Unit 1: Communication, Process, Principles and
Ethics
Chapter 1: Communication: An Introduction
An intentional communication that happens within
the bounds of specific contexts. What are
contexts?
 Includes settings or environment (family,
school, workplace, religious communities)
 Social relations (friends, husband and wife,
parent and child, colleagues/boss-
subordinate in the office)
 Scenes which include place, time and
occasion (business meeting, job interview,
social gathering- parties, weddings, etc.)
 Culture (history, tradition, beliefs, norms,
values)
Contexts are vital considerations in our
communication acts since they affect the process
of sending and receiving of messages; semantics
or meanings; choice of channels, words and
methods of delivery.
Communication therefore, must be suitable to the
specific context. Hence, should be intentional or
purposive.
With all these things in mind, it is rightful now to
define purposive communication as a
communication applied in a specific setting,
environment, scene, social relations and culture
The Communication Process
Let’s define process.
A process is anything that involves steps and
components, with integral events happenings in
every part
(Baird, 2016)
In the case of communication, it is the process of
transmitting a symbolic good, often in the form of
codes and symbols via a medium. It has three
main components, mainly sender, message, and
receiver (Sanchez,
2020)
Since communication is also a process it is
something continuous, not just a simple throwing of
Hi! And Hello!. However, though its continuous, we
can still terminate it if we feel like the
communication doesn’t serve its purpose or goal
anymore, or if one does not anymore consciously
make an effort to converse or interact with the
other person which is still an act of communication
since it also sends a message such as “I don’t
want to associate with you anymore…” or simply
“There is no more reason for us to be talking”.
Hence communication may not have a definite end.
Going back to the first definition, here are the main
elements/components of the communication
process:
 Sender
 Source of message
 Sends the message via medium
 Responsible for encoding the
message before it is conveyed to the
receiver
 Considered the writer, speaker,
composer of a piece of information
 Message
 Anything that is being conveyed from the
sender to the other end of the
communication
 Could be in the form of feelings, concepts,
ideas, information, news
 (Think of it as like the status on your
Facebook, or what you are reading now are
examples of a message)
 Receiver
 As the name suggests, the one who receives
the message
 Processes and decodes the message and
tries to interpret its meaning
 Could be anyone who reads, hears, or sees
the meaning (Sanchez, 2020)
As you can probably observe, I highlighted some of
the words there because those words have an
integral part and function to the other concepts that
I will be listing below:
 Encoding
 Generation of the message itself
 Could also be the moment you compose
your thoughts and ideas before you blurt it
out.
 Decoding
 Part of the process where the receiver
decrypts the message and tries to make
sense on what the message is about.
 Medium
 Contains the message
 Vessel or instrument that helps convey the
message. (Voice, Radio Set, TV, or a letter)
 It has two kinds; external and internal noise
 Internal Noise is anything that emanates
from the recipient like psychological mindset,
emotion, current state of being (angry,
bothered, upset or hungry)
 External Noise are mainly distractions placed
by the environment (weather; too hot or too
cold, seatmate trying to get your attention in
the middle of a class lecture)
Feedbacking can help minimize if not entirely
eliminate noise.
 Feedback
 In the process it is the confirmation by the
receiver if he/she has received the message
and has therefore understood it.
 Through this, the receiver completes the
process
 Take note that some communication
doesn’t necessarily have a feedback,
but for the communication to be successful
this is a key component in the process
because it allows the sender to evaluate the
effectiveness of the message, and it provides
an opportunity for the sender to take
corrective action to clarify a misunderstood
message
  Sometimes feedbacks can be non-verbal like
smiles, sigh, etc., it can also be an oral
feedback thru questions or comments, and it
can also be in written form, like replying to
emails
  Unfit for policy matters
 Noise
 Anything that gets in the way of effective
communication.
 It has two kinds; external and internal noise
 Internal Noise is anything that emanates
from the recipient like psychological
mindset, emotion, current state of being
(angry, bothered, upset or hungry)
 External Noise are mainly distractions
placed by the environment (weather; too hot
or too cold, seatmate trying to get your
attention in the middle of a class lecture)
Feedbacking can help minimize if not entirely
eliminate noise.
