A Course Module for Science, Technology, and Society Eden Joy Pastor Alata Mark Joseph Tumada Calano Greg Tabios Pawilen AuthorsCONTENTS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Lesson 1: Understanding Science and the Scientific Revolution ........ \tellectual Revolutions that Defined Society Lesson 2: Lesson 3: Cradles of Early Science CHAPTER 2 ‘THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING Lesson 1: The Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda... ience and Lesson 2: Programs and Personalities Technology in the Philippines. Lesson 3: Science Education in the Philippines .. Lesson 4: Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines . CHAPTER 3 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION Lesson 1: Human Flourishing Lesson 2: Téchné and Epistemé. Lesson 3: The Good Life. Lesson 4: Ethics and Values in Science, Technology, and Society... ... . sesececves MOLSa ee a, ee 2 ee ee CHAPTER 4 SPECIFIC ISSUES IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Lesson 1: The Information Age .......++ Lesson 2: Biodiversity and the Healthy Society Lesson 3: Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Pol Lesson 4: The Nanoworld . Lesson 5: The Aspects of Gene Therapy. Lesson 6: Climate Change ....... dee de ceca ee peneceeeenereeraeseeeteeeeseens 167 References ........-00eerreeeseeeer teen erent COREA HEA STAISRO Ds 17 bij ey dia Beda. PREFACE . Science, Technology, and Society (STS) isan essential course in the General Education Curriculum for tertiary education. It was conceptualized to develop deep appréciation and critical understanding of the role of science and technology in the development of people and the society. It deals with the interactions between science and technology in social, cultural, political, and economic context. It is an interdisciplinary course whereby students are engaged in learning a myriad of scientific issues and technological developments. This module was prepared to assist undergraduate students to cultivate their 2st century learning skills. Students are equipped with knowledge on scientific ideas, theories, research, discoveries, and innovations in science and technology. Itis the ultimate hope of the authors to help students apply scientific principles in understanding various human conditions and social issues, and realize their role in helping build the nation through the promotion of science and technology. With this module, students are engaged in activities that raise their awareness with societal issues and stir their passion to collectively participate in finding solutions to the problems of the society. This module has four parts. The first two chapters focus on presentation and analysis of the concepts, theories, principles, and historical events in science and its development in various civilizations. These chapters also discuss the role of science in nation-building with emphasis on government programs and projects for the advancement of science and technological capability of the country. Moreover, the historical development of science in the Philippines is also explained. The third chapter is a discussion of science and human conditions that introduces different philosophies, ideas, policies, and personalities in the field of science and technology. The fourth chapter helps students become aware of the relevant societal issues that employ scientific principles. Through this module, the students acquire broad understanding of the theoretical aspect and practical applications of science, technology, and society. Students realize Science, Technology, and Society as a course and as afield of study. Each lesson contains relevant information, engaging activities, and guide questions that will enhance critical and analytical thinking skills of the students. This module helps students recognize that science and society are inseparable. The development ‘of scientific ideas draws inspiration from the physical and natural world, and the society is always a ‘recipient of the positive benefits of science and technology. Consequently, through this module the students will realize and embrace their relevant contribution to the expansion and promotion of science and technology in the country. Science, Technology, and Society module was written with deep sense of passion and ‘unwavering mission to contribute to the intellectual development of Filipino college students as we Prepare them to become the future innovators, competent leaders, and nation builders. The Authors vGeneral Concepts and Historical Developments of Science, Technology, and Society LESSON 1 Understanding Science and the Scientific Revolution Lesson Objectives At the end ofthis lesson, you are expected to: . discuss the concept of science; and ‘+ explain the concept of scientific revolution. Introduction This lesson discusses the concept of science and prdvides a short background of the development of scientific ideas. It articulates means by which the society is changed by science and technology. This lesson starts with the characterization of science and your understanding of the scientific revolution.Name: Date: Year/Section: Teacher: et, Store, ACTIVITY ‘What is your personal definition of science? Write your answer below. ‘What do you know about the scientific revolution? Write your answer below. Share your answers with the class, (CHAPTER 1 « GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 3~ Based on the personal definitions of science shared by your classmates, write the common characterization of science below. Based on the recollections of your classmates, write some of the highlights of the scientific revolution below. fies ise Wiest ae or ee NA ee MS i ee 4 | Acourse mooute FoR ScENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY silt attiABSTRACTION The Concept of Science There is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science began. From the genesis of time, science coexisted with human and nature. It started when humans began to ask questions about the environment and observe everything about nature and its activities. Uteratures defined science in various ways. From the old notion that suggests science as an organized body of knowledge, wisdom, and experiences concerning the natural and physical world, this conception has evolved to include attitudes, processes, and skills through which science as a body of knowledge is formed (Pawilen 2006). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2004) defines science as: “The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.” Interestingly, Snir, et al. (2003) characterized science as: “An ongoing theoretical dialogue with nature, in which scientists have developed successively more powerful models to account for a wider range of phenomena.” This shows that the focus of science is to develop reasoning skills to understand nature. Cobern (1993) pointed out that science, in a broader cultural sense, is also a way of understanding the world and human interactions with it. For Watters and Diezmann (2003), science is: “@ human endeavor within which people try to make sense of the environment.and a worldview that is built around practices that purport to guide the individual towards a personal understanding.” Gribbin (2003), from a historical perspective, also defines science 4s: “An intellectual as well as a social activity carried out by humans in their pursuit to have a better understanding of the natural world” Other scholars like Cajete (1999) defines science as a cultural as well as individual process of thoughts, while Bybee (1997), and Thier and Daviss (2002) define science in relation to scientific literacy that includes: processes, skills, concepts, and the ability to communicate ideas based on reasons. It is a process of finding out and a system for organizing and reporting discoveries (Lind 1997), Science is also construed as a form of social language developed by the scientific community (Scott, Asoko, and Leach 2007). The idea of social language was adapted from Bakhtin (1993). For Bakhtin, it isa form of conversation curious to a certain stratum of society within a system at a given time. As a social language, Scott, Asoko, and Leach (2007) went on to explain that science is: “Based on specific concepts such as energy, mass, entropy; it involves the development of models that provide accounts of phenomena in the natural world; and it is characterized by key epistemological features such as the develdpment of theories (p. 42).” CHAPTER 1 + GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 50, how can science be defined? 1, It is an idea. It comprises ideas, beliefs, theories, and all systematic reasons ang observations on the natural and physical world. 2, It isa personal and social activity, It includes activities of human beings to acquire better understanding of the world, 3, _ Itlsa course or field of study, Itis a subject in basic education, a discipline ora field of study in higher education that deals with the process of teaching and learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we call as school science. 4, _ Itisanintellectual activity. It incorporates a methodical and applied study of the natural and physical world that involves observation and experimentation. The different characterizations and definitions of science mentioned in this lesson suggest ‘that public understanding of science and scientific ideas is luenced by their experiences and observations, Their desire to survive, coexist with nature, and their curiosity to study the activities ience ideas that soon evolved into the different branches and of nature inspire them to develop fields of science, i Scientific Revolution Scientific revolution is asserted to have commenced in early 16th century up to the 18th century in Europe. This is triggered by the invention of the printing machines that allowed printing of books and other reading materials, and the flourishing intellectual undertakings done by scholars in different places. Scholars in Europe pursued different questions and issues that are interesting and relevant to all people. This allowed critical thinking and creativity among the people emerged. However, tis does not mean that science is a European invention brought to other continents. The histories of science, technology, medicine, mathematics, and other disciplines confirm that all civilizations of the ancient world had their own unique and sophisticated traditions, beliefs, and practices related to these disciplines. Scientific revolution is an era of enlightenment and intellectualization that nurtured the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biclogy, and chemistry that changed the observations of society about the environment, It modernizes the understanding and practices of science and gave birth to the scientific processes and experimentations. The science knowledge and practices produced during this period empowered the people to reflect deeper, assess and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. Scientific revolution is a golden age for the people committed to principles of science. It is also a difficult moment to some scientists who experienced persecution or judgment from religious institutions that preserved thelr religious faith and theological ideas. These opposing views between religion and science, however, did not hamper the spirit of scientists to pursue their scientific studies, 6 | AcoURsE MODULE FoR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYSCIENCE IDEAS SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS HUMANS SOCIETY The scientific revolution is so meaningful in the development of human beings, growth of knowledge, transformation of the society, and in the invention of scientific ideas. It significantly perfected the conduct of scientific studies, experiments, and observations. It led to the creation of new research fields in science and inspired the formation of strong institutions for modern science. The study of science and the scientific method were introduced in learning institutions. Itis a time in the history of humankind where many scientific ideas, inventions, innovations, and discoveries that were considered useful were established. Some of these ideas are ‘also controversial in the scientific community and in the political arena. Inspired by human creativity and critical thinking, the scientific revolution drastically reformed how people study and do science. It pushed people to move away from thought experiments to data-driven and experiment-based ideas, (CHAPTER 1 + GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 7| Name: Yeor/Section; f i L Gouri Write an essay on the topic “Transforming the Society through Science: Lessons from the ‘Scientific Revolution” QHAPTER 2 » GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 9. kLESSON 2 I Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society Lesson Objective At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: ‘+ discuss how the ideas proposed by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud added to inspire the advancement of the scientific revolution. Introduction ‘Scientists are inspired by their curiosity, critica! thinking, and creativity to explore the physical ‘and natural world. Their lave for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover. To ‘comprehend what happened during the scientific revolution, itis advisable to examine the different scientists whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period—the truths oftheir time. Creativity * SCIENTISTS. SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Passion to know SCIENTIFIC Paeabn DISCOVERIES Seats [AND PRACTICES Eagemess to share TECHNOLOGY Critical Thinking Scientists are ordinary people doing extraordinary things for humankind. