CHAPTER 4

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Pacing, Stadia Method, Subtense Bar Method, Tapes
Distance Measurement
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying.
Although frequently measured as a spatial distance (sloping
distance) in three-dimensional space, usually it is the horizontal
component which is required.
01
Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a
network of control points, to fix the position of topographic detail

02
by offsets or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point
in constructon work, etc.

The basic methods of measuring distance are, at the present time,

03
by taping or by electromagnetic distance measurement, generally
designated as EDM. For very rough reconnaissance surveys or
approximate estimates pacing may be suitable.

For distances over 5 km, GPS satellite methods, which can 04

measure the vectors between two points accurate to 1 ppm are
usually more suitable.
05
Methods for Making Linear/Horizontal Measurements
In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many
different methods.
These includes:
1. Pacing
2. Odometer readings
3. Tacheometry (stadia)
4. Subtense bar
5. Taping

DISTANCE BY PACING.
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a
required distance. A pace is defined as the length of a step in
walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or from toe to toe,
Fig. 4.1.
In surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps; and if
the steps are counted, distances can be determined if the length
of a step is known. Counting strides instead of paces is
sometimes preferred by surveyor. A stride is equivalent to two
paces or a double step.

To pace a distance it is necessary to first determine the length of

one's pace. This is referred to as the pace factor. One way is to
determine the average length of an individual's normal step.
Pace factor (PF) is the length of one's pace per step.
Sample Problem: In five trials of walking along a 90 m course on
fairly level ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 102, 105,
103, 105, and 106 paces respectively. He then started walking an
unknown distance AB in four trials which were recorded as
follows: 88.5, 89, 88 and 87 strides. Determine the following:
a) Pace factor of the pacer.
b) Length of the line AB
c) Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of
AB is 150.5 meters.
Solutions:
a) Pace factor of the pacer.
𝑀𝐷
PF = ഥ
𝒙
90𝑚
= 102+105+103+105+106 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
5
= 0.86372 m/pace → store to A
b) Length of line AB.
LAB = PF( 𝒙ഥ)
88.5+89+88+87 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 2𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
= (0.86372m/pace)( )( )
4 1𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
= 152.23m → store to B
1
C) Percentage of error. RP = 𝑇𝐷
𝑇𝐷 −𝑃𝐷
% Error = 𝑇𝐷 −𝑃𝐷
1
𝑇𝐷 =
150.5 −152.23 150.5
= ( ) x 100% 150.5 −152.23
150.5 1 1
= -1.15% =- =-
86.93 90
Tachymetry (or Tacheometry) is defined as the procedure of obtaining
horizontal distances and difference in elevation based on the optical
geometry of the instrument.

Stadia Method
Stadia is a method of measuring distances rapidly with a telescope
(usually engineer's transit or theodolite) and a graduated rod.
Derivation:
H = KS+ (f + c)
where:
Stadia Interval Factor (f/i or K) is an instrument constant (usually equal to 100)
which will depends on the spacing between stadia hairs.
Stadia Intercept (S) is the apparent distance between the ponts on the rod where
the upper and lower stadia hairs intersects the rod. It is determined by subtracting
the lower stadia hair reading from the upper stadia hair reading.
S=a-b
Where:
a = upper hair
b = lower hair
Stadia Constant (f + c) - the distance from the center of the instrument to the
principal focus.
f + c = 0 for internal focusing telescope
f + c = 1ft. or 0.30 m for external focusing telescope
Sample Problem: An engineer's level with a stadia constant of 0.30 m was set up on
the line between two points, A and B, and the following hair readings were observe
d.

If the stadia interval factor of the level is 99.5, determine the length of the line AB
Sample Problem: A dumpy level with an internal focusing telescope was set up on the left
bank of a river and the rod readings tabulated below were taken on a stadia rod held
successively), at the left and right water edges. If the stadia interval factor of the instrument is
100, determine the width of the river.
Subtense Bar Method
Subtense bar is a 2 m long rounded steel tube through which runs a thin
invar.
Sample Problem: A 2-meter long subtense bar was first set up at A and subsequently
at B, and the subtended angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned
somewhere along the middle of line AB, were recorded as 44'32" and 52'12",
respectively. Determine the line AB.
PROBLEM SET 3
1. A 45 meter line, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The numbers of paces for each trial taken are shown in
the accompanying tabulation.

a) Determine the pace factor.

