Command words

Command words are those words in a question that tell you what you have to do. Remember
that the meaning of a term also depends on its context.

Command word Meaning

Add labels of notes or short comments, usually to a diagram, map or

Annotate
photograph to describe or explain.

Work out a numerical answer. In general, working should be

Calculate
shown,especially where two or more steps are involved.

Write about what is similar and different about two things. For a
Compare comparison, two elements or themes are required. Two separate
descriptions do not make a comparison.

Complete Add the remaining detail or details required.

Contrast Write about the differences between two things.

Define or State the

meaning of or What is Give the meaning or definition of a word or phrase.
meant b...

Write what something is like or where it is. Describe may be used for
questions about resources in the question paper (describe the trend of a
graph, the location of a settlement on a map, etc.). It may also be used
Describe when you need to describe something from memory (describe a meander,
etc.). It is often coupled with other command words such as Name and
describe (name the feature and say what it is like), Describe and explain
(say what it is like and give reasons for this).

Present a particular feature such as a form or questionnaire to meet a

Devise or Plan
specific requirement or requirements.

Make a sketch of. Often coupled with a labelled diagram (draw a

Draw
diagram/illustration with written notes to identify its features).

Explain or Account for

Write about why something occurs or happens.
or Give reasons for...

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

Giving your views or
Say what you think about something.
Comment on

How In what way? To

what extent? By what May be coupled with Show how (prove how, demonstrate how).
means/method?

Identify Pick out something from information you have been given.

Illustrating your Account for by using specific examples or diagrams. (Often coupled with by
answer a labeled diagram).

Add specific names or details to an illustrative technique in response to a

Insert or Label
particular requirement.

Justify Say why you chose something or why you think in a certain way.

List Identify and name a number of features to meet a particular purpose.

Find where something is placed or state where something is found or mark

Locate
it on a map or diagram.

Implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a

Measure
suitable measuring instrument.

To state or specify or identify. To give the word or words by which a

Name specific feature is known or to give examples which illustrate a particular
feature.

Use your own knowledge and understanding, probably along with

Predict
information provided, to state what might happen next.

Write an answer which uses some of the ideas provided in

Refer to or With
map/photograph/diagram, etc. or other additional material such as a case
reference to
study.

Set down in brief detail. To refer to an aspect of a particular feature by a

State
short statement or by words or by a single word.

Study Look carefully at (usually one of the Figures in the question paper).

Set down your ideas on or knowledge of. Often coupled with why (requires
Suggest a statement or an explanatory statement referring to a particular feature
or features).

Use or Using the

Base your answer on the information.
information provided

With the help of Write an answer which uses some of the information provided as well as
information in additional material.

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

What Used to form a question concerned with selective ideas/details/factors.

What differences are

Use comparative statements to describe the changes involved as A changes
shown between A and
to B. Factual descriptions of A and B are not required.
B

Where At what place? To what place? From what place?

Why For what cause or reason?

Ecosystem

Ecosystems

Ecology is the study of the inter-relationship between living organisms and their environment (the
surroundings).

An ecosystem is a functional unit of living organisms and their non-living environment.

-A population is a group of individual organisms of the same species that occupy a particular area at
a given time.
-The habitat of an organism or a population is the place or type of place where the organism lives.
-A community is all the populations of plants and animals living in a given habitat at a given time.

An ecosystem is made up of biotic components and abiotic components.

- Biotic components are the living organisms.
-Abiotic components are the non-living environment

Living organisms interact with each other and with their non-living environment to form a self-
regulating system.
-A mature ecosystem is able to withstand or recover from external changes.
-To maintain the stability, the number and variety of plants and animals constantly change over
time.
-Therefore, ecosystems are dynamic in nature.

Ecosystems are open systems.

a. Energy input: solar energy

b. Matter inputs: precipitation, air, minerals, etc.
c. Energy output: heat loss from plants and animals
d. Matter outputs: water lost by evaporation, carbon dioxide lost by respiration of plants and
animals, etc.
All ecosystems on the earth make up the biosphere.

Components in an ecosystem

Abiotic components

Abiotic components are the non-living environment, including

a. physical factors, for example, sunlight, temperature, wind; and

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

b. chemical factors,
-various gases in the air, for example, oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2);
-water; and
-nutrients, minerals from soil or rocks, for example, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca).

Biotic components

Biotic components are the living organisms.

a. All living organisms produce energy from food.
b. This process is called respiration.
-C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
-carbohydrate + oxygen -----> carbon dioxide + water + energy

-Producers are green plants which are able to produce their own food in the presence of sunlight.

-This process is called photosynthesis.

-6 CO2 + 6 H2O + sunlight -----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
-carbon dioxide + water + sunlight -----> carbohydrate + oxygen

-Producers are autotrophs.