Chapter 1: Lesson B (Types of
Communication: According to Mode,
Context and Purpose)
This continuation of the chapter tackles the
different types of communication according to
mode, context and purpose, also some of its
advantages and disadvantages.
Types of Communication
Messages can be imparted across many types,
according to the mode of communication, context
as well as the purpose. But one thing that’s
needed to be emphasized is that while
communication is often thought of as verbal, non-
verbal mode, is as important as it strengthens
one’s message.
The following are the type of communication
according to mode:
a. Verbal Communication
b. Non-verbal
A. Verbal Communication
• Message is conveyed orally
• Verbal contact is achieved by speech, voice,
or a piece of paper
• Goal of this kind of communication is to
make people understand what we are trying to
convey
Types of verbal communication
1. Oral Communication
 Thru oral speech
 Includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephone conversation, video, radio, and TV
 Communication is influence by volume,
speed and clarity of speech
Advantages:
 Quickness in exchange of ideas
 Flexible
 Personal touch
 Removal of misunderstanding
Disadvantages:
 Unfit for lengthy message
 Lack of written proof
 Lack of clarity
 Misuse of time
 Presence of both the parties necessary
2. Written Communication
 Signs and symbols are used to communicate
in written communication
 Messages can be sent via email, letter,
report, memo, etc.
 Influenced by vocabulary and grammar
used in the style of writing, the precision
and the clarity of the language used
Advantages
 Suitable for lengthy message
 Written proof
 Clear message
 Less expensive method
 Presence of both parties
 True effective
Disadvantage
 Unfit for uneducated persons
 Lack of secrecy
 No quick feedback
B. Non-Verbal Communication
 A communication through signs and
symbols.
 It can go without verbal communication, but
the latter can’t go without the other.
 It is considered to be an effective
communication, because the tone of voice
and body language can convey the
message effectively rather than just
verbally.
 Facial Expression
- by looking at a person’s face is the first thing
we see, even before we hear what they have
to say
- through it we can display or recognize joy,
sorrow, rage, and fear and much more
 Eyes
- Plays an important role in non-verbal
communication
- A dangerous look will tell you that someone
is upset and not comfortable with you
 Gesture
- Delivery of gestures an signals is an effective
way to express meaning without words
- Popular gesture movements include waves,
pointing, and the use of fingers to signify
quantitative number.
- Other gestures are arbitrary and cultural
 Body language and posture
- May also convey a lot of details
 - Although these actions signify feelings and
attitudes, research indicates that body
language is much more nuanced and less
definite than commonly believed
 Haptics
- Communication by contact is another
essential non-verbal action
- Examples are pat on the back/head, shake
hands, high five, fist bump
 Personal Appearance
- Think about the assumptions you make
about someone based on their appearance,
such initial impressions are significant which
is why experts recommend that job seekers
dress appropriately for interviews with
potential employers.
- Researchers have found out that
appearances can play a role on how people
are viewed, and how much they receive. In
the 1996 study showed that lawyers
considered more attractive than their
colleagues paid almost 15% more than those
considered less attractive.
- Culture is an important influence on how
beauty is judged. While thinness appeared to
be valued in western cultures, some African
cultures attribute full-figure bodies to better
health, income and social status.
