Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Design, construction and monitoring of an ice composite shell structure T

a,b a,b,⁎ a,b a,b c d
Yue Wu , Xiuming Liu , Boxuan Chen , Qingpeng Li , Peng Luo , Arno Pronk
a
Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and Control of the Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
b
Key Lab of Smart Prevention and Mitigation of Civil Engineering Disasters of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin
150090, China
c
School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
d
Department Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5600 MB Eindhoven, the Netherlands

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Ice structures are widely constructed in cold regions as landscapes or shelters. However, owing to the poor
Ice composite shell mechanical properties of the material and the masonry construction method, the appearance modelling and
Structural analysis building scale of ice structures are limited. It is necessary to discover an innovative high-performance ice ma-
Inflatable membrane structure terial and to establish a large-span ice shell construction method. Based on previous studies, a free-form ice
Form-finding
composite shell is designed and constructed with an inflatable formwork. A combined optimization algorithm is
Geometric imperfection
proposed to determine a reasonable inflatable formwork for the construction, and exhaustive structural in-
Structural monitoring
vestigations on the behaviour of the ice composite shell under multiple load conditions are conducted.
Subsequently, some key technologies for the construction process and health monitoring of the ice composite
shell are discussed. The results show that the ice composite material is suitable for the construction of large-span
ice shells. The morphological design objectives of the free-form ice shell are achieved based on the previously
mentioned optimization algorithm, and the structural analysis provides a theoretical foundation for the struc-
tural safety and construction quality of the ice shell. Moreover, the effects of the ambient temperature and solar
radiation are not negligible, and further research is required.

1. Introduction composite. Li et al. [13] invented Ultimate Pykrete by adding sodium

Ice structures using ice and snow as the main materials are widely
constructed in cold regions as landscapes or shelters [1,2]. Ice and snow
are easily obtained and fabricated, produce no pollution, and are vi-
sually appealing [3]. Therefore, ice and snow structures play an im-
portant role in cold regions [4]. Temporary snow shelters have been
built in the Antarctic to protect humans against the cold and stormy
weather [5].
Plain ice as a structural material bears certain problems: an in-
sufficient strength, a large temperature sensitivity, and unstable me-
chanical properties, which greatly affect the structural performance of
ice structures. To solve these problems, Pyke proposed a composite of
ice and sawdust, the so-called ‘Pykrete’ [6], in 1942. Nixon [7–9] tested
the fracture toughnesses and bending strengths of different ice com-
posite materials. Further, Pronk et al. [10,11] conducted comparative
tests by mixing glass chips, cotton, steel slag, and other materials. They
found that the compressive strength of the ice composite with 10%
sawdust was increased three times compared with that of plain ice. Cruz
and Belis [12] measured the compressive strength of ice–cellulose
carboxyl methyl cellulose gelatin polyelectrolyte complex to pulp cel-
lulose materials to increase the material strength and shorten the
freezing time.
The construction technology is another key problem of ice and snow
structures. Bricking ice blocks is a traditional and still popular con-
struction method for ice structures. Similar to traditional brick masonry
structures, ice masonry structures also have the advantage of easy
construction. However, their span and height are limited. Another
construction method is to apply an inflatable membrane as a building
formwork, to spray it with a cellulose–water mixture, and to let it freeze
layer by layer to form an ice shell. Ice shell structures belong to the
category of thin shell structures [14]. Theoretical analyses and the
engineering practice have proved that the structural behaviour [15] of
a thin shell structure is much better than that of a masonry structure.
The inflatable-formwork construction method is based on thin-shell
concrete structures. In 1940, Californian architect Wallace [16] devel-
oped a method that uses inflated sailcloth cushions to support a flexible
reinforcement; the cushions are sprayed with shotcrete with an in-
creasing thickness to create a strong and stable shell structure. This