-Consumers are animals and are unable to produce their own food.

a. Animals directly or indirectly get their food from plants.

-Herbivores are animals that feed on plants, for example, rabbits, horses and cattle.
-Carnivores are animals that feed on animals, for example, eagles, lions and tigers.
-Omnivores are animals that feed on both plants and animals, for example, man, pigs.

b. Consumers are heterotrophs.

-Primary consumers are herbivores that feed on plants.
-Secondary consumers are carnivores that feed on primary consumers.
-Tertiary consumers are bigger carnivores that feed on secondary consumers.

Decomposers include bacteria, fungi (for example, mushrooms), soil insects and worms.
-Decomposers break down dead organisms and waste of living organisms.
-Decomposers convert the dead organic matter back to inorganic compounds which can be used by
producers again.

Energy flow

Food chain

-is the transfer of energy (in the form of food) from one organism to another.
Examples
grass --> cattle --> man
grass --> grasshopper --> lizard --> rat -->snake
alga --> water snail --> fish --> man

-However, food chains are seldom so simple

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

-Very often, one producer may be eaten by several primary consumers.
-Each primary consumer may in turn be eaten by several secondary consumers.
-The food chains are linked to form a complex network called food web.

Trophic levels

-refer to all organisms living at parallel levels at the food chains, for example,
a. The first trophic level (T1)
-is the producers which make food by photosynthesis.
-Most of the energy is consumed by the plants themselves.
-The energy is lost as waste heat in respiration.
-The rest of the energy is stored in plant tissues.
-The energy is passed on to the primary consumers.

b. The second trophic level (T2)

-is the primary consumers that feed on the producers.
-Most of the energy is consumed by the animals themselves.
-The energy is lost as waste heat in respiration and in excretion.
-The rest of the energy is stored in animal tissues.
-The energy is passed on to the secondary consumers.

c. The third trophic level (T3)

-is the secondary consumers that feed on primary consumers.
-Most of the energy is consumed by the animals themselves.
-The energy is lost as waste heat in respiration and in excretion.
-The rest of the energy is stored in animal tissues.
-The energy is passed on to the tertiary consumers.

d. The last trophic level

-is the decomposers that break down dead plants and animals at all other trophic levels.

The 10% rule

-Only about 10% of the energy taken up by each trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level.
-There is progressive loss of energy at each trophic level of the food chain.
- This is shown in a pyramid of energy.
-All energy absorbed by the producers is eventually lost.
-The energy that is lost will not return to the ecosystem.

Nutrient cycling
-The nutrients of a ecosystem is the inorganic compounds, for example, water, minerals, gases.

-The sources of nutrients taken up by plants include

a. inorganic compounds from the weathering of rocks,
b. dissolved nutrients in rain water,
c. decay of dead plants and animals remains and excretion,
d. nitrogen in the atmosphere changed into protein by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and
e. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from respiration and combustion of fossil fuels.

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

-The nutrient is exchanged between the living organisms and the non-living environment.
a. Producers convert inorganic compounds into organic matter.
b. Consumers that feed on the producers take up the nutrients.
c. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals remains and excretion.
-The organic matter is converted back to inorganic matter.
-The nutrients are returned to the environment and are taken by plants again.

World distribution of equatorial rainforests

-The equatorial rainforest is found in areas between latitudes 10 o N and S.

a. Congo Basin (in W and central Africa)
b. Amazon Basin (in S America)
c. SE Asia (including parts of Indonesia, Malaysia and New Guinea)

Climate
-The equatorial rainforests have an equatorial climate.
-Insolation is intense. The sun is always overhead at noon near the equator.

Temperature
-Temperatures are constantly high throughout the year.
-The average annual temperature is about 26 to 28 o C.
-The annual range of temperatures is small, about 2 to 3 o C.

Rainfall
-Rainfall is heavy and evenly distributed throughout the year.
-The annual rainfall is over 2000 mm year -1.
-There is convectional rain daily, esp. in the afternoon, due to strong heating of the sun.

Relatively humidity
-is high because of the heavy rain and the high evaporation rate.

Cloud cover
-is always thick.

-There is no distinct cold or dry season.

Soil
-The hot and humid climate favours rapid chemical weathering of the rocks.
-This produces a deep layer of soil over 3 m.

However, the soil is infertile.

a. There is heavy leaching.
-Rain water dissolves soluble minerals (for example,calcium (Ca), potassium (K)) in the top soil.
-The soluble minerals are washed down to the subsoil.
-Only the insoluble minerals (oxidised iron and aluminium) are left behind in the top soil.
-Such soil is lateritic soil, or latosol which is reddish in colour.
-The soil is acidic because the hydrogen ions (H +) replace the leached cations.
-The leached minerals accumulate in the subsoil and form an impermeable hard layer.

