CHAPTER 10

COORDINATION
10.4
PHOTOPERIODISME

10.3
HORMONES IN COORDINATION 10.1 NERVOUS
MAMMALS SYSTEM

10.2
MECHANISM
OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
 Organization of
nervous system

Resting and action

potential

10.1 Nervous system

Mechanism of
synaptic transmission
across synapses

Mechanism of action
of drugs (cocaine)

Impulse transmission
ANIMAL at the neuromuscular
junction
10.2 Mechanism of
muscle contraction
Sliding filament
theory

Gene activation

10.3 Hormones in
10 COORDINATION
mammals
Second messenger
(cAMP)

Short day plant

PLANT 10.4 Photoperiodism Long day plant

Day-neutral plant
10.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) State the organization of the nervous system

(b) Explain the formation of resting and action potential
(c) Describe the characteristics of nerve impulse
(d) Describe the structure of synapse
(e) Explain the mechanism of synaptic transmission across synapses
(f) Compare the transmission of impulse across synapse and along the axon
(g) Explain the mechanism of action of drugs (eg cocaine)on the nervous system

a) Organization of the nervous system

Function of the nervous system

To synchronize the activities of the body to
achieve overall balance

Fill in the blanks

Figure 10.1(a): Organization of the nervous system in humans.

 Exercise: Label the structure of neuron below.

Figure 10.1 (b): Basic structure of neuron

b) Explain formation of resting and action potential

Impulse transmission
• Is an electrical phenomenon

Membrane potential:
• The difference in electrical charge between outside and inside
of axon membrane
• Due to the difference in ionic composition of extracellular and intracellular

How membrane potential is measured?

Figure 10.1 (c): Nerve impulse experiment on primary axon of squid.

a) Resting Potential

❑ [Na+] is higher on the outside cell

❑ [K+] is higher on the inside cell

Figure 21.8: The resting potential

Figure 10.1 (d): The resting potential

Resting Potential • The neuron is not stimulated (no

impulse)
• Potential difference between 2 electrode
is -70mV
How to maintain the resting potential
in mammalian neuron? (Refer 10.4b)
i. The axon membrane is more permeable to
K+ than Na+. K+ can diffuse out through
ungated K+ channel

ii. K+ and Na+ gradients are maintained

by sodium-potassium pump and
facilitated diffusion

• The inside of membrane is relatively The membrane is said to be polarised

negative charged (High Na+ )
• The outside of membrane is relatively
positive charged (High K+)
i. Generation and propagation of action potential.

3. Rising phase of action

potential
4. Falling phase of action
More voltage gated channel Na+ potential
3. Falling phase of the action
open, Voltage gated channel K+
remain close Voltage gated channel Na+
close, Voltage gated channel
K+ open

2. Depolarisation

Voltage gated channel Na+ open,

Voltage gated channel K+ close

5. Undershoot
5. Undershoot

Both voltage gated channel Na+ and K+

1. Resting potential close, some voltage gated channel K+
open (slowly)

Voltage gated channel Na+ and K+ are

closed

Figure 10.5: The action potential.

 1. Resting state
2. Depolarization
** The threshold value – the
lowest level of stimulus that
will trigger the action
potential
3. Rising of the action
potential
4. Falling phase of the
action potential
• Axon membrane is
polarized (positively
charged outside,
negatively charged inside)
• The voltage gated channel
Na+ and K+ are close
• Ungated channel
maintain the resting
potential
• Presence of stimulus,
triggers the opening of
some voltage gated Na+
channels
• Axon membrane is more
permeable to Na+
• Allow Na+ diffuse into
axoplasm down
concentration gradient
• Axon is depolarized
• Axoplasm become positive
• If the depolarization
reaches the threshold,
triggers an action
potential
• Threshold potential for
a stimulated axon is
-55 mV
• The influx of Na+ causes
further depolarization
which opens more voltage
gated Na+ channels
• Axon membrane is more
permeable to Na+
• More Na+ diffuse into
axoplasm
• Inside axon membrane
become more positive
• Action potential generated
at 35 mV
• Voltage gated channel K+
remain close
• Most voltage gated Na+
channels are closed
• Axon membrane is
• impermeable to Na+
• Blocking Na+ influx
• Most voltage gated K+
channels
• open
• Axon membrane is
permeable to K +
• K+ ions diffuse out
from axoplasm,
inside axon becomes
more negative
• Repolarization occur
 5. Undershoot • Voltage gated Na+
channels are closed
• Voltage gated K+
channels remain open
• Excessive K+ ions diffuse
out from axoplasm
• Inside axon membrane
become more negative
• Hyperpolarization occur
• Fall slightly below -70 mV
• Resting potential is
reestablished by sodium
-potassium pump

c) Characteristics of nerve impulse

Fill in the blanks

CHARACTERISTIC
OF IMPULSE

RATE OF IMPULSE REFRACTORY

ALL OR NONE LAW STIMULUS
TRANSMISSION PERIOD

INTENSITY OF INTENSITY OF
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE
PRESENCE OF DIAMETER OF STIMULATION < STIMULATION > SITUATIONAL
REFRACTORY REFRACTORY COMMON STIMULI
MYELIN SHEATH AXON THRESHOLD THRESHOLD STIMULI
PERIOD PERIOD
POTENTIAL POTENTIAL