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2619, 202 Haihe Road, Harbin 150090, China.
E-mail address: davilinhit@163.com (X. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2019.102862
Received 23 July 2018; Received in revised form 9 May 2019; Accepted 5 June 2019
0926-5805/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Wu, et al.
Fig. 1. Isler's ice structure experiments.
technology was further explored by Bini [17,18] with his patented
‘Binishell’ system for RC shells in 1969. In the 1980s, Sobek [19] in-
vestigated the use of pneumatic formworks for the construction of
concrete shells and focused on how to limit concrete strains during the
construction by strengthening the membrane with circumferential steel
cables. Isler [20,21] worked with fabric formworks to design and pro-
duce shell structures made of ice in the 1960s. Every winter, he con-
ducted experiments by freezing a fabric or spraying water over objects
like plants, inflated balloons, hanging ropes (Fig. 1).
From 1985 until 2012, Kokawa [22–24] developed a method for
creating thin ice shells by alternately spraying layers of snow and water
onto a pneumatic formwork. The snow acts as a sponge and absorbs the
water, which quickly turns into a solid ice layer. The biggest dome was
built in 2001 and had a span of 25 m, which was a world record at that
time [25]. Based on Kokawa's work, Pronk improved the construction
method and realized several ice composite structures with inflatable
formworks in 2014 [26], 2015 [27] and 2016 [28]. Dallinger and
Kollegger presented a new construction method that uses inflatable
formworks for ice domes. The key elements of this newly developed
method are the distortion of individual flat ice segments and their
subsequent lifting to the final position in order to form a continuous
dome structure. They successfully built an ice dome [29] with a base
diameter of 10 m and a height of approximately 4 m, as shown in Fig. 2.
Coar realized a number of fabric-formed ice shell structures with fi-
berglass bars and hanging fabrics as building formworks in 2011 [30].
In 2015, he constructed a fabric-formed ice origami structure [31] in
cooperation with MIT (Mueller) and VUB (De Laet).
Owing to the complex failure mechanisms of ice, Handy [32] ana-
lysed the mechanical performance of an igloo and revealed its operating
mechanism. Further, Pronk [26,28] conducted a brief finite-element
analysis and predicted the failure mode of the ice shell structure. Ko-
kawa [33] conducted a long-term structural observation of an ice shell
and investigated the variations in the structure performance with re-
spect to the ambient temperature variations. In addition, Li and Du [34]
used the acoustic emission technology to explore the damage and
Fig. 2. Dallinger's construction method for ice domes.
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Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
fracture behaviours of ice shell structures.
According to the previously mentioned studies, many researchers
have conducted studies on the composite materials, construction
methods, and failure mechanisms of ice structures. However, these
studies are primary investigations. Several aspects must be further ex-
plored, such as the form-finding of complexly shaped inflatable form-
works, short- and long-term structural performances of ice structures,
and shape control during the construction.
An international team of students and professors from the Harbin
Institute of Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology, and the
University of Leuven designed and constructed an ice composite shell in
Harbin, China. The ice shell is 11.0 m wide and 4.3 m high. Its shape is
based on the Chinese Tianshan lotus, which consists of twelve inversed
petals, as shown in Fig. 3. The aim was to investigate the construction
feasibility and long-term mechanical properties of large-span and
complexly shaped ice structures. The paper is organized as follows:
First, a combined form-finding algorithm is proposed to determine the
complexly shaped inflatable formwork for the construction (Chapter 2).
Chapter 3 mainly presents the structural analysis of the ice composite
shell based on the finite-element method. Next, the integrated con-
struction process and some key technologies for the shell shape control
are presented in Chapter 4. The structural reanalysis and long-term
performance of the ice shell are analysed in Chapter 5. Finally, Chapter
6 presents the main conclusions.
2. Form-finding for inflatable formwork
The previously mentioned researchers [24,27] used 2D membrane
bags as ice shell construction formworks, which resulted in models with
relatively regular and simple structures. However, this traditional
method is unsuitable for complexly shaped shell designs, such as the
free-form ice shell in Fig. 3. Thus, a combined optimization algorithm is
introduced for the form-finding of complexly shaped inflatable form-
works in this section.
Y. Wu, et al.
Fig. 3. Shape of ice composite shell.
2.1. Form-finding method for complexly shaped formworks
The main purpose of form-finding for inflatable formworks is to
generate a reasonable minimal surface or equilibrium surface which
approximates the ice shell model via the adjustment of the shape con-