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

b. There is little humus.
-On the ground surface, there is a lot of plant litter which may decay into humus.
-However, the hot and humid climate favours rapid bacterial action.
-The plant litter is rapidly decomposed so there is little humus.

Natural vegetation
-The hot and humid climate favours rapid and luxuriant plant growth.
-There are great varieties of plants.

-The equatorial rainforests have a layer structure.

a. The emergent layer consists of very tall trees over 50 m.
b. The canopy layer consists of trees between 20 - 30 m tall. -The canopy layer has the most
numerous trees.
-The trees grow close together to form a continuous roof like cover, called the canopy.
c. The young tree layer and shrub layer consist of shorter trees less than 20 m.
d. There is little or undergrowth on the forest floor.
-The forest floor is dark because the canopy layer keep out all the sunlight.
-There is a lot of plant litter (fallen leaves) which will decay into humus.

-Many plants in the tropical rainforest are evergreen because there is no cold and dry season.
a. Trees grow all year round.
b. Trees do not shed their leaves at any one period.

-The trees are dense and very tall.

a. The trees have big crowns.
b. The trees have a lot of leaves on the top.
-The leaves are broad to obtain more sunshine and air.
-The leaves have drip tips so that rain water can drop down easily.
c. The trees have buttress roots to support the heavy and big trees.
-Climbing plants, for example, lianas, twist on the tree trunks to get to the tree top to get sunlight.
-Epiphytes grow on other plants (their hosts) only for support.
a. Epiphytes do not take nutrients from their hosts.
b. Epiphytes have aerial roots hanging down from branches of trees to absorb moisture and
nutrients from the humid air.
-Saprophytes are plants on the ground which obtain from nutrient from decayed organic matter.
-Parasites are plants and animals which live in or on another living organisms (their hosts) taking
nutrients directly from them.

Human impact on the equatorial rainforest ecosystem

Difficulties of developing the equatorial rainforest ecosystem
-The equatorial rainforest is difficult to clear for development because the trees are tall and dense.

-Accessibility is poor.
a. It is dark and humid inside the equatorial rainforests.
b. The forest floor is wet and boggy.
c. Flooding frequently occurs.
d. Road construction is difficult.

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

e. The silting of rivers hinders navigation.

-Lumbering is difficult and costly.

a. Trees are in mixed stand. Valuable trees are cut with the useless trees.
b. Most of the trees are not economically valuable. Hardwood cannot be used to make paper.

-The soil is heavily leached and infertile for farming.

-There is insufficient labour for development because the population density is low.
a. There are wild animals that may harm man.
b. Insects and pests spread fatal diseases, for example, malaria.
c. The hot and humid climate makes life and work very uncomfortable.

Human activities in the equatorial rainforests

-Hunting, fishing and gathering of food

-Shifting cultivation
-Plantation agriculture

Shifting agriculture
-Shifting agriculture practised by natives and tribes, for example,
a. the pygmies of the Congo Basin,
b. the Wai Wai tribes of the Amazon Basin.

Process
a. The forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees (slash-and-burn method).
b. After burning, the ash is left on the land as fertiliser.
c. The farmers grow tropical crop, for example, yams, manioc, millet and dry rice.
d. After 2 or 3 years, the soil becomes exhausted.
e. The natives leave their farms and look for a new site in the rainforest for another clearing.

Characteristics of shifting agriculture

a. The field size is small.
b. Little labour and capital input is used.
c. Shifting agriculture is extensive farming.
d. The yield per area is low. The yield per labour is low.
e. Shifting agriculture is subsistence farming.

Problems arising from deforestation

The micro-climate is affected.

a. More sunlight reaches the ground.
-The temperature is higher.
- The evaporation rate is higher.

b. The wind is stronger, therefore the relative humidity is lower.

c. There is less cloud, therefore

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co

- precipitation decreases, and
-the diurnal temperature range is larger.

-Soil fertility declines.

a. There is less plant litter and less humus.
b. The nutrient cycle is disrupted.

-Soil erosion increases.

a. The soil is dried out by the strong wind.
b. Dry soil becomes loose.

- There is greater danger of flooding.

a. Infiltration decreases and surface runoff increases.
b. Soil erosion increases, soil may chokes the river channels by silting.

-The natural habitats of wildlife are destroyed.

a. There is a decrease in the number of species and the population of animals.
b. The food chains will be broken.

-The destroyed rainforest is difficult to regenerate.

a. The abandoned clearings will suffer from heavy leaching and soil erosion.
b. The poor soil makes it difficult for vegetation to regenerate.
c. If the destroyed rainforest is not disturbed anymore, it can regenerate 20 to 30 years later.
d. However, the secondary growth are less dense and shorter.

Downloaded from www.litfiles.co