b) If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, and 769 paces in walking an unknown
distance CD,
what is the length of the line?
c) Assuming that the taped length of CD 669 m, determine the relative precision of
the measurement performed.
2. In walking along a 75 m course, the pacer of a field party counted 43.5, 44, 43.5,
43.75, 44.5, and 43.25 strides. Then 105.5, 106, 105.75, and 106.25 strides were
counted in walking from one marker to another established along a straight and level
course. Determine the distance between the two markers.
3. A student paces a 50 m length five times with the following results; 57, 56.75, 56.5,
58, and 56.25 paces. Determine how many paces he must step off in order to
establish a distance of 450 m on level ground.
4. Determine the length of a line negotiated in 208 paces by a person whose pace is
0.75m long.
5. What is the length of the line if the tape used was 50 m long and there were 2
tallies, 6 pins and the last pin was 7 m from the end of the line?
6. Determine the length of the line, in m., if there were 3 tallies, 8 pins, and the last
pin was 9 m from the end of the line. The tape used was 50 m. long.
7. Gunter's chain was used to measure a line. If there were 5 tallies, 7 pins, and 32
links from the end of the line, determine the length of the line.
8. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A. The
upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.3 and 0.9 m, respectively. If
the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine
the length of line AB.
9. With the transit at point A and the line of sight horizontal, the stadia intercept at B
was found to be 1.93 m. if the stadia constant is 0.30 and AB = 194.3 m, find the
stadia interval factor.
10. The transit was set up at point A with the line of sight horizontal. The stadia
intercept at B, 85.28 m away, was observed to be 0.85 m, find the stadia constant if
the stadia interval factor is 99.98.
11. With the transit at point B and the line of sight horizontal. The stadia intercept at
point C was found to be 1.75 m. If the stadia constant is 0.295 and the stadia interval
factor is 99.946. Find the distance BC.
12. An engineer's level with a stadia constant of 0.28 m was set up on the line
between two points A and B, and the following readings were observed.

If the stadia interval factor of the level is 102.4, determine the length of the line
AB.

13. A dumpy level with an external focusing telescope was set up on the right of a
river and the rod readings tabulated below were taken on a stadia rod held
successively at the right and left water edges. If the stadia interval factor of the
instrument is 100, determine the width of the river.

14. With the use of a 1-sec theodolite positioned at the center of a five-sided lot,
the following readings were taken on a 2 m subtense bar, set up at each corner:
0°26'16", 0°12'35", 0°15'05", 0°22'29", and 0°30'45". Determine the distance of
each corner from the instrument position.
15. A 2 m long subtense bar was set up at A and subsequently at B, and the
subtended angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned somewhere along
the middle of line AB, were recorded as 0°24'15" and 0°20'30", respectively.
Determine the length of AB.
16. The following subtended angles were read on a 2 m long subtense bar using a
theodolite: 0°54'13", 0°22'20", 0°32'06", and 0°19'46". Compute the horizontal
distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.
17. A subtense bar 2 m long is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ. Using a
theodolite set up at P, the angle subtended reads 0°20'14". When the theodolite was
transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding subtended angle was observed as
0°23'47". Determine the horizontal 'length of line PQ.
18. A 2 m subtense bar is used to measure the distance from A to B. If the angle
subtended by the bar is 5°, find the distance from A to B.
19. A 2 m subtense bar was first set up at A and subsequently at B, and the subtended
angle of the bar, as read from a theodolite position somewhere along the middle of
the line AB, were recorded as 33' 15" and 38' 34". Determine the length of line AB.
TAPES
There are three fundamental sources of error in taping:
Instrumental errors - a tape may differ in actual length from its nominal graduated
length because of a defect in manufacture or repair, or as a result of kinks.
Natural errors - the horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies
because of the effects of temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.
Personal error - tape persons may be careless in setting pins, reading the tape, or
manipulating the equipment.

Correction Due To Incorrect Tape Length

Incorrect length of a tape can be one of the most important errors. Tape
manufacturers do not guarantee steel tapes to be exactly their graduated nominal
length -for example, 100.00 ft or 50.00 m - nor do they provide standardization
certificate. The true length is obtained by comparing it with a standard tape or
Distance.

A 100 ft steel tape usually is standardized for each of two sets of conditions - for
example, 68°F (for the temperature), a 12-bb pull (for tension), with the tape lying on
a flat surface (fully supported throughout); and 68°F, a 20-lb pull, with the tape
supported at the ends only.

An error caused by incorrect length of a tape occurs each time the tape is used.
An error caused by incorrect length of a tape occurs each time the tape is used.

MD

A B
TD

A B
E
where: (too long or too short 50m tape)
TD = True Distance
MD = measured distance
E = total error
e = error per tape length
L = tape length
(standard 50m tape)
e
 MD

A B
TD
By ratio and proportion:
𝐸 𝑒
=
𝑀𝐷 𝐿
A B 𝑒
E=MD(𝐿)
E
(too long or too short 50m tape) TO GET TRUE DISTANCE:
TD= MD ± E

(standard 50m tape)

e
(1) Figure 4.5 shows that when the tape is too long, the distance measured appears
too short, and the correction is therefore positive. The reverse is the case when the
tape is too short.
(2) When setting out a distance with a tape the rules in (1) are reversed.
(3) It is better to compute Example 4.1 on the basis of the correction (as shown),
rather than the total corrected length. In this way fewer signfficant figures are
required.