trol parameters. A cable net is added to enhance the partial load-
bearing capacity of the inflatable membrane and the global stability.
For a simple foundation construction and membrane removal, the in-
flatable formwork and bottom foundation have no additional connec-
tions. The inflatable membrane is only fixed to the foundation via the
cable net. The schematic of the cable net is shown in Fig. 4. The bottom
of the formwork is constrained to the ground by 12 cables. The form-
finding parameters of the inflatable membrane are set according to the
real construction conditions and material parameters, as shown in
Table 1.
The form-finding shape of the inflatable membrane is closely related
to the Young's modulus of the membrane (Em) and Young's modulus of
the cable (Ec). Therefore, these two parameters are selected as the form-
finding control variables. Further, the vector form intrinsic finite ele-
ment (VFIFE) method [36] is introduced for the form-finding of the
inflatable membrane, which is a strongly nonlinear and large de-
formation problem. Thus, the traditional finite-element method is in-
effective. Other than traditional numerical analysis methods which are
based on continuum mechanics and vibrational principles, VFIFE is
based on a point value description and the vector mechanics theory.
With the description of point values and path units, VFIFE describes the
structural system as being composed of particles, the motions of which
are determined by Newton's second law. During the calculation pro-
cedure, the structural stiffness matrix does not have to be integrated
and can increase (or decrease) elements or change any property of the
structural system. An advantage of VFIFE is that the equilibrium state
can be obtained via iterations from any assumed unbalanced state.
Fig. 4. Schematic of cable net.
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Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
Further, the stiffness matrix is not required in the iteration process,
which saves memory and time. Therefore, VFIFE has a remarkable
predominance regarding nonlinear problems and complex structural
behaviours compared with traditional numerical analysis methods.
The simulated inflatable membrane has constant-strain triangular
elements [15], and the cables are two-node linear elements. The form-
finding for the cable–membrane structure shown in Fig. 4 is based on
the following assumptions:
1. The membrane element remains flat before and after the deforma-
tion. The tensile stress of the cable element section is constant along
the axial direction, and the cross-sectional area remains constant
before and after the deformation.
2. The membrane and cable can only be tensioned but not compressed
and bended. Hence, only three degrees of freedom exist at the nodes
of the membrane element and cable element.
3. A relative slide between the cable and membrane is not considered
in the form-finding process. The membrane nodes coincide with the
cable nodes, and the nodal imbalance force is the superposition of
the internal forces of the membrane and cable elements acting on
the common node, as shown in Fig. 5.
2.2. Optimization method for form-finding parameters
A shape error function φi is defined to evaluate the shape difference
between the form-finding result F and target model T in each point i:
Pt Pf
= ,
(1)
i
Pt
where Pt and Pf represent the point coordinates in the target model and
form-finding model, respectively. The genetic algorithm (GA) [37] is
applied to adjust the shape control variables. The arithmetic mean of
the shape errors φi is used as the fitness function ψ of the GA:
i
= .
N (2)
Further, the low-elasticity modulus form-finding method is applied
such that the optimization variables Em and Ec must satisfy the fol-
lowing to enhance the computational efficiency and stability of the
optimization algorithm:
Em
1000 Em,i Em (3)
Ec
1000 Ec,i Ec (4)
Em,i < Ec,i (5)
Y. Wu, et al.
Table 1
Form-finding parameters.
Analysis parameter Value
Young's modulus of membrane (Em) 1350 MPa
Poisson's ratio of membrane (νm) 0.3
Thickness of membrane (tm) 0.8 mm
Density of membrane (ρm) 0.6 kg/m2
Fig. 5. Interaction between cables and membranes.
where Em,i and Ec,i denote the membrane Young's modulus and cable
Young's modulus for the iteration step i, respectively. Fig. 6 presents the
optimization flow chart of the form-finding process for inflatable
membranes.
2.3. Form-finding software platform
By combining the VFIFE and GA methods in the parameterized
platform Grasshopper [35], the inflatable formwork analysis software
ice-Form [38] is developed with C# based on the .NET Framework 4.0.
The evolution process of the average fitness of the population is ob-
tained via multiple iterations, as shown in Fig. 7. According to the re-
sults, the GA exhibits a high convergence and computational efficiency,
and the minimal fitness function ψmin is calculated with only 95 itera-
tive corrections. Fig. 8 presents the shape error φi of the inflatable
membrane between the target model and final form-finding model. The
maximal shape error is approximately 3%. It mainly occurs at the in-
tersection of the middle petals of the inflatable membrane. It is
worthwhile to mention that the VFIFE method uses the explicit in-
tegration method. Thus, a reasonable and appropriate time step is very