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they néver stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas. (CHAPTER 4 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND.SOCIETY | 11Score: ' \ WiTy ' How do scientists contributed to the development of science? Write your answer below. ‘oupren1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY |13ABSTRACTION In this part of the lesson, the contributions of three notable scientists are analyzed. For sure there were many scientists who worked before and after these Individuals. However, i s Important to note that these men, particularly thelr ideas, had shaken the world: Nicolaus Copernicus ‘One of the Renaissance men In science is Nicolaus Copernicus. Since the ancient Greece, knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged, This was about 1500 years before Copernicus was born (Gribbin 2003). in many ways, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers by doing nothing extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or Inviting people to validate his ideas. His scientific ideas were an example of what is called today as a thought experiment! Upon finishing his doctorate degree, he was appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as @ canon, he sustained his interest in astronomy, Copernicus ‘was influenced by the book Epitome, published by a German Johannes Mueller in 1946, containing ‘observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy. tn 1500s, Copernicus’ idea and model of the Universe was fundamentally completed. Later, he disseminated a summary of his works to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commmentariolus (litle Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the church if he published his ideas formally. The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the. Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution. In this book, he presented a model of the universe in which everything moved around a particular center at consistent rate, placing the sun to be the centerpiece of the universe while all the planets are orbiting the sun every year (Gribbin 2003). Copernicus’ model automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. The moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth, In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: ‘© the orbits of Venus ond Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and © the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He positioned the planets in order of increasing distance from the sun. One of the great problems in Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a static location like crystals in adistance sphere. Copernicus was a man of courage. His Copernican model makes sense now, but during his time, it was judged to be heretic and unacceptable idea. The Roman Catholic Church prohibited and ignored the publication of the Copernican model for the rest of the 16th century. (CHAPTER 1 « GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 15,Charles Darwin Charles Darwin is prominent for his theory of evolution that significantly and radically changed ‘our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as: “A genius who came from aline of intellectually gifted and wealthy family.” Darwin developed his attention in natural history when he was a student of Shrewsbury School, He would devote time observing the surroundings while collecting specimen and reading books in his father’s library (Gribbin 2003). While he had the privilege to study in best school, hhe was observed to be unexceptional compared to other students, He had a hard time studying medicine that his father imposed to him. Darwin's life soon transformed when one of his professors endorsed him to joina five-year expedition through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos. In 1589, Darwin published his book The Origin of Species, which Is considered the most important work in scientific literature, Darwin collected significant data to support his theory with ‘overwhelming evidence. His book presented pleces of evidence on how species evolved over time, He also presented pieces of evidence on the traits and adaptation that are unique for different species. Darwin's skills as a scientist moved beyond the realm of plants and animals into the realm ‘of humans. His book, The Descent of Man, was impressive yet very controversial. Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically introduced the idea that all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This superseded the prevailing religious or biblical views that God created human beings. Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse. He made major contributions on evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. Moreover, Darwin challenged religious and unscientficideas that “were deemed to be prominent during his days. His unorthodox way gave more value to evidence- based science. Sigmund Freud Freud is famous in the field of psychology, Rosenfels 1960 described him as: “A towering literary figure and a very talented communicator, who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.” Freud also made a substantial contribution to the scientific world through the development cof an important method to gather dependable data to study human behavior popularly known as ‘psychoanalysis. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is an excellent method to study the human mind and neurotic iliness scientifically. Freud wasnotaconventionalthinker. According to Weiner (2016), hismethod of psychoanalysis ‘was verified to be successful in understanding neurological conditions that were not known to medicine during his time. His method is unorthodox, focusing on the evil nature of man and human sexuality. This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time, Some people found hs ideas to be dificul, particularly his explanations on human sexuality, Freud was bom n'a much later period than the scientific revolution, but his impact on knowledge could be found in many aspects of the human scene, involving art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy, Whether heiis more of a:psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide, The fact remains that Freudian Ideas and theories are stilconsidered today as a brillant ‘motivation to study human mind and behavior in a more scientifically, accepted way. 16. | Acounse mooULE FoRScenc, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYNamé Date: ‘Year/Section: Teacher: Score: i Pde e ile ESSN There areintellectuals who built critical contributions to science during the sclentificrevolution. ‘Among them are Nicolaus Copernicus, Charles Darwin, and Sigmund Freud. Form a small group or find a partner and answer the following questions: On Copernicus: 1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science? 2. What lessons could be learned from the experiences of Copernicus? 3. How can science influence religion today? ‘On Freud: 1. Look up other sources from books and on the internet. What are the controversies on Freud's ideas? 2. How can you explain Freudian ideas as a scientist? 3. If Freud is stil alive today, what do you think are the modifications he would make to revise his theory? On Darwin: 1. What is Darwin's contribution to the modern science? 2, How can Darwin's evolutionary theory influence the following fields in modern times: * Economy? Agriculture? + Political Science? + Religion? CHAPTER: » GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ANO SOCIETY | 17LESSON 3 Cradles of Early Science Lesson Objective ‘Atthe end of this lesson, you are expected to: ‘+ analyze what revolutions in science occurred in several parts of the world like in Latin ‘American, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa. Introduction Itisinteresting to know that early civilizations have developed ideas and tools that helped themin their everyday life. These civilizations developed the basis for science disciplines like biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. They also developed the basis for mathematics, medicine, engineering, and agriculture. Ths lesson will focus on the civilizations that are considered as cradles of early science. ‘CHAPTER 1 » GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 19Names ate: Year/Section; Teachers scores CNet iad Search on the internet and study the following chilizations. Learn about their activities, culture, and history: Mayan Civilization Incan Civilization v Egyptian Civilization 4. Axtec Civilization Based on what you have leamed about the different civilizations, how did science shaped thelr everyday life? Write your answer below. ' 1 ' (CHAPTER 1 » GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 21ABSTRACTION Science was developed in Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica, and in Africa, People in these continents Invented tools to help thelr everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly bodies, built structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a discipline, Science provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and understand the natural and physical world. It also enables human belngs to develop varlous technologies that helped them in their everyday tasks. Development of Science in Mesoamerica ‘Mesoamerica covers the entire area of Central America, from southern Mexico up to the boarder of South America. Prior to the arrival of its European colonizers, the Mesoamerican region is known for their rich culture and indigenous knowledge system. The Mayan civilization is one of the prominent civilizations during the ancient period that lasted for approximately 2000 years. ‘The Mayans are known for their works in astronomy. They integrated their advanced knowledge of astronomy in the design of th¢ir temples and other religious structures, allowing them to use these temples for conducting astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itza in Mexico is positioned to the spot of the sun during the spring and fll equinoxes. ‘Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced as demonstrated by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles agricultural activities. The Mayans are also acknowledged for using two complicated calendar systems to measure time. These calendars were very useful in planning their everyday activities and in observing thei rituals and cultural celebrations. The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and for building elegant cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with complex waterways to supply water to different communities. They used various tools and adapt innovations especially inthe arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. Some people believed that they are the first people to produce rubber products, They are considered as the most scientifically advanced people in Mesoamerica. They are ‘one of the world’ first civilizations to use writing system known as Mayan hieroglyphics. They are ‘also known in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20 and developed the concept of zero and positional value. The Incan civilization is also renowned in Mesoamerica. They developed scientific ideas and technology such as: 1. building roads covered with stones; 2. constructing stone structures that, could survive earthquakes and other natural calamities; ¢ 3. developing quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; ‘CHAPTER 1 « GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 234. inventing a calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season; developing irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in al types of land; 6. building the first suspension bridge; and 7. creating Inca textiles. Following the Inca, the Aztec clvjlization has also created extensive contributions to science and technology. Some of their contributions are the following: 1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education. Their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. 2. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery. 3. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agriculture in which the land was divided into rectangular areas surrounded by canals. in water systems. 4, Invention of the canoe. It isa light narrow boat used for traveli 5. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolates. The Aztec valued the cacao beans as part of their offerings to the gods. ‘Aztec calendar. This calendar enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season. Development of Science in Asia ‘Asia, the largest continent in the world, is the home of several ancient civilizations. It is a home to diverse cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities: There are civilizations that are known-in the fields of science, technology, and mathematics, such as India, China, and the Middle East civilizations, These civilizations are incomparable in terms of contribution to the development of knowledge during thelr time. India India Is a huge peninsula bordered by vast bodies of water and fortified by mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians had creatively developed useful ideas and technologies. For example, they are known for manufacturing iron, which is considered to be the best, and held with high regard in the whole Sf Roman Empire. They are famous in metallurgical works, too. India is also recognized in medicine. They developed Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient india before 2500 BC that is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered medicinal properties of plants to cure vatious linesses. Ancient texts like the Susrutasamhita of Sustruto, a famous text in Ancient India, describes different surgical ‘procedures and other medical procedures that are useful in practicing medicine during that period. 