G. mellonella in ecological and environmental studies. The overall AIM of
this studentship is to use G. mellonella to address both the environmental
and ecological consequences of air pollution on insect biology by
investigating: (OBJ 1) the changes in life cycle of G. mellonella under
different air-quality conditions; (OBJ 2) the impact of air quality on the
immune system of G. mellonella; (OBJ 3) the mechanism(s) of altered
cellular function caused by particulate matter.
Impacts on communication by air pollution

Adverse health effects of air pollution are well established mostly through
epidemiological studies, although also toxicology is consistently
accumulating findings as to the underlying mechanisms of these effects.
Mostly, it seems, these mechanisms are not very specific: inflammatory
processes and oxidative stress predominate. Some pollutants also have
mutagenic properties making cancer also a plausible health endpoint of
exposure to air pollution. But the long lags between exposure and final
disease make epidemiological studies in this field very difficult, so direct
epidemiological evidence for cancer effects of air pollution is rare.
Nevertheless the few existing studies give a consistent and plausible picture.
More importantly there are studies that rather than looking at ultimate
disease investigate biological effects that might lead to cancer like DNA
adducts or chromosome damage. So even for cancer epidemiological
evidence is growing.

Several reviews have described the health effects of air pollution in more
detail, namely reports by the World Health Organization (WHO 2000, 2005;
2006, 2007) and by the Health Effects Institute (HEI 2000, 2003, 2007,
2010). This chapter will not repeat these valuable and extensive summaries
but is rather interested in the link between the scientific findings and policy
implications. In fact policies do not deal with air pollution per se, but with
specific sources of air pollution thus affecting the interests of several
influential stakeholders. So from a policy perspective science is not only
called to estimate the health effect of „air pollution in general‟ but the health
effects linked to a specific source of air pollution or more precisely a specific
incremental change in pollutants production by that specific source.

Air pollution always consists of a whole range of pollutants, gaseous and

particulate alike. Keeping in mind the little specificity of the air pollutants'
toxicity it is not surprising that not one single pollutant alone accounts for
the observed effects. Routine monitoring of air quality is usually restricted to
some very few indicators (particulate mass and some gases like ozone,
nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxide, and carbon monoxide). Simply because of
data availability most epidemiological studies describe the association
between those indicator pollutants and health risks. But that does not mean
that other usually unmeasured pollutants (polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, aldehydes, to name but a few)
are not similarly relevant in terms of health effects. Particle mass itself is an
indicator covering a whole range of particles differing in size, shape and
chemical composition. Although the routine indicators of air quality have
been shown to be generally good indicators of the overall air quality it
cannot be expected that their health relevance is the same no matter what
their very source is: particles from incineration processes (e.g. exhaust pipes
of motor cars or industrial stacks) are certainly different from particles
stemming from desert storms or from sea salt spray.

Instrumentation for air pollution

Monitoring and measuring air quality is carried out by a variety of different

organisations, for example the Government, local councils, industry,
research bodies and environmental pressure groups.

Many towns and cities in the UK and around the world experience
unhealthy levels of pollution from time to time. In places where there is lots
of road traffic, pollution levels can increase, especially particles and nitrogen
dioxide. In the UK, where levels are found to be above or close to the levels
set to protect our health, local councils are required to measure a range of
air pollutants.

A different type of instrument is needed to measure each pollutant. All major

towns and large cities have at least one air
monitoring station that contains highly
specialised and delicate instruments for
measuring a range of pollutants. These sites
are about the size of a small caravan and
are very expensive to buy and maintain.

A widely used method of measuring one of

the main air pollutants from road traffic,
nitrogen dioxide, uses a simple device called Inside an air quality monitoring
a diffusion tube. Most air pollution station
measuring equipment are called active
devices because they use a pump to suck air into them.

However, diffusion tubes do not use pumps so they are called passive
diffusion tubes.

Why is air pollution measured?

Every hour of every day, air quality is being measured around the country
by automated continuous monitors. This is because the UK Government is
legally required to measure air pollution by the European Union. The EU,
through legislation called Directives, requires the countries of Europe that
are members to measure and improve air quality. The EU can only assess
how a country is doing in its attempts to reduce air pollution, if proper
monitoring is carried out and reported back to them.

Local councils must also carry out monitoring and assess air pollution in its
area. If any local council finds air pollution levels above set limits, it has to
declare the area an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA). It must then put
in place an Air Quality Action Plan to try and improve the situation.

Measuring air pollution provides data that are used in a variety of ways, for
example to assess how the Air Quality Action Plan is progressing. It can also
be used to examine the impact on air quality of changes to the road
network, or of a new building, such as a supermarket, that may attract lots
of vehicles. Health experts can also use the measurement information to
assess how air pollution impacts on people in the area.