important for the convergence of complex nonlinear problems and
deserves further investigations.
3. Structural analysis of ice composite shell
3.1. Material properties of ice composite
The employed ice composite material is a white pulp fiber compo-
site material with a mixture ratio of approximately 1%, which considers
the influence of the pump efficiency in the subsequent construction.
Based on the previous material tests conducted by Pronk [2,10], the
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Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
Analysis parameter Value
Initial pressure (Pinitial) 200 Pa
Section area of cable (Sc) 314 mm2
Young's modulus of cable (Ec) 8700 MPa
Tensile strength of cable (σcable) 16.0 MPa
mean values of the ice composite test data are taken as the mechanical
parameters for the structural analysis (Table 2). In addition, the coef-
ficient of the linear expansion of the ice composite is consistent with
that of plain ice for the lack of experimental research. The tensile
strength of plain ice is 0.1 MPa according to the Chinese standard code
GB 51202-2016, the tensile strength of the employed ice composite is
10 times that of plain ice. Further, the compressive strength (5.0 MPa)
is 43% higher than that of plain ice (3.5 MPa). Thus, the incorporation
of composite fibers greatly enhances the mechanical properties of the
plain ice.
3.2. Load cases
Only the dead load of the ice shell is considered in the traditional
structural analysis method [26,33], and little is known about the
structural performance of ice shells under multiple load conditions. The
loads acting on the ice composite shell in this study mainly include the
dead, wind, snow, and thermal loads. By referring to the Chinese
technical standard for ice and snow landscape buildings (GB
51202–2016) and considering that ice shells are only temporary
buildings, the dynamic effects of ice structures are not considered. The
wind load is determined according to the characteristic value of the
equivalent static wind load specified in the Chinese Load Code (GB
5009–2012), as shown in Fig. 9, which corresponds to a 5-year return
period. Based on the standard code GB 5009–2012, the characteristic
value of the snow load on the horizontal projection plane of the
structure is shown in Fig. 10. The thermal action of the ice composite
shell is based on an ambient temperature of −15 °C (initial tempera-
ture). According to the local meteorological data of Harbin and re-
gardless of other actions (e.g. solar radiation), the average minimal
temperature can reach −30 °C, and the average maximal temperature
can reach −5 °C during the service period.
Based on the GB 51202–2016, eight load combinations (Table 3) are
analysed. The bold part represents the controlling load in each load
combination; (+) and (−) indicate the temperature increase and de-
crease conditions, respectively.
3.3. Static analysis
Abaqus [39] is applied to analyze the ice composite shell. Based on
previous designs and construction experiences, the ice shell is assumed
to have a uniform thickness of 8.0 cm. The finite-element mesh gen-
eration is completed with the help of the Gmsh open-source program
[40], as shown in Fig. 11. Further, S8R eight-node quadrilateral shell
elements are adopted. The bottom of the ice shell is simply supported,
and only the three translational degrees of freedom are constrained.
The maximal tensile stress, maximal compressive stress, and vertical
deformation [41] of the ice composite shell under different load con-
ditions are listed in Table 4.
According to the table, load combination 4 is the most unfavourable
case. In this state, the maximal tensile stress reaches 0.76 MPa and is
mainly distributed at the bottom of the ice shell. The maximal com-
pressive stress is approximately −0.64 MPa and mainly distributed at a
height of approximately 70–80 cm from the ice shell bottom. The
Y. Wu, et al.
Fig. 6. Optimization flow chart.
Fig. 7. Evolution of entire population (ψmin).
maximal tensile and compressive stresses do not exceed the specified
strength limits in Table 2. As shown in Fig. 12, the maximal vertical
deformation under the load combination is approximately 8.2 mm. It is
mainly concentrated in the top area of the ice shell. The value is much
lower than the allowable displacement value (L/500 = 22 mm). The
static analysis results show that the influences of wind and snow loads
are insignificant because the ice shell structure is a temporary building.
The temperature action is the key factor affecting the structural safety
of the ice shell.
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Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
Fig. 8. Form-finding shape error analysis.
4. Construction of ice composite shell
4.1. Construction process
The construction process of the ice composite shell consists of six
major steps, as shown in Fig. 13. Firstly, the ice ring beam is built with
ice bricks, and the bottom cable is fixed to the ring beam. After the ice
ring beam is frozen completely, the inflatable formwork is installed, and
the cable net is connected with U-shaped buckles. The internal pressure
of the inflatable formwork is gradually increased to the final design
Y. Wu, et al. Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862