24: | Acounse wooueron sates, remun6y Axo soa” i‘Ancient India has also done remarkable things in astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each, Sama (2008) noted that interest in astronomy is also evident in the frst 12 chapters of the Siddhanto Shiromani, written In the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this writing covered topics such as: “Mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of. the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the sun and moon.” ‘Ancient India is also known for mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of ‘mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley civilization where they tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjo-daro ruler. The Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), inhis Aryabhatiya, introduced ‘anumber of trigonometric functions trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra (Clifford 2008; Bose 1998). In 628 AD, another indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that: “Gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally ‘throughout the world (Clifford 2008; Bose 1998).” ‘Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also, considered as the founder of ‘mathematical analysis (loseph 1991). China China is among the ancient civilizations with considerable contributions to areas like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music among others. The influence of the Chinese civilization can be observed in many ofits neighbor countries lke Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and particularly in countries that belong to the old’Sik Road. The Chinese are recognized for their alternative medicines, which are a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese people, They discovered medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. Acupuncture is one of the medical methods known to have been déveloped in China. In terms of technology, among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese are the compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that are known in the west only by the end. of the Middle Ages (Davies 1995). They invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and, propeller among others. They also developed designs of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke Xue yuan 1983), invented the first seismological detector, and developed the fist dry dock facility (Needham, etal. 1972). { In astronomy, the Chinese recorded and preserved several data on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to the world ‘CHAPTER 1 « GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 25(Mayall 1939). They observed heavenly bodies to predict weather changes and seasons. They Useg lunar calendars and developed knowledge in seismology that made them more prepared In times of natural calamities. Middle East Countries ‘Muslims dominantly populate Middle East countries. ‘With the spread of Islam in the 7th ang 8th centuries brought a period of scholarship oF the Golden Age of Islam until the 13th century, ‘The common language of Arabic, access to Greek wrltings during the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to india were contributory to the Intelectualization of the Musllms and provided their scholars 2 knowledge base,to create innovations and develop new Ideas, Gut contrary to the Greeks, the Muslim sclentists put greatet value on science experiments rather than plain thought ‘experiments, This led to the introduction of the scientific method in the Muslim world. Ibn aj. Haytham, who is a Muslim scientist, Is also regarded as the “Father of Optics’, especially for his ‘empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. In mathematics, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm and the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Muslim mathematicians did several refinements to the Arabic numeral system such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Muslim chemists and alchemists also played significant role in the establishment of modern ‘hemistry (Durant 1980). Some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of Chemistry” {Derewenda 2007; Warren 2005). Inmedicine, Ibn Sina founded the science of experimental medicine. and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart 2008). His two mast notable works, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Middle East and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his countless contributions are the detection of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the institution of clinical pharmacology (Craig and Walter 2000). There are more Muslim scholars in the field of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of socal sciences. The Golden Age of the Muslim in science declined in the Lith to 13th century, when ‘the Mongols destroyed libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions, Development of Science in Africa Airica as a continent is blessed with many natural and mineral resources. Science also ‘emerged in this part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge-producers too. P The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed significant advancesin the fields of astronomy, ‘mathematics, and medicine. For example, geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry ‘26 | AcouRsE MODULE FoR SENcE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCaETY‘were created and used to make rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture in Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were made to improve the quality of life of the Egyptians, The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids, the ancient Egyptian cities, and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of thelr advanced civilization. Egypt was known in Africa to be a center of alchemy, which Is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry. The Egyptians tried to study human anatomy, pharmacology, and applied vital components to the treatment of : examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, ‘hich exhibit strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science. ‘Astronomy was also practiced in the African region: The Africans used lunar, solar, and stellar calendar, or a combination of the three to predict seasons and climates. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology or metallurgy from Near East region that made them famous during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in constructing their magnificent architectures. Mathematics was also known to be useful in the life of the people in the African continent. ‘The Lebombo Bone that may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35 000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the four fundemental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period were also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. CHAPTER 1 « GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 27Name: Dat ‘Year/Section: Teacher: Score: | Ede ee PSS 1. Forma small group. Discuss and answer the following questions: ‘What lessons could be learned from the experiences of ancient world in advancing science? ‘What additional information can you add on the contributions of different ancient Civilizations to science? 2. Present your answers to the whole class. 3. Review the history of science and make a time line highlighting the major discoveries and developments in science. (CHAPTER » GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY | 29(Qe VV Nee The Role of Science and Technology in Nation-building LESSON 1 The Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda Lesson Objectives ‘At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: + examine the role of science and technology in nation-building; and ‘+ analyze the contributions of government policies on science and technology to the social and economic growth of the country Introduction This lesson will examine the impact of science and technology in the growth of the Phil society. Specifically, it provides a concise historical context of the development of science and technology and identifies policies and projects that wish to contribute to the progress ofthe Filipino people and in the economic progress of the nation: The growth of science and its development as afield n the country is 2 hybrid of indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United States, being the formercolonial masters of the country, have {vital role in improving science in the Philippines. They establish schools and introduced science ‘education in basic education up to tertiary education. They opened the country to global trade, ‘hich allowed the country to have access to science ideas and technologies from other countries. 31Vear/section; ee a Sith Form a small group and answer these questions: 1. Doyou believe that the colonizers brought science in the Philippines? 2. Howdid science start in the country? ‘CHAPTER2 « THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 33Hom 1. Share the results of your discussion with the whole class. 2. Oevelop a consensus as to how science started In the Philippines, 34_ | Acourse moouts FoR scence, rcmnotoGr, AND SOCiETYABSTRACTION Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines Science and technology in the Philippines were introduced in the country before the colonizers came. Prior to the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the Filipinos already had an established civilization with its unique culture'and traditions. They had a system of Indigenous knowledge that helped them survive and respond to their dally needs, They developed knowledge and skills in agriculture, they studied the medicinal properties of plants around them, and they observed heavenly bodies to predict weather conditions and tell the time. ‘The Filipinos used indigenous and ingenious technology in building their homes, in planting various crops, in fishing and hunting for food, and In building irrigation systems. They developed tools for warfare to protect their communities and tribes from their enemies, They created musical instruments for entertainment and for festivities, and they also built transportation tools to travel by land and water. Various archeological artifacts discovered in different provinces proved that metal age has also influenced also the lives of early Filipinos as shown by the stylish designs of gold and silver pieces of jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools. Also, the people already had trading activities with China, Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby nations. This allowed cultural and technological exchange between Filipinos and these nations. When the Spaniards occupied the country, they brought their own culture and practices that influenced the Filipinos. They built schools for boys and girls with a curriculum patterned from Spain. ‘The Spaniards introduced school science and learning technology in the country. They established subjects in schools that allowed limited students to advance their knowledge on various topics and subjects. School Science focuses on teaching concepts related to the human body, nonliving things, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Teaching technology, on the other hand, focuses on using and ‘making tools that they used in everyday life. Life during the Spanish period was modernized, The Filipinos adapted some western technology in their everyday life. The Filipinos are creative that they were able to develop or replicate the technology brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials. The Spaniards also introduced some engineering works by building bridges, highways, waterways, boats, and railway systems. ‘They constructed buildings, introduced gas lamps, and brought house tools, musical instruments, ‘and farming tools. The Spaniards built colleges and schools that introduced medicine and advanced science. The Catholic Church established these schools, Most of them are stil in operation today. The galleon trade contributed much in the growth of science and technology in the Philippines. ‘Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed more economic and cultural exchange between Philippines, Spain, and other Spanish colonies like Mexico. New crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and western practices reached the country. The technology to produce ‘sugar, plant tobacco, and mining were introduced in the country. (CHAPTER 2 « THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-SUILOING | 35‘The Philippines became one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia and was considereg tobe one of the most developed countries in the region. Some Filipinos also had the opportunity to study in Europe. Some of them returned to the country and became teachers, doctors, and engineers, The Americans are more influential in the expansion of science and technology in the Philippines. They founded a public education system to help educate more Filipinos, upgraded the engineering works in the country, and improved the health conditions of the people by creating hospitals and health centers, They established the first modern research university patterned from their own higher education system, the University of the Philippines; and they created more public hospitals and established trade and agricultural schools. They improved the country's transportation and communication systems. The Americans tried thelr best to “Americanize” the Filipino people, School seience was reorganized In public and private schools. Science in basic education focuses on nature studies and sanitation. Later on the subject, science was introduced in a more ‘comprehensive way similar to how they teach science in the US. Teaching science in higher education was improved and modernized through improved laboratories and US-made Instructional materials, ‘The US utilized schools and hospitals to conduct researches to control malaria, cholera, tuberculosis, and other tropical diseases. ; ‘The protestant churches like the Methodist, Episcopalian, Disciples, Adventists, and Presbyterians among others contributed much in establishing mission schools, colleges, and universities, mission hospitals, and mission activities for farmers, fishermen, and for the poor people in different provinces. English