ACTION POTENTIAL ACTION POTENTIAL

GENERATED NOT GENERATED

Identify the characteristic of impulse

ANSWER : ALL OR NONE LAW

IDENTIFY a and b

ANSWER : REFRACTORY PERIOD

a) Absolute refractory period
b) Relative refractory period

Large diameter of axon Presence of myelin sheath

d) Structure of synapse and its mechanism

Synapse : A junction between a synaptic terminal of an axon of a pre-

synaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron
 i. Structure of synapse

Identify A to E

End of axon

Mitochondrion

A
Synaptic C synaptic vesicle
knob

D pre-synaptic membrane
B E post-synaptic membrane
synaptic cleft Protein receptor
dendrite Ion channel

Figure 10.6: Structure of synapse

Match the following structures with the correct description

Contains numerous mitochondria

Pre-synaptic
to supply energy for the activities of neurons
membrane
and membrane-bound synaptic vesicles
Synaptic knob
Vesicle containing neurotransmitter
Post-synaptic
Membrane A narrow gap which separates the postsynaptic
cell from the presynaptic cell
Synaptic cleft
Contains ligand gated sodium ion (Na+)
channels that has specific receptor sites for
Synaptic vesicle
neurotransmitter

The cell membrane of an axon terminal that

faces the receiving cell.
e) Mechanism of impulse transmission across synapse

Match the following statement according to the correct sequence of impulse

transmission across synapse

Ca2 Ca2 Ca2+ Ca2+

 COORDINATION

f) Mechanism of impulse transmission across synapse

Differences between impulse transmission across synapse and along the

axon

Axon Synape
Impulse are electrically Impulse are chemically
transmitted transmitted
Does not require neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter are required

Impulse transmission is faster Impulse transmission is slower

Impulse travel along the axon Impulse from presynaptic

membrane cell cross the synaptic
cleft to postsynaptic cell

Voltage gated Na+ channel at the Ligand gated Na+ channel of

axon membrane open as a result postsynaptic membrane open as a
of electrical stimulation result of chemical
stimulation
 COORDINATION

g) Mechanism of action of drugs on the nervous system

Rearrange the statement below into the correct sequence

Cocaine stimulates releasing of dopamine The binding of cocaine prevent

Dopamine accumulate at synaptic cleft
Cocaine enter synaptic cleft and bind to
the dopamine transporter molecule
Depolarization occur continuously result in
continuous impulse transmission
reabsorption of dopamine by presynaptic
membrane
Dopamine continuously bind to the
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
This will produce an intense
feeling of pleasure, increase
the heart beat, increase the
blood pressure

1 Cocaine stimulates releasing of dopamine

2 Cocaine enter synaptic cleft and bind to the dopamine transporter
molecule
3 The binding of cocaine prevent reabsorption of dopamine by presynaptic
membrane
4 Dopamine accumulate at synaptic cleft
5 Dopamine continuously bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane
6 Depolarization occur continuously result in continuous impulse
transmission
This will produce an intense feeling of pleasure, increase the heart beat,
7
increase the blood pressure
 COORDINATION

10.2 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Describe the structure of neuromuscular junction

(b) Explain impulse transmission at the junction
(c) Describe the structure of sarcomere
(d) Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction based on Sliding filament theory

a) Structure and impulse transmission of neuromuscular junction

i. Structure of neuromuscular junction

Label A, B and C in the diagram below.

A synaptic terminal

C synaptic cleft

B postsynaptic membrane

ii. Impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction

2. Opening of voltage gated Ca2+ channel

causing influx of Ca2+

6. Ligand gated Na+ channel

open and influx of Na+ into
muscle cell
 COORDINATION

b) Structure of sarcomere

Identify the structures A to I in the diagram.

 COORDINATION

What happened to sarcomere when muscle relax and contract?