Table 2
Material parameters (−15 °C).
Material parameters Ice Ice composite Material parameters Ice Ice composite

3
Compressive strength 3.5 MPa 5.0 MPa Density 920 kg/m 900 kg/m3
Tensile strength 0.1 MPa 1.0 MPa Coefficient of linear expansion 50e−6/°C 50e−6/°C
Young's modulus 850 MPa 800 MPa Poisson's ratio 0.3 0.3

Fig. 11. Finite-element mesh.

Table 4
Structural analysis results for different load conditions.
Load Maximal tensile Maximal compressive Maximal vertical
condition stress (MPa) stress (MPa) deformation (mm)

1 0.48 −0.38 −3.4

Fig. 9. Wind load distribution diagram. 2 0.51 −0.54 −3.1
3 0.53 −0.49 −7.0
4 0.76 −0.64 −8.2
5 0.52 −0.38 −4.1
6 0.53 −0.50 −7.7
7 0.48 −0.34 −5.5
8 0.38 −0.36 −5.4

pressure of 300 Pa. Subsequently, the cellulose–water mixture is pro-

duced and continuously sprayed onto the external surface of the in-
flatable formwork with a centrifugal pump. The spraying continues
until the thickness of the ice shell approximately reaches the design
thickness (8.0 cm). After that, the inner inflatable formwork can be
removed, and the ice composite shell is completed, as shown in Fig. 14.
The previously mentioned construction process is similar to
Kokawa's method [24] but considers some improvements for the
spraying material. In the ice pantheon projects [42] of Kokawa, a
combination of snow and fresh water is used. Milled snow is used to
cool down the water such that the water freezes faster. The snow ab-
Fig. 10. Snow load distribution diagram. sorbs the water. This self-compacting effect increases the density of the
so-called ‘Snow-Ice’. During each blowing procedure, the snow depth
Table 3 must be maintained below approximately 1 cm. Otherwise, when the
Load combination factors. water is sprayed, only the upper layer of the snow will transform into
ice, and the other layer may remain as snow. This condition is called
Limit State No. Dead load Wind Snow Thermal
‘sandwich snow’ and causes material imperfections in the completed ice
ULS 1 1.2 1.4 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7(+) shell. In this study, a cellulose–water mixture is used instead of the
2 1.2 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7 1.4(+) traditional snow–ice mixture. The composite material is uniformly
3 1.2 1.4 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7(−)
sprayed with a centrifugal pump until the design thickness is reached.
4 1.2 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7 1.4(−)
5 1.35 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7(+)
The field experiments show that the addition of pulp fibers enhances
6 1.35 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7(−) the adhesion of the composite material to the inflatable formwork. In
7 1.35 1.4/0.7 1.4/0.7 0 addition, pulp fibers with small particles have a better water retention
SLS 8 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.7(−) capacity, which reduces the water injection loss.
Notes: ULS denotes the ultimate limit state and SLS denotes the serviceability
limit state.

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Y. Wu, et al. Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862

Fig. 12. Structural responses under load combination 4.

Fig. 13. Construction process of the ice composite shell.