 Proxemics
- to communicate while keeping distance
- the distance we need and the amount of
space we consider as belonging to us are
determined by a variety of factors including;
social norms, situational factors, personality,
characteristics and familiarity
- there are different types of spaces
determined by the measurement of distance
 Chronemics
- The use of time in non-verbal
communication
- How time is used and interpreted
- Speed of the speech or how long people are
able to listen can have a big impact on the
effectiveness of verbal message
Types of Communication According to Context
• Intrapersonal Communication - a communication
that happens in your own mind
• Interpersonal Communication - a communication
between two or more people
Types of Interpersonal Communication
a. Dyadic – communication between two
individuals in a personal relationship built over time
and involves their thoughts and feelings at a certain
level
b. Small Group – communication within formal or
informal groups or teams. A group interaction that
results in decision making, problem-solving and
discussion within an organization
c. Public – sender-focused mode of
communication in which one person is usually
responsible for transferring information to an
audience; compared to interpersonal and group
communication, public communication is the most
deliberate, structured and goal-oriented mode of
communication
d. Mass – a public communication conveyed to a
lot of people by print or electronic media like
newspapers and magazines; unlike interpersonal,
group and public communication, there is no
immediate verbal and non-verbal feedback in mass
communication
Types of Communication According to Purpose
1. Formal Communication
- Follows strict protocols when it comes to flow
- Message passes from one official channel to
the next
- This type of communication is usually found
in corporate settings
- Sometimes be in a form of an oral
instruction, a memo, an inter-office letter, an
organization e- mail, or any other form
agreed upon by the organization itself, after
communication is sent, this is filed an
recorded in the office
- Language is often business-like
- Formal communication can be of two-kinds:
vertical and horizontal
1.1 Vertical Communication
• Any type that could either go upward (from
staff to boss) or downward (from manager to
employee) Examples: an employee requesting for a
loan, asking permission for a leave of absence or
making a progress report about the latest project
• Downward information may include
managers firing of memos of instruction for an
implementation of a project, a letter of information
about a new inter-company policy, or a notice of
meeting for a general assembly
1.2 Horizontal Communication
• Is lateral communication or communication
between office or communication between office or
individuals who are considered in the same level in
an organization. A department-to-department
correspondence, for instance, or a lunch meeting
among managers are both considered lateral or
horizontal
2. Informal Communication
• Any type of communication that is done outside of
the context of an organization is considered
informal. Oftentimes unofficial, it is referred to as the
“grapevine”.
• Very difficult to put out or get straight once it is
spread haphazardly; the facts could also get
distorted, leading to office tension and an
unproductive work environment

Chapter 1: Unit 2. Principles of Communication
Lesson A: Basic Rules of Communication
Questions are useful tools, why?
 they open lines of communications;
 give us information;
 improve interactions, facilitate analysis and
diagnostics of a situation;
 allow us to propose our own ideas;
 help to understand the priorities of others;
 stimulate motivation to learn;
 motivate creativity; and
 more importantly scientific research,
explanations and its applications happen in
part through questions and answers.
If we would look into it from the perspective of
communication, when we are taking into
consideration the audiences (who?), the venue
(where?), the purpose (why?), notice how questions
are also used?
 To self-retrospect your communication habits
 To predict future communication goals, and
the things that you need to do to make it
more achievable
 To do the things needed to be able to
present and convey your messages
effectively
Basic Rules of Communication
 Who is your audience?
 to better craft your message so that
they will receive it the way you
intended and respond favorably to
what you are saying
 HOW? Here are steps that spell the
acronym AUDIENCE that will give
you an idea of what questions to ask
and what information can be useful in
better connecting with your audience.
1. Analyze – who -is/are the recipients of your
message.
2. Understand – what is their knowledge about
you intended message.
3. Demographics - what is their age, gender,
education level, position.
4. Interest – what is their level of interest /
investment on your message (what’s in it for
them)
5. Environment – what setting/reality is your
audience immersed in, and what is your
relationship to it.
6. Need – what information does your audience
need?
7. Customize – how do you adjust your
message to your audience?
8. Expectations – what are your audiences
expectations.
 Why are you communicating?
 relay important information
 emergencies
 school-related activities
 expressing yourself (emotions, ideas,
opinions)
 asking questions
 give comments or reactions
 need something from someone
 What are you communicating about?
 News
 Chika (informal)
 Opinions regarding something
 Important?
 Urgent?
 What could be the possible objections?
 Of course it is inevitable especially in
interpersonal communication where
others may not agree with your ideas,
opinions, or requests
 What are the ways you can overcome
them and persuade them to see your
point of view, cooperate with you or
take action?