Use:
Measuring distances: (-) if too short
(+) if too long
Laying-out distances: (+) if too short
(-) if too long
TO MEASURE Observed distance is too short

29.9m
Too long
30m tape

A 30m B

(-) if too short

25m LOT ABCD
(+) if too long

C D

Too short
30m tape
31.1m

Observed distance is too long

TO LAY OUT
30.1m Layout value is too long

The correct 30m

Too long
30m tape

A B
(+) if too short

(-) if too long

Standard
30m tape A B

A B

Too short
30m tape
29.9m Layout value is too short
Sample Problem:
A track and field coach wishes to lay out for his team a 200 m straightway course. If he
uses a 50 in tape known to be 50.20 m long, determine the measurements to be
made so that the course will have the correct length.
𝑒
TD= LD ± E E=LD(𝐿)

Given:
TD= 200m
L= 50m
e= 50m - 50.20m
= -0.20m (too long)

Solution:
200m= LD ± E
−0.20𝑚
200m = LD + LD( 50𝑚 )
LD = 200.8032m
Sample Problem:
A rectangular lot was measured at a length of 840 m and a width of 600 m. If a 30 m
tape used is 0.01 m too short, what is the error in area?
Aerror = Ameasured - Atrue

Given: Aerror = Ameasured – Atrue

Length = 840m = (840m)(600m) – (839.72m)(599.8m)
Width = 600m = 335.944 m2
e = -0.01m (too short)

Solve for the true distances of the length

and width:
𝑒
Lengthtrue = Length ± E , E=MD(𝐿)
−0.01𝑚
= 840m + 840( 30𝑚 )
= 839.72m
𝑒
Widthtrue = Width ± E , E=MD(𝐿)
−0.01𝑚
= 600m + 600m( )
30𝑚
= 599.8m
Correction Due To Temperature
Tapes are usually standardized at 20.C. Any variation above or below
this value will cause the tape to expand or contract, giving rise to
systematic errors.

where:
Sample Problem
A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/°C is known to be
50 m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be
532.28 m long when the temperature was 35°C. Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line.
c) Correct length of the line.
Given:
α = 0.0000116/°C
L = 50m
MD = 532.28m
To = 35°C
T = 20°C
Solutions:
a. Temperature correction per tape length. c. Correct length of the line.
e = αL(To – T) TD = MD ± E
= (0.0000116/°C)(50m)(35°C - 20°C) = 532.28m + 0.09261672m
= 0.0087m (+, too long) = 532.37m
b. Temperature correction for the measured line.
𝑒
E = MD( 𝐿𝑇)
0.0087𝑚
= 532.28m( )
50𝑚
= 0.09261672m (store to A)
Correction Due to Tension
Generally the tape is used under standard tension, in which case there is no
correction. It may, however, be necessary in certain instances to apply a tension
greater than standard.
From Hooke's law:
stress = strain x a constant
This constant is the same for a given material and is called the modulus of
elasticity (E). Since strain is a non-dimensional quantity, E has the same
dimensions as stress, i.e. N/mm2:
Sample Problem
A 30 m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is standard length under a pull of 5 kg, supported for full length.
The tape was used in measuring a line 938.55 m long on a smooth level ground under a steady pull
of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3,
determine the following:
a) cross-sectional area of the tape.
b) correction for increase in tension.
c) correct length of the line measured.

Given: b. Correction for increase in tension.

𝑃𝑜 −𝑃 𝐿
L = 30m e=
𝐴𝐸
MD = 938.55m =
10𝑘𝑔 −5𝑘𝑔 (30𝑚)
0.0612𝑐𝑚2 (2.0x106 kg/cm2)
P = 5kg = 0.001225862069m (store to B)
Po = 10kg (+, too long)
E = 2.0x106 kg/cm2 c. Correct length of the line measured.
γ = 7.9x10-3 kg/cm3 CL = MD ± E
0.00123𝑚
= 938.55m + 938.55m( )
30𝑚
Solutions:
= 938.59m
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
γtape =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
γtape =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
1.45𝑘𝑔
7.9 x10 kg/cm3=
-3
100𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 (30𝑚)( )
1𝑚

Atape = 0.0611814346cm2 (store to A)

Correction Due To Sag
When a tape is suspended between two measuring heads, A and B,
both at the same level, the shape it takes up is a catenary.
Sample Problem:
A 25-m tape is supported only at its end and under a steady pull of 7kg. If the
tape weighs 0.85 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance
between the ends of the tape.

Given:
L = 25m
P = 7kg
W = 0.85kg

Solutions:
a. Sag correction.
𝐿𝑊2
e = 24𝑃2
2
25𝑚 0.85𝑘𝑔
= 24 7𝑘𝑔 2
= 0.01535926871m (store to A)
( - , too short)
b. Correct distance between the ends of the
tape.
CD = Tape length - e
= 25m – 0.01535926871m
= 24.985m
THANK YOU