7
Y. Wu, et al.
Fig. 14. Night scene of ice composite shell.
4.2. Analysis of working pressure
The working pressure of the inflatable membrane has an important
effect on the shape control of the building formwork and the ice shell
stability during the construction. At present, there is a lack of relevant
research on thin shell structures constructed with inflatable formworks.
Sobek [43] discussed the initial shape of a reinforced concrete shell and
the deformations of an inflatable formwork caused by shotcrete. Gen-
erally, concrete requires a long curing period (usually more than
28 days) to resist its dead weight and external loads. Therefore, for the
load analysis of the inflatable formwork, the full thickness of the con-
crete shell should be considered in the load case. Compared with the
traditional concrete material, the strength development of the ice
composite is completely different because it is closely related to the
freezing rate. It can resist the loads when the liquid material freezes
into a solid.
Abaqus is applied to simulate the structural behaviour of the ice
composite shell with varying thicknesses. Because the construction time
of the ice shell is short, only the dead load is considered in the overall
mechanical analysis of the ice composite shell. The ice shell thickness is
gradually increased from 0.1 cm to the design thickness of 8.0 cm, and a
structural response over-limit rate function ν is defined to express the
overall structural behaviour of the ice shell structure:
Fig. 15. Structural response over-limit rate.
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Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
Fig. 16. Force diagram of ice shell and membrane.
Sstr + Sdef
= ,
Sice (6)
where Sstr represents the area in which the stresses exceed the limits
(σt > σtf or σc > σcf), and Sdef expresses the area in which the de-
formations exceed the limit (d > L/500).
As shown in Fig. 15, with gradually increasing ice shell thickness,
the over-limit area of the ice shell structure decreases gradually. When
the thickness of the ice shell exceeds 2.0 cm, the structural over-limit
rate of the ice shell structure is less than 1%. It can be observed that
when the thickness of the ice shell exceeds a certain limit, the ice shell
structure can carry its dead load independently. Then, the internal
pressure of the inflatable formwork can be reduced. Thus, the power
consumption and construction costs can be effectively reduced. It is
assumed that the inflatable formwork carries the total load of the ice
shell structure when the shell thickness is less than 2.0 cm.
Based on the previous analysis, a schematic of the equilibrium
analysis for the ice shell and membrane can be approximately derived
(Fig. 16):
P=T + G, (7)
where T represents the membrane stress, G the dead load of the ice shell
with 2.0 cm thickness per unit area, and P the internal pressure of the
inflatable formwork. Further, = 1 r with r as maximal curvature ra-
dius. To prevent the relaxation of the inflatable membrane, a membrane
stress of more than 25% of the initial form-finding pressure (Table 1)
must be ensured:
T > 25% Pinitial = 25% 200Pa = 50Pa (8)
The minimal working pressure Pmin is determined by substituting
the relevant parameter values:
Pmin > T + G = 234 Pa (9)
Based on previous ice shell construction experiences, Kokawa's
empirical value [24] for the working pressure is in the range of
300–500 Pa. The theoretical minimal working pressure obtained in this
study is close to the result of Kokawa. By considering the possibility of
sudden accidents (e.g. membrane deflation and the requirements of the
foundation anchorage and cable net bearing capacity of the inflatable
formwork) during the construction process, a final working pressure P
of 300 Pa is obtained.
Y. Wu, et al. Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862

Fig. 17. Deformation diagram for different geometric imperfections.

Fig. 19. Distribution of key points for error monitoring of structural construc-
tion.

stress of the ice shell also increase with increasing geometric deviation,
as illustrated in Fig. 18. The maximal tensile stress and maximal com-
pressive stress increase by 44.7% and 40.1% for 1/100 initial im-
perfection, respectively, which exceeds the limits in Table 2.
According to the previously presented calculation results for the ice
shell structure, it can be concluded that the maximal deformation and
maximal stress of the ice composite shell are greatly influenced by
geometric imperfections. Thus, the construction error should be con-
trolled during the ice shell construction. Regarding the ice shell men-
tioned in this paper, the construction errors should be maintained
within 1/300 to satisfy structural security.

5. Monitoring of ice composite shell

Fig. 18. Stress diagram for different geometric imperfections. 5.1. Structural monitoring scheme