 Understand your audience (needs, values,
motivations, and concerns)
- tailor your messages to appeal to their
interests, emotions, and logic, and avoid
triggering their defensiveness or hostility
- use empathy and active listening to show
respect and rapport, and so identify common
ground and areas of agreement
- helps you anticipate and prepare for possible
objections, and to address them in a
constructive and respectful way
- use clear and credible evidence (when you
support your claims, arguments, or
proposals)
EVIDENCE – facts, statistics, examples,
testimonials, or analogies that demonstrate the
validity, relevance and benefits of your message
- be careful to avoid overloading your
audience with too much information, or using
evidences that is outdated, inaccurate, or
biased.
- acknowledge and address any
counterarguments or alternative perspectives
and explain why your message is more
convincing or preferable.
 Apply the principle of persuasion (based from
the research of Robert Cialdini)
 Reciprocity - can be used by offering
something of value or benefit to your
audience, or by making a reasonable
compromise or concession in exchange for
their cooperation or agreement.
 Commitment and consistency - can be
employed by asking your audience to make a
small commitment or action that is aligned
with your message, or by highlighting how
your message is compatible with their
identity or beliefs.
 Social proof - can be demonstrated by
showing your audience how others have
accepted or benefited from your message, or
 by citing credible sources or experts who
endorse your message.
 Liking - can be established by creating
rapport and trust with your audience, or by
emphasizing your similarities or common
interests with them.
 Authority - can be demonstrated by
exhibiting your own authority or expertise on
the topic, or by associating yourself with
someone who has authority or expertise.
 Scarcity - can be utilized by creating a
sense of urgency or exclusivity for your
message, or by highlighting the potential
losses or risks of not accepting your
message.
 Have you presented a comprehensive
picture about the situation?
 overall composition of the message
 coherent structure of ideas/right order
 correct choice of words
 direct to the point and not beating
around the bush/waffling/rambling
without a point
 Is the volume of information easily
manageable?
 communication can suffer if the
volume of information is too high for a
person to store or process. The
sender may have lots of material to
share but not the means to process
them. The receiver will face the same
problem if they’re not equipped to
handle excess information.
 What are the creative ways done to present
information?
Creative Ways to Present Ideas
1. Use metaphors
Metaphors can make your words come to life, and
often, you can use a metaphor to make your subject
more relatable to the reader or to make a complex
thought easier to understand.
You've likely heard the expression, "Time is
money."
A direct comparison between two unrelated or
indirectly linked things is called a metaphor. And as
we see in the example of "time is money,"
metaphors can create strong images that can be
used to great effect in everyday communications
and thinking.
So metaphors can be used to improve
communications: they can add impact or can help
you to explain a difficult concept by association with
a more familiar one.
2. Use a memory hook
What exactly is a memory hook? A memory hook is
typically a single word that lets you recall everything
you wanted to say. For example, if your memory
hook is 2019, it might mean that you want to talk
about your plans for the year 2019.
3. Use a demonstration
We know of a furniture dealer who used a simple
demo to convince a large purchaser to choose his
brand of sofas over the competition.
4. Use an activity
Last week, we met an insurance agent who created
a major impact on our minds with a simple activity.
The agent gave us a sheet of paper and asked us to
write our names in the middle of the sheet. He
circled our names and asked us to write down all the
dreams we had for our 6-year-old son, around the
circle.
When we finished writing the dreams, he took the
piece of paper and tore off our names from the
middle of the sheet and asked, “God forbid, if this
were to happen – who will fulfill your dreams for your
son?”
The question made us think for a long time. We
ended up buying a child plan. That’s the power of
using creative presentation ideas.
 Have you developed a practical or useful
way to get feedback?
We are continually receiving and giving feedback,
both explicitly through oral and written language,
and implicitly through gestures and tone of voice. It
is important to distinguish feedback from evaluation.
Feedback is a formative assessment tool that uses
descriptive, constructive, and nonjudgmental
language. Evaluation is a summative assessment
tool that judge’s outcomes and allows for
comparison against a standard of performance.