Air pollution control

10 Best Ways to Reduce Air Pollution

1. Using public transports

Using public transport is a sure short way of contributing to less air

pollution as it provides with less gas and energy, even carpools contribute to
it. In addition to less release of fuels and gas, using a public transport can
also help in saving money.

2. Turn off the lights when not in use

The energy that the lights take also contribute to air pollution, thus less
consumption of electricity can save energy. Use energy saving fluorescent
lights to help the environment.

3. Recycle and Reuse

The concept of recycle and reuse is not just

conserve resources and use them judicially
but also is helpful for air pollution as it
helps in reducing pollution emissions. The
recycled products also take less power to
make other products.
4. No to plastic bags

The use of plastic products could be very harmful to the environment as

they take a very long time to decompose, due to their material made up of
oil. The use of paper bags instead is a better alternative as they decompose
easily and are recyclable.

5. Reduction of forest fires and smoking

The collecting of garbage and getting it on fire in dry seasons or dry leaves
catching fires is a huge factor for causing air pollution, moreover smoking
also causes air pollution and causes the air quality to worsen along with
obviously damaging one‟s health.

6. Use of fans instead of Air Conditioner

The usage of AC‟s takes a lot of energy and emits a lot of heat which is bad
for the environment. AC‟s also take a lot of power and energy to work as
compared to fans.

7. Use filters for chimneys

The gas that is emitted from fireplaces in homes and factories are extremely
dangerous for air pollution and harms the air quality severely. The use of
filters should be used at least if the consumption couldn‟t be lessened, this
will help to reduce the effect of harmful gases absorbing in the air.

8. Avoid usage of crackers

The use of crackers during festivals and weddings is sadly one of the biggest
contributors to air pollution, leading to a layer of smog which is extremely
harmful for health. So, practice of no crackers should be implemented.

9. Avoid using of products with chemicals

Products that use the chemicals in their usage or smell strongly, like paints
or perfumes should be used less or outside the house. There can also be an
alternative to use products with low chemical content and organic
properties.
10. Implement Afforestation

Last but not the least, plant and grow as many trees as possible. The
practice of planting trees provides a lot of benefits to the environment and
helps with the release of oxygen.

Air pollution regulation and mitigation

Mitigation measures of air pollution
On Days when High Particle Levels are Expected, Take these Extra
Steps to Reduce Pollution:

 Reduce the number of trips you take in your car.

 Reduce or eliminate fireplace and wood stove use.
 Avoid burning leaves, trash, and other materials.
 Avoid using gas-powered lawn and garden equipment.

 India brought the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 as a
powerful tool to fight air pollution. But over the decades the
governments and courts have ignored it.
 Experts say the law is outdated as it does not cover modern sources of
pollution. The government needs to amend the law.
 There are still many tools in the law that the government is not using to
fight against air pollution.

Almost 40 years ago, India passed a law to

control air pollution. However, as northern
India suffers another air pollution
emergency, it is yet another year of
reckoning for the law that is all but
forgotten.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, aims to enable the
“preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.” It was enacted
to fulfil India‟s commitments at the 1972 United Nations environment
conference. The law gave sweeping powers to state and central governments
to take action to improve air quality, enforce pollution control measures,
shut down errant industries, and send polluters to jail.

Over the years, however, the law has seen a decline in its relevance, even as
Indian cities climbed to top positions in global air pollution assessments, the
latest being the State of Global Air 2020. Almost zero cases have been filed
under the Air Act from northern Indian states in recent years, even though
they face the worst pollution every winter. Even the Supreme Court and
governments have ignored the law; measures like the Graded Response
Action Plan or the Odd-Even scheme rely on other laws or regulations, some
of which have nothing to do with the environment.

The law is commonly described as “toothless”. As pollution spikes in the

winter season, parliamentarians, lawyers or activists demand amendments
to it or to replace it with a new law, usually to add powers of enforcement.
This year, it was the Solicitor General of India‟s turn to make a similar
promise. On 28 October the government of India enacted the Commission
for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas
Ordinance, 2020 to set up a panel to coordinate the air pollution response
between state governments of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar
Pradesh.

“If you have good bureaucracy they can actually implement even without
law. We are unnecessarily focusing on new laws but we are not focusing on
a new bureaucracy with a different attitude towards governance,” said
Sairam Bhat., who is professor of law at the National Law School of India
University, told Mongabay-India.

Experts note that beyond the lack of powers there is an ignored need to
bring the Air Act up to date with modern sources of pollution. And though
the Air Act may be old, it certainly has a few sharp teeth left if the
government is willing to bite.

The Air Act came about during the heyday of environmental rule-making in
India, when the Centre – first under Indira Gandhi and then her son Rajiv
Gandhi – passed the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It was passed to comply with promises
made at the landmark UN Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm in 1972 where Indira Gandhi had delivered a celebrated speech
connecting poverty with pollution.