was introduced as medium of instruction and liberal education was implemented in schools. More Filipinos had the opportunity to study in the US as pensionados in different disciplines, These pensionados were expected to return and apply what they learned to improve the country. All these efforts built a stronger foundation for science and technology in the ‘country. The World War Il had in many ways weakened the economic growth of the country Institutions and public faites were tured into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were destroyed. ‘The country had a tough time rebuilding itself from the ruins of the war. The human spirit to persist and to restore the country was strong; however, the capacity of the country was limited. The reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also concentrated on building highways and in providing technological training and human resource development in the country. ‘The cotintry gained its Independence and became a new republic after the war. Rebuilding the ‘country became a priority. The country explored the use of overseas development ald (ODA) from US and Japan to develop human resources, and improve its scientific productivity and technological capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts, focusing on producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other professionals in the country. To intensify this effort to develop more professionals, more Filipinos were sent to study abroad. Under the new republic, the Philippines intensified its effort to strengthen its science and technology program byimoroving science and mathematics in schools, offering science, engineering, medicine and allied health, technology, and agricultural programs. Teaching basic sciences was Improved in basic education, in college, and in universities. New researches In the field of nutrition, medicine, basic sciences, and agriculture were done to respond to the needs of the people and to 36 | AcouRse MooULE FOR SceNcE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYcontribute to the development of the ecdnomy. The brief history of science and technology in the Philippines is shaped by several influences. twas shaped by human and social activities both internal and external. External Infvences Development in Selence and Tecnology + Foreign ntuence + Trades wit Foreign Counties + Intemational Esonomic Demands Improving science and technology in the country is a work in progress. We stil have a lot of things to do. We need to recruit’ more people to enroll in science and technology programs. Government should invest more in research activities and science institutions need tobe modernized, Government Policies on Science and Technology ‘The Philippine government implemented séveral programs, projects, and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the country to meet the demands of a tectinologically driven world and capacitate the Filipinos to live in a world driven by science. Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, the Department of Science and Technology (00ST) requested the expertise of the National Research Council ofthe Philippines (NCRP) to consult various sectors in the society to study how the Philippines can prepare itself achieve the ASEAN 2015 Goals. Based on this consultation, the NCRP recommended policies and programs that will increase the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region. ‘The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely: ‘© Cluster 4: Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, and International Policies and Governance Y Local food security . ¥ Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum ¥ Developing schoo! infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband v Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue ‘CHAPTER 2 » THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 37,Cluster 2: Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics ¥ _ Stressing degrees, icenses, and employment opportunities ¥ Evaluation of Republic Act 9184 Y— Employit science and technology as an independent mover of development Y Outright grants for peer monitoring Cluster 3: Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences Allowing food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research a5 pool of Information Y— Guaranteeing compliance of drug manufacturing firms with ASEAN harmonized standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug Administration J Enacting a law supporting human genome projects: ‘Establishing an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and cares Y__Allotting 2% of the GDP to research ‘+ Cluster 4: Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry J Keeping and protecting biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws J Fostering indigenous knowledge systems and supporting indigenous peoples J Creation of common food and safety standards J Practice of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries “The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and technology. “These Jaws serve as our legal framework for science and technology in the country. These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-related, technology-building, and supporting basic research among others. Some regulations and policies are aligned with the international treaties with UN, UNESCO, ASEAN, and other international agencies. 138 | ACOURSE MODULE FOR SCENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY ais wooSCIENCE AND ‘TECHNOLOGY + Policies + Programs + Projects, Social Needs, Issues, ‘and Problems ‘As shown in the diagram, the development of policies in science and technology is shaped or influenced by several variables: aligned polices with national goals, considerable international ‘commitments, bases of legal frameworks, and response to various social needs, issues, and problems. Science and technology policies ensure that the whole country and all its people will experience the progress that science can bring, Policies are guides to direct all efforts to a goal of developing @ scientifically advanced country. ‘CHAPTER2 » THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | 39)Rega ee PO LL Make a time line showing the improvement of science and technology In the Philippines from different periods, . Identify science and technology projects and policies in your locality, ‘Make an assessment ofthe implementation of science and technology policies and projects in your locality. (HAPTER 2 » THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 41.LESSON 2 Programs and Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines Lesson Objectives ‘Atthe end of this lesson, you are expected to: + identify government science and technology programs; + identify Filipino scientists in different fields; and ‘+ discuss the contributions of these Filipino scientists in nation-building. Introduction Recognizing that science and technology are among the pillars of economic development, the Philippine government is implementing several programs to further support the expansion of science and technology in the country. At the beginning of the 21st century and the rise of the Fourth Industral Revolution, we see the need to develop more engineers, doctors, scientists, and other professionals to serve the needs of the people. We also recognized the need for new technologies to help build the economy and other fields. These science and technology programs also’promote the development of scientifically iterate citizens. In this lesson, we will explore these different science and technology programs that are implemented by the government from the national to the community level. This lesson also identifies various Filipino scientists that contributed immensely to the advancement of science and technology. These scientists have dedicated their lives and their talents tohelp build the science and technology capability ofthe country and develop more science research to find solutions to the different issues and problems of the people. (CHAPTER 2 THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY'IN NATION-BUILDING | 43ROSIE te Oba ‘Year/Section: Teacher: Pvaiiag ‘A. _ldentify at least five government science and technology programs that you know. Write your answer inside the box below, ‘CHAPTER 2« THE OLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 45B. Identify five Fillpino scientists that you know. Write thelr names and thelr contributions below, im "Analyze your answers in the previous activity. What is your opinion about the growth of science | and technology in the Philippines? 1» | AcOURSE MODULE FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY $fl ABSTRACTION Government Programs to Support the Development of Science and Technology some ‘There are many current programs supported by the Philippine government through the DOST. of these projects are the following: Y Offering funds for basic research and patents on science arid technology. The government provides funding for basic and applied researches. Financing of these research and projects are also from the overseas development ald (ODA) from different countries, Scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of science and technology. Saloma (2015) pointed out that, the country needs to produce more doctoral graduates in sclence and technology, and produce more researches in these fields, including engineering fields. Expanding the Philippine Science High School system in other reglons to educate young Filipinos in the field of science and technology ‘Establishing science and technology parks to Inspire academe and industry partnerships J Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to work in the Philippines ‘or conduct researches and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based scientists Creating science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and industry partnerships The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex The Phil several within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more science and technology and engineering hurman resources needed by the country. They also aimed to produce more researches in these fields. ine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAAASE 2008) identified capacity building programs such as: national centers of excellence in science, technology, and engineering; human resource and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and ‘Science Education Program (ESEP) to increase the number of doctoral degree holders in science and engineering; establishment of regional centers of research and development to support specific industries that will lead the country in different research and development areas; establishment of. \ce’and technology business centers to help, guide, and incubate technopreneurship ventures; and intensify science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School ‘system. CHAPTER 2 © THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 47In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were done to develop the scientific literacy of the country. More special science classes and special science elementary schools were established in different regions. Aside from these, Science and Mathematics in basic education are constantly improved. The current K to 12 Education Program includes Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) to be one of its major tracks In senior high schoo program to encourage more students to enrolll in science-related fields in college. Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched Phillppine-California Advanced Research Institutes (PCARI) Project to allow several higher education institutions in the Philippines and some US-based laboratories, research institutes, and universities to work on researches and projects rélated to science, agriculture, engineering, health, and technology. This project Is hoped to strengthen STEM competitiveness of the country. There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various researches and projects. The following are some of them: 1. Use of alternative and safe energy 2. Harnessing the mineral resources 3. Finding cure for various diseases and illnesses Climate change and global warming Increasing food production Preservation of natural resources XO wp Coping with natural disasters and calamities 8. _ Infrastructure development Prominent Filipinos in the Field of Science School science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Einstein, Galileo Galilee, Newton, Faraday, Darwin, and many other western scientists. We rarely heard of Filipino scientists being discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientists who made _ substantial contributions to Philippine science. Not because there are only 10 Filipino scientists, for sure there are more, but these are the scientists that are also famous abroad especially in different sciencé disciplines: Agriculture, Forestry, Mathematics, Physics, Medicine, Marine Science, Chemistry, Engineering, and Biology.‘These 10 Filipino scientists are: 1 2 5 Ramon Cabanos Barba — for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes; ‘Lourdes Jansuy Cruz~a famous scientist for her research on sea snail venom; Josefino Cacas Comiso ~ for his works on observing the characteristic of Antarctica by using satellite images; Fabian Millar Dayrit for his research on herbal medicine; Jose Bejar Cruz, r.