Effective feedback is achieved by establishing a
positive interpersonal relationship between the
person(s) providing feedback and the recipient(s) as
this creates an environment that fosters
development.
Receiving Feedback Effectively
- Listen to the feedback given. This means
not interrupting. Hear the person out, and
listen to what they are really saying, not what
you assume they will say. You can absorb
more information if you are concentrating on
listening and understanding rather than being
defensive and focusing on your response.
- Be aware of your responses. Your body
language and tone of voice often speak
louder than words. Try to avoid putting up
barriers. If you look distracted and bored,
that sends a negative message as well.
Attentiveness, on the other hand, indicates
that you value what someone has to say and
puts both of you at ease.
- Be open. This means being receptive to new
ideas and different opinions. Often, there is
 more than one way of doing something and
others may have a completely different
viewpoint on a given topic. You may learn
something worthwhile.
- Understand the message. Make sure you
understand what is being said to you,
especially before responding to the
feedback. Ask questions for clarification if
necessary. Listen actively by repeating key
points so that you know you have interpreted
the feedback correctly. In a group
environment, ask for others’ feedback before
responding. As well, when possible, be
explicit as to what kind of feedback you are
seeking beforehand so you are not taken by
surprise.
- Reflect and decide what to do. Assess the
value of the feedback, the consequences of
using it or ignoring it, and then decide what
to do because of it. Your response is your
choice. If you disagree with the feedback,
consider asking for a second opinion from
someone else.
- Follow up. There are many ways to follow
up on feedback. Sometimes, your follow-up
will simply involve implementing the
suggestions given to you. In other situations,
you might want to set up another meeting to
discuss the feedback or to re-submit the
revised work.
Giving Effective Feedback
Prioritize your ideas. Limit your feedback to the most
important issues. Consider the feedback’s potential
value to the receiver and how you would respond –
could you act on the feedback? As well, too much
feedback provided at a single time can be
overwhelming to the recipient.
- Concentrate on the behavior, not the
person. One strategy is to open by stating
the behavior in question, then describing how
you feel about it, and ending with what you
want. This model enables you to avoid
sounding accusatory by using “I” and
focusing on behaviors, instead of assumed
interpretations. Example: “I haven’t seen you
in class in for a week. I’m worried that you
are missing important information. Can we
meet soon to discuss it?” Instead of: “You
obviously don’t care about this course!”
- Balance the content. It is important to
provide the recipient with balanced feedback
regarding their strengths and their
opportunities for growth. Providing feedback
on strengths acts to identify and reinforce the
learning, skills, and behaviors that the
recipient should continue engaging in.
Providing feedback on opportunities for
growth and improvement with actionable and
tangible methods of implementation enables
the recipient to make necessary changes.
- Be specific. Avoid general comments that
may be of limited use to the receiver. Try to
include examples to illustrate your statement.
As well, offering alternatives rather than just
giving advice allows the receiver to decide
what to do with your feedback.
- Be realistic. Feedback should focus on what
can be changed. It is useless and frustrating
for recipients to get comments on something
over which they have no control. Also,
remember to avoid using the words “always”
and “never.” People’s behavior is rarely that
consistent.
- Own the feedback. When offering
evaluative comments, use the pronoun “I”
rather than “they” or “one,” which would imply
that your opinion is universally agreed on.
Remember that feedback is merely your
opinion.
- Be timely. Seek an appropriate time to
communicate your feedback. Being prompt is
key since feedback loses its impact if
delayed too long. Delayed feedback can also
cause feelings of guilt and resentment in the
recipient if the opportunity for improvement
has passed. As well, if your feedback is
primarily negative, take time to prepare what
you will say or write.
- Offer continuing support. Feedback should
be a continuous process, not a one-time
event. After offering feedback, make a
conscious effort to follow up. Let recipients
know you are available if they have
questions, and, if appropriate, ask for
another opportunity to provide more
feedback in the future.
 Have you used multiple communication
techniques?
Verbal
Non-verbal
Written
Listening
Visual