The thickness and coordinates of several key points of the ice shell
4.3. Analysis of construction error
are measured after its construction. The key points lie on the crossover
points of the rope connection, as shown in Fig. 19. The thickness of the
Compared with the traditional rigid scaffold, the inflatable form-
ice shell is measured by drilling a hole through it. The three-dimen-
work applied in the ice shell construction is a flexible formwork and
sional coordinates of the key points are measured with an electronic
exhibits various uncertain factors on the construction site. Hence, the
total station [45].
shape of the completed shell is difficult to predict. The deviations [44]
To observe the long-term structural performance of the ice compo-
in the ice composite shell mainly originate from two aspects: first, the
site shell in the natural environment, it is monitored for 55 days until its
imperfections of the inflatable formwork (including form-finding de-
collapse. Thereby, the thickness variations of the ice shell and vertical
viations) and installation errors during the construction process;
deformations of certain key points with respect to the ambient tem-
second, the thickness deviations caused by the inhomogeneous spraying
perature changes are monitored. The measured points are divided into
of the cellulose–water mixture. Owing to the lack of relevant theoretical
two groups: two points on the sun-side and three points on the night-
and experimental research studies on the influence of imperfections on
side, as shown in Fig. 20. Further, by using a probe-type temperature
ice shells, the initial defect distribution of the structure is determined
hygrometer, the temperature and humidity of the ice shell are mon-
with the least-order model for eigenvalue buckling with reference to the
itored. Fig. 21 shows photographs of the ice shell on-site monitoring
consistent-mode imperfection method applied for conventional con-
procedure.
crete thin shell structures. For the deviation analysis model, 1/1000, 1/
600, 1/300, and 1/100 of the ice shell span (L) are selected as structural
5.2. Structural reanalysis based on construction error monitoring data
imperfection amplitude. Fig. 17 presents the curve of the maximal de-
formations of the ice shell for different imperfections. The maximal
The thicknesses of the key points of the ice shell are measured via
displacement of the structure increases with increasing geometric im-
the previously mentioned monitoring method. The minimal thickness of
perfection. When the deviation is L/100, the maximal deformation of
the key point is 7.8 cm; the maximal thickness is approximately 11.2 cm
the shell reaches 0.01715 m, which is approximately twice the value of
(Fig. 22). Thus, the maximal deviation from the designed thickness of
the perfect model. The maximal tensile stress and maximal compressive
8.0 cm is 3.2 cm. The thicknesses of the most key points are larger than

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Fig. 22. Thickness of partial key points.

Fig. 20. Distribution of key points for long-term structural monitoring.

the designed thickness. The non-uniform thickness of the ice shell is

mainly due to the incongruous spraying process and the fluidity of the
composite material.
Simultaneously, the coordinates of the key points of the ice shell are
measured. The construction errors can be determined by comparing the
coordinates of the key points on the completed ice shell with those of
the corresponding points in the design model. The calculation equation
is consistent with Eq. (1). As shown in Fig. 23, the right side of the ice
shell entrance exhibits a greater deviation. The maximal construction
error is approximately 8.86%. These errors are mainly due to the par-
tially insecure cable anchorage of the inflatable formwork, which
causes the corresponding part of the inflatable membrane and the re-
sulting ice shell to be upward. The finite-element model of the ice shell
presented in Chapter 3 is modified by using the measured geometric
coordinates and thickness of the ice shell (Fig. 24). Subsequently, the Fig. 23. Shape error analysis of real model and design model.
static analysis of the modified model is carried out with Abaqus. The
analytical results show that the maximal vertical deformation of the ice
5.3. Long-term performance analysis of ice structure
structure is approximately 10.1 mm and does not exceed the displace-
ment limit of 22.0 mm. The maximal tensile stress and compressive
Thickness reductions of the ice shell structure exposed to the natural
stress of the structure are 0.88 MPa and 0.73 MPa, respectively, and
environment will cause irreparable structural damages. Thickness re-
thereby all within the material strength limit, as shown in Fig. 25.
ductions are mainly caused by the sublimation and melting of the ice
According to the reanalysis of the ice structure, the completed ice shell
material under solar radiation, ambient temperature, and humidity.
structure satisfies the structural safety requirements.
The monitoring data in Fig. 26 show that when the daily maximal

Fig. 21. On-site monitoring of ice shell.

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Y. Wu, et al. Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862

Fig. 24. Modified finite-element model.

Fig. 26. Thickness variations of sun-side and night-side key point.