—a scientist known internationally in the field of electrical engineering, He was elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering; Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist; Rafael Dineros Guerrero Ill for his research on tilapia culture; vy Lilian Formalejo Patena - for. doing research on plant biotechnology; ‘CHAPTER 2+ THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 499. Gregory Ligot Tangonan ~ for his research in the field of communications technology; and 10. Enrique Mapua Ostera, Jr. for his research on drugs. There are other outstanding Flipino scientists that are well-known for thelr outstanding contributions to science. Some of them are: 1. Caesar A. Saloma —an internationally recognized physicist; 2. Edgardo Gomez — famous scientist in marine science; 3, William Padolina - famous scientist in chemistry and former president of National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST): ‘4, Angel Alcala famous scientistin marine science; and 5, Emil Q, Javier-famous for his works in developing rural agriculture. ‘There are other scientists inthe Philippines who were not identified here. Yet, the Philippines stil need more scientists and engineers, and there is a1need to support scientific researches in the» country. The government must find ways to establish more research laboratories and research Institutes, There is also a need to find ways on how their researches are disseminated to the public Many of these Filipino scientists are products of good school science. It means they wert taught and inspired by great teachers. Their interests in science started to manifest during thei ‘50. | AcoURSE MouiLE FoR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYchildhood years. Their natural environment ignited their curiosity to learn more about the natural and physical environment. The schools and laboratories where they studied and worked nurtured this. SCIENCE Individual Interests in Science ‘SCHOOL SCIENCE LABORATORIES (REAL-LIFE CONTEXT) (TEACHERS AND LEARNING ENVIRONMENT) FILIPINO SCIENTISTS: Many Filipino scientists, whether they are in the country or abroad, always excel in their job. The Filipino spirit in their souls has never faded. They continue to bring honor to the country. They make ordinary things in'an extraordinary way. They are always at par with other scientists in spite of the limited facilities we have here in the Philippines.Eee le ESS SUN Group Activity: On Government Science and Technology Programs 1, _ Propose one science and technology program that could be implemented in your town or region.On Filipino Scientists 1. entity other Filipino scientists that you know. 2. Examine their contributions to the field of science. 3. Study what made them pursue a career in science. 4, Present the results of your work to the class. ‘54 | Acourse mooute Fo scence, eowo.0Gy ao SOCieTYLESSON 3 oe Science Education In the Philippines Lesson Objectives the end of this lesson, you are expected to: * identify government science and technology programs to support sclence education in the country; and + review the contributions of science education in nation-building, Introduction ‘Science education focuses on the teaching science and learning science. Therelsabigdifference ‘between these two concepts. Teaching science involves creating ways on how to successfully teach science by exploring pedagogical theories and models to help teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively. Learning science, on the other hand, includes helping students appreciate learning science and involving in science ‘activities. Learning science entails using sclence process Skills and developing high level of science literacy. Science education prepares citizens for a scientifically and technologically driven world, Science education develops skis and knowledge that are necessary for a person to live in what Knight (1986) describes as the age of science and to develop a citizenry that will meet the goals of ‘science in the society (Tilghman 2005). This lesson will deal with understanding science education in the country from basic education to higher education. ‘uneTER 2 + THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN HATION-SUILOING | 55P\etiag \rite a short essay on the condition of science education in the country below. ‘CHAPTER? « THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | $7fm a. Forma small group. b. Share your essay with your classmates, Discuss the state of science education in the country. 58. | &COURSE MODULE FOR Science, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYco PN Suit veiled | Science Education in The Philippines The Philippines is doing its best to improve science education In the country, One of the strategies pursued by the government is to establish academic programs, scholarship, and science schools that will support students to pursue career In sclence and technology and to nurture their gifted potentials in science, 1, Science in the University of the Philippines System University of the Philippines as the national university remains to be the top university in the country in terms of the number of science dégree programs from undergraduate to graduate level. It remains to be the university in the country to create research and produce eraduates in various fields of science like physics, chemistry, biology, marine science, geological science, agricultural sciences, engineering, mathematics, medical and allied health programs, and other fields, UP also has the largest concentration of scientists and doctoral degree holders the field of science. Its laboratories are considered world-class and resources of scientific knowledge in the country. UP also has several institutes and centers for science and technology research in the country. During the COVID-19 pandemic, several UP professors shared their expertise in helping the country cope with the challenges brought by the pandemic. The Philippine General Hospital, Philippine Genome Center, National institute of Health, and the Institute of Mathematics among others proved to be of great help to the country. The agricultural scientists at UP Los Bafios are also helpful in advancing agricultural research and development of the Philippines and of many countries in Asia. UP Visayas Is also known for its research in marine science. The National Science Complex in UP Diliman serves, as the core of science and technology activities In the country today, 2. DOST-funded Scholarship The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) provides scholarship to deserving Filipino students to take science, technology, engineering, agriculture, forestry, computer science, and other science and technology courses in various CHED identified centers of ‘excellence and in autonomous universities across the country: The goal of this program Is to increase the human talents for science and technology in the country. 3. . Science Education in Basic Education Basic education remains to be an important preparation to recruit students to study science. Thus, the government is implementing basic education programs that promote ‘clence education in the country. One outstanding program for science education supported by the government is the Philippine Science High School system with branches in various parts. ‘CHAPTER 2 « THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | $9‘of the country. There are also several government programs implemented by the Department of Education and few private schools for science education. a. Philippine Science High School System ‘This is a government program for scientifically and mathematically gifted Filipino students. It is a service institute under the DOST with a mandate to provide secondary ‘education program advanced science and mathematics subjects to prepare students for a science career (Republic Act 3661). The school provides dormitory facilities forall its students. Since its inception, the PSHSS remains to pursue Its vision to develop Filipino science scholars with scientific mind and a passion for excellence. PSHS students have proven themselves to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for the country The students in PSHS have brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various international competitions and research, These students ‘are expected to pursue degrees in Science and Technology in different colleges and ‘universities, local or abroad. b, Regional Science High Schools 3 ‘The Department of Education maintained several regional science schools in various regions and provinces in the Philippines. These regional science high schools ‘offer a curriculum focusing on science and mathematics. A system of selective ‘admission is implemented to these schools to ensure that only the scientifically and ‘mathematically gifted students or those who are showing interest and potential in science and mathematics are admitted. Special Science Education Project Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project isin fulfillment to DepEd Order No. 73 s. 2008, and DepEd Order No. 51s. 2010. This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified elementary schools that were identified as science elementary schools, Since its inception, the number of science elementary schools has grown in different regions across the country. The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological Knowledge, skis, and values. The mission of the SSES isto: + offer a learning environment to children who are gifted in science through @ special curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners; + support the development of lifelong learning sil; and * fester halstic development among the learners. in the SSES, Science and Health is taught starting in Grade 1. Students spent longer time studying science compared to other subjects; 70 minutes for Grades !- |W and 80 minutes for Grades IV-VI, The curriculum also utilizes special instructional methods anid approaches like the use of investigatory projects. 10 | Acouase moouie ron science, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYQueron City Regional Science High School This school was established on September 17, 1967. Originally It was named Quezon City Science High School. It was turned into a reglonal science high schoo! for the National Capital Region in 1999. The schoo! was @ product of a dream to establish 4 special science school for the talented students In sclence and mathematics, The focus of the curriculum is on science and technology. The school still teaches the basic ‘education courses prescribed by DepEd for secondary. However, there.are additional subjects in sciences and technology that students should take. The school envisioned being a venue to provide maximum opportunities for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The schools well supported bythe local government unit ‘and by the Parents and Teachers Association (PTA) The school is under the Department of Education. Manila Science High School ‘The school was established in October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High ‘School (MSHS). It is the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization ‘and curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and mathematics, MSHS ims to produce scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in ‘various extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSA), for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT has five parts: aptitude test in Science, aptitude test in Mathematics, problem-solving test in Science, problem-solving test in Mathematics, and proficiency in English. The ‘school prides itself from producing outstanding alumni and for winning various national competitions. (GHAPTER2 « THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 61APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT Considering the challenges of 21st century life and the demands of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, how can the country further strengthen and improve the state ofits science education? ‘CHAPTER2» THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | 63LESSON 4 See EE Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you are expected to; + discuss the concept of indigenous scence; ‘+ identify indigenous science beliefs and practices; and ‘+ discuss the contributions of indigenous science in the development of science ideas. Introduction Indigenous science is partof the everyday lf of the people. Its considered indigenous science because itis one of the foundations of modern science. This esson will provide an appreciation and deeper understanding of indigenous science and its contribution to the growth of modern science and in nation-building, - CHAPTER?» THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILDING | 65Yarn) y LUst at least 10 indigenous beliefs and practices in your community and write them below. (CHAPTER 2 THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | 67tom Reexamine the indigenous bellefs and practices that you have identified. Think whether these could be considered scientific or nonscientific. Explain why you think some of these beliefs ang practices have scientific basis.BSTRACTION ‘What Is indigenous science? * Indigenous science is part of the Indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people and was practiced by early civilizations (Gribbin 2001; Mkapa 2004; and Sibisi 2004), + It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations that guide human societies in thelr enumerable interactions with the natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for -coping with changing environments (Pawilen 2005). + Indigenous science inclides everything from metaphysics to philosophy and various Prattical technologies practiced by indigenous people both inthe past and in the present (Cajete 2004), * Indigenous science provides the basics of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or ‘metallurgy derived from traditional knowledge and practices (Sibisi 2004). ‘Ogawa (1995) claims that indigenous sclence is collectively live-in and experienced by the people of a given culture, laccarino (2003) elaborated this idea by explaining that science is a part ‘of culture, and how science is done largely depends on the cultural practices ofthe people. Pawilen (2005) clarified that indigenous science knowledge developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay between the society and the environment. Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes, atitudes in scierice, and attitudes to science identified by Johnston (2000) namely: + Motivating attitudes © Cooperating attitudes Practical attitudes Reflective attitudes ‘These cultural beliefs, therefore, can be a good foundation for developing positive values toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level. According to Kuhn (1962) developmental stages of most sciences are “characterized by continual competition between ‘anumber of distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all oughly coriparbe with ‘the dictates of scientific observation and method” (HAPTER 2» THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND-TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | 69Indigenous Sclence and Technology in the Philippines Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding Indigenous sclence, Accordingly, indigenous science Is composed of traditional knowledge that uses sclence proces, skills and tools and guided by community values and culture, INDIGENOUS SCIENCE is guided by ‘Community is composed of Culture and Values 1. Indigenous science uses science process skills sueh as observing, comparing, classifying, ‘measuring, problem-solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting. 2. Pawilen (2008) pointed out that indigenous science is guided by peoples’ culture and ‘community values such as: ‘a, the landis@ source of lfe and a precious gift from God; b. _allliving and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent; the earth is revered as the origin of their identity as people; d. humans are stewards of the land and other natural resources; and erature isa friend that needs respect and proper care. 3. The practice of indigenous science in the Philippines'includes traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people and communities such as ethnobiology, ethnomedicine, indigenous farming methods and agriculture, and folk astronomy. Indigenous science is Important in the development of science and technology in the Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, igenous science gave birth to the development of science and technology as afield and 2s a discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life. UNESCO's Declaration on Sclence and the Use of Scientific Knowledge (1999) recognized indigenous sciences historical and valuable contributions to science and technology. 70. | Acounse mood Fon cnc, TeWoI06Y AND SOCIETYc Read articles on indigenous science on the internet. Examine what is common among these indigenous science beliefs and practices. ‘Write your answer below. ‘CHAPTER 2 THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-BUILOING | 71Science, Technology, Society, and the Human Condition LESSON 1 ~ Human Flourishing Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: ‘+ articulate one's visio, justification, and criteria of human flourishing; + recognize the different dynamics of Buddhist economics compared to materialist perspectives; and ‘+ compare this understanding from similar concepts of human flourishing. Introduction: Human flourishing is a Greek and Western concept that is often misrepresented by an coverdeveloped and highly technological society. Is human flourishing supposed to be conceived always 2s unmitigated industrialization often represented by Fist World and highly urbanized countries lke the United States of America or many European countries? Is development and wealth {or access to comfort) always the measure of a welled human life? While these claims are not always representative of Western notions of human flourishing, they still operate within Western ‘conceptions of a well-ved fe. In this lesson, we are going to look at a more Aslan way of looking at human flourishing. othe son 8Names ates Yeat/Section: Teachers —___ Biota What ls your understanding of human flourishing? What is your standard of what it means to flourish? In the box below, DRAW what your vision of human flourishing is. (GIAPTER3 » SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 75After you have drawn your vision of human flourishing, share with the group the following: 1. your vision of human flourishing; 2. why thisis your understanding, of human flourishing; and 3, three criteria that best capture thi 76 | ACOURSE MODULE FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYABSTRACTION In an essay entitled “Buddhist Economics,” E.F, Schumacher uses religious and moral principles to the question of human flourishing. He opens the essay with the lines: “Right Livelihood” is one of the requirements of the Buddha's Noble Eightfold Path. It is clear, therefore, that there must be such a thing as Buddhist economics... Spiritual health and ‘material well-being are not enemies: they are natural alles” (Schumacher 2014, p. 421). There exists a misunderstanding in traditional Western economics, says Schumacher; when. itis preoccupied with a type of self-righteousness, which puts premium on goods over people or utility over creativity. Looking back at our own vision of human flourishing, are these visions and our |ustification and criteria a preoccupation of value based on goods or utility? Or are these visions, Justifications, and criteria based on people and creativity? Schumacher further explains that some social scientists, economists to be precise, think that their science is absolute; they suffer from a certain blindness when they treat their field as a positive science and not as a social science with a certain set of assumptions. | we think that human flourishing is an objective reality based on an objective criteria, itis Not. It is more complicated than mere physical and mechanical movements: When we understand ‘our flourishing as mechanical, we reduce ourselves to robots, to machines, or even reduce ourselves to objects. From this sensibility stems the negative thinking toward work and the difficulty of experiencing satisfying work (that is, one that is perfectly aligned to our sense of purpose and mission). If all that we do is focused on the acquisition of wealth and of becoming rich, we see ‘ourselves pushing too much and exerting unnecessary effort to be someone we are not. Itis undeniable, says Schumacher, that the source of wealth is human labor. Quite interesting modern economies have somehow understood labor from two opposing perspectives. On the one hand, from the perspective of the employer, its understood as a cost in the process, which can be removed by automation. On the other hand, from the perspective of the workforce, it is understood ‘asa “disutility” By “disutility” Schumacher refers to labor as a letting go of leisure and comfort; in relation to this, wages are understood as a kind of compensation for the sacrifices made. When Understood in relation to these two, the employers envision “an output without employees,” while the work force envisions an “income without employment” Ibid.) If these perspectives confront us when we consider our understanding of human flourishing, what then are the consequences of these differing views? If work is treated as something to escape and run away from, then every attempt to reduce workload is always preferable. The more we are able to make processes that decrease labor, the better. This explains why companies tend to automate; but because automation is costly and expensive, companies engage in the process of dividing labor. The division of labor is also the introduction of specialization, Not that workers were Not specialized before (as if we were not working nor creating since time immemorial), what we mean here by the division of labor refers more to the splitting of processes into smaller parts. Such that crefts that previously éngage a laborer are now subdivided into four or five subprocesses with specifically assigned laborers. What this does isto produce efficiency of labor. Products are produced faster and accountability in the pipeline is easier. As this involves efficiency, i is often understood as progress; or better yet, this is what is often misunderstood as human flourishing. ‘CHAPTER 3 « SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 77‘Schumacher challenges this understanding of human flourishing using a Buddhist point of view, In the Buddhist perspective, labor is understood as: “to give a man a chance to utile and develop his faculties; to enable him to overcome his ego-centeredness by joining with other people in a ‘common task; and to bring forth the goods and services needed for a becoming existence” (Supra, . 422). If we understand work negatively, Schumacher argues that it Is criminal because it focuses ‘on goods rather than people; this lacks compassion and reduces the soul to a worldly existence that is inhumane. in the same way that to favor leisure than work isto forget the complementarity of ‘work and leisure in living and to destroy “the joy of work and the bliss of leisure.” In the perspective above, we can draw two types of automation/mechanization. The fist ‘enhances the skill and power of humanity, and the second reduces human work to a mechanical slave. The former constitutes the Buddhist vision for human flourishing, whereas the latter leaves humanity to the position of serving the slave. if our understanding of human flourishing simply constitutes automation/mechanization, then we become victims ofthe slave; this is not the vision of human flourishing, we intend to push forward. ‘ Similar to Gandhi, Schumacher further distinguishes Buddhist economics with the economics ‘of modern materialism. The distinction is based on the perspective that civilization is not about the duplication of wants and desires as itis “the purification of human character.” For the Buddhist, characteris formed, as well as itis a consequence, of human labor. Since it is human labor that is concerned here, itis determined by the condition of human dignity and freedom, and “blesses ‘those who do it and equally their products” (Supra, p. 422). Itis worth nothing that this different and more Eastern disposition does not propose a denial ‘and a departure of the material worl; instead, it pushes forward human integration. The materialist perspective is concerned merely with the production of goods and the accumulation of wealth. The Buddhist perspective is all about a type of liberation that is not against physical well-being. Having said that, itis not technology or money that hinders and prevents the way of salvation from this perspective; instead, it is the attachment to money and wealth that is the enemy of salvation. itis ‘not wrong to enjoy pleasurable things; it is wrong to live craving for them. Schumacher’s claim in Buddhist economics, therefore, highlights two things: nonviolence and simplicity. From his economist perspective, the beauty ‘of this way of life lies in its utter rationality— that is, that human flourishing does not entail big or huge ‘things, but tiny or small means that lead ‘to satisfactory results. it is no surprise that this is difficult, or even impossible, for an economist from a consumerist culture. Why? Because a culture that prioritizes productivity over presence considers itas a standard to determine development by means of consumption. The presumption is simple— the more one consumes, the better they are from those who do not. This.is considered weird by the Buddhist economist who considers consumption only as ai licator and means to human well- 1g, but is not the sole determinant for well-being (Supra, p. 423). Human flourishing, then, cannot be understood vis--vis consumption. This is not the mark of what it means to be human. However, ecoriomics looks at consumption as the “sole end and purpose of all economic activity” and, considers the many factors of production only as a means. What economics do is to maximize the human drive by stimulating the desire for consumption (Supra). 78 | ACOURSE MODULE FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYWhen considering human flourishing Buddhiststyle, It seems like the best manner of consumption entails producing optimal human satisfaction while utilizing 2 relatively low rate of consumption—nonviolence and simplicity. These Buddhist principles allow people to live thelr life without pressure and strain or without the need to be something or someone. This mindset represents the central injunction of Buddhism: "Cease to do evil; try to do good.” As physical resources are scarce, the people's drive to modestly satisfying thelr needs are more sustainable than people who voraciously depend upon a high rate of consumption and use. Speaking of nonviolence and simplicity, local communities that are self-sufficient are less Involved in large-scale violence. Issues of sustainability are concerns of human flourishing. Shumacher explains: “From the point of view of Buddhist economics .. production from local resources for local needs is the most rational way of economic lif, while dependence on imports from ofar ‘ond the consequent need to produce for export to unknown and distant peoples is highly ‘uneconomic and justifiable only in exceptional cases and an a smal scale,” (Supra, p, 423)- If we are to flourish as a specie, it needs to be based on life styles that are locally sustainable. Going back to.the discussion of science and technology, Schumacher concludes by referring to the enduring value of Buddhist economi “Its in the light of both immediate experience and long-term prospects thot the study of ‘Buddhist economics could be recommended even to those who believe that economic growth is more important than any spiritual or religious values. For itis not a question of choosing between “modern growth” and “traditional stagnation.” It is a question of finding the right path to development, the Middle Way between materialist heedlessness and traditionalist ‘immobility, in short, of finding “Right Livelihood,”" (Supra, p. 424). (CHAPTERS » SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 79Name; ate: Year/Section; Teachers Saree = APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT. Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden to distance himself from social life. The book tries to describe what it means to flourish as a human person. We quote: “If one listens to the faintest but constant suggestions of his genius, which are certainly true, he sees not to what extremes, or even insanity, it may lead him; and yet that way, as ‘he grows more resolute and faithful, his road lies. The faintest assured objection which one healthy man feels will at length prevail over the arguments and customs of mankind. No man ever followed his genius till it misled him. Though the result were bodily weakness, ‘yet perhaps no one can say that the consequences were to be regretted, for these were a life in conformity to higher principles. if the day and the night are such that you greet them With joy, ond life emits a fragrance lie flowers and sweet scented herbs, is more elastic, ‘more starry, more immortal—that is your success. All nature is your congratulation, and you hhave cause momentarily to bless yourself. The greatest gains and values ore farthest from being appreciated. We easily come to doubt f they exist. We soon forget them. They are the highest reality. Perhaps the facts most astounding and most real are never communicated by ‘man to man. The true harvest of my daily life is somewhat as intangible and indescribable as the tints of morning or evening. It isa little star-dust caught, a segment of the rainbow which have clutched. Hearned this, at least, by my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours. He will put some things behind, will pass an invisible boundary; new, universal, and more liberal laws will begin to establish themselves around ‘and within him; or the old laws be expanded, and interpreted in his favor in a more liberal sense, and he will live with the license of a higher order of beings. in proportion as he simplifies his life, the laws of the universe will appear less complex, and solitude will not bé solitude, nor poverty, nor weakness. Ifyou have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.” Having read the excerpts from Wealden, do you think that this is comparable to Schumacher's text on Buddhist Economics? In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different? Write your answer below. [CHAPTER 2 THE ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NATION-OUILOING | 81LESSON 2 Sr Téchné and Epistémé Lesson Objectives : ‘Atthe end of this lesson, you are expected + understand the sources of téchné; * understand the relationship between téchné, epistémé, and physis; and + recognize the humanism behind the Greek understanding of téchné, Introduction ‘After having studied Buddhist economies, we now go back to the Western understanding of ‘technology as a way of revealing. But what is this mode of revealing? How do we engage the world uniquely with the use of téchne? To understand this, we recourse to Greek sources in order to help us geta glimpse of what this entals. ‘CHAPTER « SCIENCE, FECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 83,ern a at Year/Section; PANO BGs ee a Gerald Manley Hopkins wrote a poem in 1877, which he entitled God's Grandeur, Read the poem and pay attention to the woril that really made an impact on you. The world is charged with the grandeur of God. It willflame out, lke shining from shook fol; It gathers to a greatness, ike the ooze of oi Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod? Generations have trod, have trod, have trod; ‘And alls seared with trade; bleared, smeared with tol; ‘And wears man’s smudge and shares man's smell: the soil {Is bare now, nor can foot fee, being shod. ‘And for allthis, nature is never spent; There lives the dearest freshness deep down things; ‘And though the last lights off the black West went ‘0h, morning, at the brown brink eastward, springs— Because the Holy Ghost over the bent ' World broods with warm breast ond with ah! bright wings, {s the poem related to the previous lesson? How? If it is not related, explain why. ‘HAPTER « SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDTION | 85What does the poem say about human ability to know and to create? ' How is technology referred to in the poem? 86. | ACOUREE MODULE FoR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYABSTRACTION Etymologicaly, the word téchné comes from an ndoand European stem that was approximately pronounced as tekp, and refers to “carpentry. In ancient Greek, the stem appearsin the word téktdn, which also refers to the "master builder” and “carpenter” which we read in the iliad and Odyssey. ‘This tékt6n is carried in the word “architect” and in the concept of “tectonic” But from téktén, we infer téchng; this refers to the skill of a carpenter and/or a master builder. In any way, it refers to {hp art or skill of every kind involving the process of production. The word téchné carries a two-fold ‘meaning: on the one hand, it refers to “craftsmanship” and “skil” of any kind, and, on the other hand, it also refers to the ability to create a machine. From téchné, we can draw technikén, which points to art of producing what is sulted to the person's art or skill. When understanding the Latin technica ars (the art of skilled production), the French technique, or the German technik, we recognize the development of the concept to refer to all the actions and procedures pertaining and relating to the skill involved in the production of everything, In fact, in contemporary German, technik refers to something broader. It involves everything that constitutes the means and modes of production that necessitates mastery in the highest sense in the practice of an art or skill In order to understand the central concept téchné, let us go to Aristotle, who refined the understanding of téchné and placed it in relation to the other concepts involving action and production. While téchnéis first understood as a particular kind of knowledge, Aristotle distinguishes it among other kinds of knowledge. For him, téchné refers to that knowledge and ability that is concerned with production and construction; in shot, its in-between (mesotes) the two poles of ‘on the one hand, mere know-how, emperiria, and, on the other hand, theoretical knowledge or epistémé. Téchné is not theoretical knowledge or epistémé because epistémé is about the immutable (for example, mathematics and philosophy), whereas téchné is about that type of knowledge that deals with the mutable or the process of becoming. In a way, téchné builds on emperiria or ‘empirical experience, Although building on emperiria, téchné is not experience; experience, which is dependent on what is in memory (considering only the particular instances and their connection) and téchné, which flows from the particular cases to a more universal concept. Thus, the physician with mere experience only knows that antibiotics is good to treat infection. But the physician, who possesses téchné, understands the components of the medicine that responds specifically to this or that infection. In this sense, experience can only provide the “that”, whereas téchné provides the “why” (and for that reason is closer to epistémeé). Habit, thereby, facilitates in attaining a certain level ‘of knowledge and skill, and we have identified this to be téchné. But there is another understanding of téchné. This time; it refers to the process by which things come to be. This involves the process of producing mutable realities. Again, like the first instance previously mentioned, we recognize an intermediate position between the vital processes of nature, which is called physis, and the contingent processes of tyché (or chance and coincidence). Part of understanding technology is an element of luck or a playful consideration of elements in a methodological technique. Despite the role of chance in téchné, nature directs its activity more. In ‘the Greek understanding, chance and nature facilitates the agency of something in which things are realized, In this sense, the source of téchné remains to be the thinking soul, who initiates the Production of goods and make possible the technical process. (CHAPTER + SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 87‘ 7 When taking into consideration, therefore, téchné and nature (physls), we are concerneg With the actualization in matter of form, The form that comes in the end Is @ consequence of the application of thinking on matter, We often hear architects speak of a blueprint for construction, This is how engineering téchné proceeds to the end-form; whether house, schoo), or what, It ental certain processes and steps from procurement, preparation, mixture, and the like, Involved in the téchnd are the processes of evaluation, intervention, and construction. Asis, téchné Involves a more complicated process than mere generation (even if it imitates or Is analogous to physis in its natural processes). Because of the similarity between téchné and physis, it must be said that téchné isthe human ability to complete what is lacking in nature; or that téchné perfects that which nature ddes rot have. Tis completion and perfection must, however, be understood in relation to human needs fr even to concems or issues of utility this variability is as variable as what humanity considers useful, As such, téchné (based on arising human needs) invents machines to serve human purposes ‘and push human goals. A good example isthe lever With it, we are able to carry and move heavy matter with very little force. With human needs in view, we are able to perfect nature. Based on the two instances we have presented so far, téchné (as it is understood by the eerly Greek) isa way of relating, On the one hand, tis elated to theoretical knowledge (eplstémé).On the other hand, its related to the processes of nature (physi). Because ofthis very unique relationship ‘with both epistémé and physi, téchne is always already dependent and never against theoretica] knowledge on the one hand, and this level of mastery of nature on the other. Again, itis worth roting thatthe relationship between téchné and eplstémé is reflected in thelr understanding of handieraft—operating on habit and skll—as an integrated part of the science of téchné. Because of the weaving of technique with habit and skil, the Greeks look at téchn& 2s a very unique kind of knowledge that s aso tied to one’s humanity. itis type of humanism that Socrates, {or example, in his search for real knowledge is disappointed with the politicians and poets, but now «with craftsmen (Techniker, men of technique). For Socrates, only the craftsmenis able to demonstrate a type of knowledge that is sound and specialized; in a way, they are able to demonstrate their technical knowledge as absolute (in relation to their craft) ‘The Greeks were interested humanity and our place inthis world. Iti this specific interest that leads to their interest in production whéther Homer speaks of Hephaestus forging the shield of Achilles, of Odysseus building his ship, or Herodotus describing Greek victories. Or in Prometheus, we read the narrative about fire that led Us out of primitive existence into civilization. Sophocles also gives testimony to a perilous mongrelism as described in the Antigone, where he speaks of the deindtes(“terrbleness/” “monstrosity") power which technique has placed into human hands téchne. In short, téchné turned humanity as master of nature; but it has also set him/her in the path toward good and evil. This explains the problematic in and of technique which confronts us today. ‘This demise lies atthe twofold relation between theoretical knowledge and the directing activity of nature: This leads us to recognize the possibilities and the limitations of téchné, and opens to us? perspective from which our humanity becomes effective and efficient in the totality of things human through its correctly conceived use, (88 | ACOURSE MODULE FoR SciENC, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYName: cts: vesrfieliont ts ; spice el | RCCeIENEN CS Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics distinguishes epistémé and téchn@. Look at the summary of the distinction below and consider the relationship between the two. Scientific knowledge (epistémé). Its concerned with what is necessary... For we all suppose that what we know scientifically does not even admit of being otherwise; and whenever what admits of being otherwise escapes observation, we do not notice whether it is oris not, fand hence we do not know about it]. Hence what is known scientifically is by necessity. Hence itis eternal; for the things that ae by unconditional necessity are all eternal and eternal things are ingenerable and indestructible. ts first principles cannot be scientifically known... Induction reaches] the origin, ie. the universal, while deductive inference proceeds from the universal. Hence deductive inference has origins from which it proceeds, but which are not themselves [reached] by deductive inference. Hence they are [reached] by induction. Hence, scientific knowledge requires demonstration from indemonstrable premises. Scientific knowledge, then, is a demonstrative state, and has all the other features that in the Analytics we add to the definition, For someone has scientific knowledge when he has the appropriate sort of confidence, and the origins are known to him: for if they are,not better known to him than the conclusion, he will have scientific knowledge only coincidentally. CCraft-knowledge (téchné). Production contrasted with action... Hence, the state involving reason and concerned with action is different from the state involving reason and concerned with production. Nor is one included in the other; for action is not production, and production is not action, Crafts are concerned with production, not with action... Every craft is concerned with ‘coming to be; ang the exercise of the craft is the study of how something that admits of being and not being comes to be, something whose origin i in the producer and not in the product. For acraft is not concerned with things