The Water Act of 1974 was India‟s first pollution control law, and it had
created monitoring agencies in the states and at the centre. The Air Act
converted these into Pollution Control Boards with a wide range of powers
over industrial activities including the power to conduct search and seizure
operations and take samples. They can also order a factory to stop operating
or cut its electricity and water connections.

For instance, no industry can be set up without permission from these

boards. Industries need separate permission to start operations, and
another for every time there is a change to the production process. Every
permission contains instructions to install pollution control devices, put up
pollution monitors, display latest pollution levels on a notice board, etc.

The pollution control boards can also file criminal cases against factory
owners or employees who may end up spending up to seven years in jail for
causing air or water pollution.

Conclusions

Indoor environment is a complex issue in terms of toxicology and health risk

assessment. There are many different types of pollutants which may give
rise to combined effects. The exposed population is the general public
including vulnerable groups. Many different factors influence air quality, e.g.
ventilation, cleaning conditions, properties of buildings, products used in
house-holds, cultural habits, climate, outdoor air etc. Thus, large variations
in indoor environments can be expected across the EU.

The Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Ricks (SCHER)

considers that the health risk assessment of the pollutants in indoor
environments should be done according to the principles used in the EU for
risk assessment of chemicals as this is an evidence based approach. Those
principles should be applied on the data available and the specific features
related to indoor environment taken into account. The risk assessment
paradigm should be used flexibly, taking into account that complaints and
diseases related to indoor exposures may have a complex cause-effect
relationship.

The SCHER considers that the data base for indoor air risk assessment is in
general limited. Frequently, there are more data available for risk
assessment of “classical” indoor air pollutants such, as organic pollutants
as compared to particles and microbes. Especially, more data on exposure,
in quantitative terms, are required. Available dose-response data seldom
cover vulnerable groups. The SCHER has identified several gaps of
knowledge, presented in answer to Question 2, which should be addressed
by European-wide multidisciplinary research.

As to single known compounds, SCHER considers carbon monoxide,

formaldehyde, benzene, nitrogen oxides and naphthalene to be compounds
of concern because they have caused adverse health effects as indoor
pollutants or have a high potential to cause them. Environmental tobacco
smoke, radon, lead and organophosphates are also of concern. For most
other pollutants the data available are yet limited for risk assessment as
indoor air pollutants.

Consumer products, one source of chemicals in indoor environment, emit

mostly volatile organic compounds. Lack of data on true exposure for
emissions in consumer products has hampered evaluation of the
associations with possible health effects most of which are also caused by
other factors. The recent data suggest that some of the emitted products
may react further in air and on surfaces producing secondary products,
including fine and ultrafine particles. The health effects of those reaction
products are poorly known.

Association of adverse health effects with dampness, water damage and

mould in buildings is repeatedly shown in epidemiological studies but the
causative factors and all health effects and consequences are not known.
This is potentially a serious indoor air problem in EU. More research is
needed to understand the associations to health effects and seriousness of
the problem in EU countries.

Combined and mixture effects of indoor air pollutants can so far only rarely
be assessed. There are not enough data on combined effects and also the
methodology is limited. The SCHER recommends the production of data in
order to make the evaluation of combined effects of indoor air pollutants
feasible. In addition, the SCHER recommends taking into account routes of
exposure other than inhalation (dermal, oral) in risk assessment and
contribution of indoor environment exposure to total exposure from other
sources. The risk assessment should be transparent to allow the evaluation
of its strengths and weaknesses.

The SCHER recommends the development of health based guideline values

for key pollutants and other practical guidance in general to help risk
management. The SCHER also recommends that practical experiences are
collected and systematized to establish evidence-based risk assessment
approaches. Such examples help to solve similar type problems and
decrease the overlapping risk assessment.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Indoor air may contain over 900 chemicals, particles, and biological
materials with potential health effects. Since their concentrations are
usually higher than outdoors and people spend more time indoors than
outdoors, the SCHER recommends that any studies to correlate outdoor air
concentration with health effects need to consider the impact of indoor
exposure.
The composition and concentrations of the different components in indoor
air vary widely and are influenced by human activities. Since it is not
feasible to regulate all possible scenarios, prevention from possible health
effects and protection of sensitive populations is best achieved by reducing
exposure. As a consequence the SCHER recommends that all relevant
sources that are known to contribute should be evaluated. Such sources
include tobacco smoke, any open fires including candles, building materials,
furniture, pets and pests, use of household products, as well as conditions
that lead to the growth of moulds. Constructers, maintenance personnel and
inhabitants should also be aware that appropriate humidity avoids
annoyances and sufficient air exchange reduces accumulation of pollutants.