temperature is below −5 °C, the key points of the sun-side and night-
side exhibit no significant thickness variations. The thickness variations
of the ice shell are mainly due to the natural sublimation of the ice
structure caused by environmental factors. Moreover, the sublimation
rate of the sun-side is approximately 0.33 mm/day. The sublimation
rate of the night-side is approximately 1/3 that of the sun-side. The ice
shell test of Ishizawa in Antarctica [46] in 1993 led to a similar con-
clusion: the thickness of an ice dome rapidly decreases owing to sub-
limation in summer when the average ambient temperature is below
−8 °C. However, the sublimation rate of the ice shell has not been re-
corded in this experiment. For a daily temperature above −5 °C, the
thickness of the sun-side decreases evidently. It decreases to 1.5 cm in
approximately 10 days under the combined influences of solar radiation
and temperature factors. The main reason for the thickness reduction of
the ice shell on the sun-side is the heat absorption (solar radiation) on
the ice shell surface, which leads to a higher local temperature on the
sun-side with respect to the ambient temperature. Thus, the higher local
temperature can reach the melting point temperature of the ice mate-
rial. However, the thickness of the night-side decreases slightly. The Fig. 27. Deformation and thickness variation of sun-side key point.
influence of the solar radiation on the night-side is weak, and the
thickness reduction is mainly due to the natural sublimation of the January 3 and February 11), the sun-side of the ice shell deforms by
material (sublimation rate of approximately 1.25 mm/day). This ana- approximately 0.4 cm. The deformation rate (0.01 cm/day) is much
lysis indicates that the ambient temperature and solar radiation have lower than the theoretical value (0.22 cm/day) provided by Kokawa
significant influences on the thickness variations of an ice shell. [47] for the same rise–span ratio. The main reason for the difference is
According to the thickness variations in Fig. 26, the sun-side of the that the ‘sandwich snow’ problem exists in the snow–ice material used
ice shell is a weak part during the long-term service. Further, the by Kokawa for the ice shell construction. The problem leads to a low
change laws of both thickness variations and vertical deformations of compactness of the plain ice and very large creep deformations of the
the sun-side ice shell are depicted in Fig. 27. When the daily maximal ice structure. With increasing temperature, the structural deformation
temperature is below −5 °C (corresponding to interval between increases to the limited design deformation value of L/500 = 2.2 cm.

Fig. 25. Structural reanalysis results.

11
Y. Wu, et al.
Fig. 28. Exterior view immediately after the collapse.
Afterwards, the deformation rate increases exponentially to a maximal
value of 6.0 cm. Finally, the ice shell collapses. According to the
thickness variations and vertical deformations in Fig. 27, both vary
slightly at low temperatures. When the daily temperature exceeds
−5 °C, the thickness decreases rapidly, which degenerates the local
bearing capacity and causes a large vertical deformation.
The collapse of the ice shell is presented in Fig. 28. Owing to the
influences of the ambient temperature and solar radiation, the ice
composite materials sublime constantly, thereby leading to a sudden
decrease in the thickness and causing a local collapse. In summary, the
temperature and solar radiation conditions are the main factors that
affect the structural safety of the ice shell during the structural service
process. Temperature monitoring should be conducted more thor-
oughly, and the thickness and deformation monitoring of the ice shell
should be emphatically considered. In this case, certain maintenance
measures should be adopted such as the regular spraying of water to
thicken the weak parts and prolong the service life.
6. Conclusions and prospects
This paper mainly discusses the design, construction, and mon-
itoring of an ice composite thin shell structure that was built in Harbin,
China. The following conclusions can be drawn: 1) The ice composite
greatly improves the mechanical properties of the ice material and
enables the construction of large-span ice structures. 2) The form-
finding analysis of the inflatable formwork is an important method for
ice shell structure modelling with a reliable construction accuracy. The
previously mentioned objectives are achieved by introducing the VFIFE
method and GA method. 3) The influences of the wind and snow load
on the structure are insignificant because the ice shell structure is a
temporary building. The temperature action is the main factor affecting
the structural safety of the ice shell. 4) The geometric imperfections
should be maintained within reasonable construction error ranges
(below L/300), and the working pressure of the inflatable formwork
should not be below 300 Pa. 5) The long-term monitoring results of the
ice shell structure indicate that the effects of the ambient temperature
and solar radiation are very significant. The experimental data provide
a foundation for further theoretical research.
The proposed techniques for the construction of ice shell structures
still bear some limitations, which should be further investigated. First,
there is a lack of systematic research studies on ice composite materials
at present. Determining a mechanical constitutive model and the
working mechanisms considering the micromechanics is urgent.
Second, the construction precision control technology is one of the key
problems of ice shell structures. Real-time monitoring measurements
during the construction process should be conducted to avoid large
imperfections in the ice shell structure. Third, a safety evaluation
method for ice shell structures must be established to reduce economic
losses and prolong the service lives of ice structures.
12
Automation in Construction 106 (2019) 102862
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the financial support from National
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant No.
51778182. And the authors would like to acknowledge all the members
and volunteers who participated in the ice shell construction.
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