that are or come to be by necessity; or with things that are by nature, « since these have their origin in themselves... A craft, then, as we have said, isa state involving true reason concerned with production. Lack of craft is the contrary state involving false reason and concerned with production, Both are concerned with what admits of being otherwise. So, after having considered the excerpts from the Nicomachean Ethics, how is téchné related to epistémé? ‘CHAPTERS « SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | g9LESSON 3 ee The Good Life Lesson Objectives ‘atthe end of this lesson, you are expected to: * understand the relationship between téchné and phronesis; ‘+ understand the relationship between phronesis and eudaimonia; and + recognize the relationship between téchné and eudoimonia, Introduction ‘The pursuit of téchné makes sense only to the extent that it pushes forward the attainment of what the Greeks call eudaimonia. If It does not push forward the said goal, then téchné loses its value. (CHAPTER 3« SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 91' ' 1 1 ‘ ' ' ‘ 1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (c. 1558) The inventor Daedalus made wings of feathers and wax for himself and his son Icarus, so they could escape from Crete, but carus flew too close to the sun, and the wax melted. fyou look closely, You can see the legs of poor Icarus in the water. Check it out. Bruegel was so fascinated by the story that he painted it twice, both times with the farmer in the foreground, This is the original painting; the second is nearly identical except that Daedalus is shown flying above the cliffs. The Roman poet J, who retold the story, specifically mentioned in his Metamorphoses thatthe fll was witnessed byaplowman, a shepherd, and'a fisherman, and that is why Bruegel put them in his painting. What do you think the significance might be of the artist's having placed the tragedy of Icarus off to the (CHAPTER 3 # SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 931, Bruegel’s painting shows the fall of earus, but you have to look hard to find him. Why do yo, think the artists did not make Icarus the focal point of the painting? 2. This storyis often used as a metaphor to overextending ‘one's self. Do you agree that this is the lesson of the story? Based on the texts from Aristotle in the previous lesson and entering these texts further in this lesson, what do you think would Aristotle say? 3, How does technology help in attaining the good life? 94 | AcouRse moouie FoR SCENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYABSTRACTION In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, Book VI, we read certain passages that discuss deliberation ‘as about ends (telos), perhaps even about the highest end of eudaimonia, the activity of living well ‘or what is called the Good Life. Basing the discussion on the previous lesson, let us begin by looking at VIS: ‘Now it is thought to be a mark of a man of practical wisdom ta be able to deliberate well about what is good and expedient for himself, not in some particular respect, e.g., about what sorts of thing conduce to health or to strength, but about what sorts of thing conduce to the good life in general, This is shown by the fact that we credit men with practical wisdom in some particular respect when they have colculated well witha view to some good ‘end which is one of those that are not the object of any art [téchné](V1.5.1140025-31). This passage distinguishes between those who practice téchné and the phronimos. It clarifies ‘the relationship between the good life and those who practice téchné, It explains that the practically wise man deliberates about “what is good,” but about “what sorts of thing conduce to the good life in general” This also marks the similarity and the difference between téchné and phronetic deliberation. Phronetic deliberation focuses on “some good end,” which implies a particular good ‘end thatis different than the particular good ends that ae the objects of téchné. Thus, both physician and phronimos could engage in deliberation with regard to some particular situational good: What constitutes health/virtue, for exemple? While this implies similarity in the deliberative context for téchné and phronesis (Le. particular situations), it begins, but fails to complete, the difference between virtuous actions versus products. It needs tobe said then that échné employs instrumental deliberation about what “sorts of thing” are conducive toa productive end beyond the undertaken actions, Unlike products of a narrow téchiné, the “sort of thing” with which phronetic deliberation is concerned, are virtuous actions which are ends in themselves, nd as such just do “conduce to the good life in general.” What is clear is that the aim of the practically wise man (phronimos) points to activities that leads to eudamonia as a whole, conducing to “the good Iifen general.” As such, while the deliberators of téchné and phronesis may as, “what constitutes xin situation y” the objects of phronetic deliberation alone leads to eudaimonia. Ifthe telos of phronetic dliveration entals the excellence of deliberation as “correctness of thinking” (V1.9), Aristotle distinguishes between “unqualified” deliberative excellence on the one hand, and deliberative excellence “with reference to a particular end” on the other. The former type of deliberative excellence is itself an “unqualified” excellence, because it succeeds with reference to an “unqualified” object, “the end in the unqualified sense.” In this sense, Aristotle is distinguishing {ull deliberative excellence from lesser versions, and it would seem thatthe sameisthe case between Virtuous activity and virtue. This passage clatfies the juxtaposition: “The man who is without qualification good at deliberating is the man who is capable of ‘aiming in accordance with calculation at the best for man of things attainable by action. Nor is proctical wisdam concerned with universals only—it must also recognize particulars; for it 's practical, and practice is concerned with particulos,"(V.7.114108-12). CHAPTERS » SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 95Putting the two passages together, both the universal and the particular poles are clarified. The Universal, it seems that unqualified deliberative excellence is that which succeeds with reference to the unqualified end, “the best for man of things attainable by action,” which elsewhere Aristotle Identifies as eudaimonia, Does the passage say that the phronimos deliberates about this final end? It seems not. Here, Aristotle reveals action. Practical wisdom means “recognizing particulars” ang deliberating about particular actions, while concurrently aiming at, or keeping in mind, the good life in general. Here, itis not deliberation as such that does the alming, but rather the man of practical ‘wisdom who, possessing the requisite moral virtues and situational aisthesls; aims “in accordance with calculation” or deliberation, atthe final end of living well. Unqualified deliberative excellence, then, is that which sueceeds with reference to this unqualified end because its deployed under this ‘clm at the whole of eudaimonia, even while confined to the particular practical context. Summing up, then, phronetic deliberation is distinguished from téchné deliberation (and simply characterized) by two things: (1 its tele (virtuous actions), which are constituent-means to the end of eudaimonia, and (2) the aim of its agent, who aims at eudaimonia, While we have retained the similarity that téchn8 and phronetic deliberation both operate in particular situations, the physician (For instance) aims at health while the phronimos aims at “living well” writ large. Here, @ unique problem arises for phronetic deliberation, again setting it apart from that of a téchné, With practical wisdom, we have a unique gap between the end proposed and action undertaken with a view to it If the end is simply “the best” for man, “living wel” or eudaimonia, then what is the content of deliberation in accordance with so unfocalized an end? What is more, how are we to undertake actions in a particular situation with a view to that end? As correctness of thinking, deliberation needs a determinate object in order to get off the ground at all. The excellence of such deliberation simply cannot be measured by its effectiveness at all. ‘The issue is exacerbated by the fact that most of the examples. Aristotle gives are, as previously stated, cases of technical deliberation or at best, partial deliberation. We are never given a clear example of what it means to deliberate well with a view to “the best" or “living well” as a whole, For the mathematician in Book Il, the énd is clearly set, and practical question Is Just to figure out what means or measures work most effectively, and then plot them out. More significantly, while the doctor might ask hiniself specification questions (“what constitutes health in this situation?"), he is working with a growing, but determinate body of knowledge, expertise, or skill set. Thus, when Aristotle says that “Matters concerned with conduct and questions of what is good for us have no fixity, any more than matters of health,” we must keep in mind that, although the physician and the phronimos surely both employ specification-type deliberation, matters of health do have some disciplinary fixity which matters of ethical conduct do not, rendering the deliberation regarding the former ultimately reducible to the question of efficacy... Till the specification is available there is no room for means. When this specification Is reached, means-end deliberation can start (p. 228). What does the deliberating phronimos have to work with if neither the ultimate end nor the particular goal is fixed? We have already said that the phronimos aims at “living well” as a whole. However, we need an acount of how phronetic deliberation finds @ purchase on this telos. For starters, in order to aim at “living well” the phronimos has to have some conception of eudaimonia. For Aristotle, a conception of “living well” in general is informed by two major factors: rightly habituated character and practical wisdom with its deliberative activity. The virtuous agent, her 196. | AcouRSE MODULE FOR CENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETYhabituated character having been rightly formed, comes to any deliberative situation with a larger desiderative concern for and some concept of eudaimonia. In the absence of a fixed blueprint, ethical rule, or technical body of knowledge as a referent, all of the weight of specifying the end or practical aim is placed on the shoulders of the deliberative process with a view or “alm” toward living well. The phronimos does not deliberate about her end in the sense asking whether or not to pursue eudaimonia; rather, as we have seen, in the determinate practical situation the specification of what counts as eudaimonia here and now, is where the agent has to start. Looking specifically for an account of phronetic deliberation, we will discuss a deliberative case involving liberality. The rightly habituated person has a settled state of character that disposes her ‘to care about the activity of expressing her largesse, to enjoy it, and to have a concern for largesse- expression itself a8 a constituent part of her overal view of what living well means. Hence, when confronted with a situation in which deliberation and action is required, she does ‘not start with an explicit major premise: “Expression of largesse is virtuous,” as if she were motivated toward largesse under the aspect of some property it possesses, Rather, she starts with inquiry into the minor premise, “what should | do in this situation?” It is here that all of her concerns, interests, ‘emotional responses, deliberative thoughts, and intultive judgments transpire, while her larger view cf eudaimonia, as the unqualified end, simply supervenes on the situation, but only those portions which are relevant in the context of the deliberation. Now, we want an account in which liberality is involved, so let us suppose our phronimos is confronted with the following situation. On the same day and within a few minutes of one another, ‘aneighbor and a representative ofthe local food bank come knocking on the prudent person's door. ‘The neighbor asks for Php500 because he is short on grocery money this month, and promises to pay the loan back within a few weeks. The phronimas knows from previous interactions with the neighbor, that he is an alcoholic and a spendthrit, but also that he struggles to hold down a job, and might really need the money for groceries. She is unconcerned about being paid back. As the neighbor departs a representative of the local food shelter comes knocking, saying that due to the economy, monetary donations to fund thelr efforts in the community have dropped significantly, The pphronimos knows that this agency has been struggling and that it has an impeccable reputation for good stewardship of its resources. She is now faced with two deliberative options, and has to ask, “what constitutes liberality in this situation?" In both cases, the phronimos draws on knowledge of some sort, but itis rooted in the particulars of the situation. she is not working from an utilitarian (or any other) principle of the greatest good for the greatest number; this might make the choice for the food bank automatic. Rather, she aims at “living well” under the particular situational aspect of largesse expression. In this case, tis feasible for her to give to either, but one deliberative option causes the emotion of disgust (in light of the neighbor's prodigalty) and conflicts with her general conception of eudaimonia, while the other causes delight (in light of the food bank’s good stewardship) and aligns with both liberality in the particular case and her general conception of eudaimonia ‘CHAPTER 3 « SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND THE HUMAN CONDITION | 97