When the muscle is relaxed:

• Actin filaments are pulled outward of
the centre of sarcomere
• H zone are large
• Z line are farther
• A band doesn’t change in length

When the muscle is partially contracted:

• Actin filaments become closer to the
centre of sarcomere
Z line Z line • H zone getting shorten
• A band doesn’t change in length
• I band become shorten

When the muscle is fully contracted:

• Actin filaments are pulled towards
the centre of sarcomere
• H zone disappear (actin filament
overlap in H zone)
• Sarcomere become shorten
• A band doesn’t change in length
• I band become shorten

d. Mechanism of muscle contraction based on Sliding Filament Theory

i. Impulse transmission during muscle contraction

An action potential arrives at

1 the motor end plate and
vesicles of ACh are released

The neuromuscular junction

2 generates an action potential that
propagate down T-tubules

3 Ca2+ stored in the sarcoplasmic

reticulum are release

4 Ca2+ released and diffuses in

sarcoplasm stimulating muscle
contraction
 COORDINATION

ii. Mechanism of muscle contraction

• Based on Sliding-filament
theory by Huxley and Hanson
• In the relaxed muscle, the
tropomyosin blocks the myosin Myosin binding sites blocked;
binding sites on the actin muscle cannot contract
filaments
• In the contracted muscle:
➢ Ca2+ bind to troponin complex
➢ Troponin undergoes
conformation changes
➢ removed the blockage of
tropomyosin at myosin binding
site on actin filaments
➢ The exposure of myosin binding site
allows the binding of myosin head with actin filaments

iii. Sliding-filament Theory

Match the diagram with the correct description of Sliding-filament theory

1.
Myosin head bind to the exposed
myosin binding sites on actin
filaments and form a cross-
bridge

2.
The cross-bridge dissociate from
the actin filament due to the
binding of new ATP molecule to
the myosin head and ready to
start a new cycle

3. • The myosin head is in low-

energy configuration
• ATP molecule bind to myosin
head

4. • ATPase binds at the myosin

head and hydrolyses ATP to
ADP and Pi ; energy is
released
• Myosin head now in high-
energy configuration

5. • ADP and Pi are released from

myosin head causing myosin
head return to its low-energy
configuration
• The actin filament slided by
the cross-bridge towards the
center of the sarcomere
• Muscle contraction happens
 COORDINATION

The mechanism of muscle contraction: Summary

 COORDINATION

10. 3 HORMONES IN MAMMALS

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) State the types of hormone
(b) State the types of mechanism of hormone action
(c) Explain the mechanism of hormone action:
i. Gene activation : steroid hormone
ii. Second messenger (cAMP) : non steroid hormone (adrenaline and glucagon)

Definition ~ Hormone
Chemical messenger secreted by endocrine
gland, which diffuse directly into the blood
and carried to target cell by bloodstream.

10.3 (a) : Endocrine system

a) Types of hormones

I. Steroid
• Steroids are lipid soluble
• Steroid are derived from cholesterol.
• Example: Steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex and gonads.

II. Amine
• Derived from the amino acid
• secreted from the thyroid and the medulla adrenal gland
• some are lipid soluble, some are water soluble

III. Peptide / protein

• Water soluble
• Protein & Peptides are chains of amino acids;
• They are secreted by the pituitary gland and pancreas.
 COORDINATION

b) Mechanism of hormone action.

i. GENE ACTIVATION/Steroid Hormone action

✓ Steroid hormones (lipid-soluble)
✓ Can diffuse easily through plasma membrane of target cell

Figure10.3 (b): Steroid hormone action mechanism

(With the aid of the diagram, fill in the blanks)

Eg : Steroid Hormones : estrogen, testosterone

✓ Steroid hormones are small, lipid soluble. So, they are able to diffuse through the
cell membrane of the target cell
✓ In cytoplasm, hormone binds with specific receptor protein forming hormone-receptor
complex
✓ The hormone-receptor complex pass through nuclear pore and enter nucleus
✓ In nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex binds to the specific region of DNA. The
attachment stimulate transcription of specific gene, producing mRNA
✓ mRNA enters the cytoplasm and is translated into new proteins such as enzyme

ii. CYCLIC AMP (cAMP) ACTIVATION /Non steroid Hormone action

(With the aid both diagrams, fill in the blanks)
✓ Protein/peptide hormones (water soluble)
✓ Cannot diffuse through plasma membrane of target cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nt2r5R0ZO5U

✓ e.g. non steroid hormone : Adrenalin (epinephrine) / glucagon

✓ insoluble in lipid, cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane.
✓ The hormone act as a first messenger (extracellular signal)
 COORDINATION

Figure 10.3(c): Non-steroid hormone action mechanism involves cyclic AMP (cAMP) as a
secondary messenger.

• The hormone binds to specific receptors

protein on the surface of the plasma
membrane to form hormone-receptor
complex (refer 10.3 (d)
• The hormone-receptor complex binds to
and activates G protein in the plasma
membrane (refer 10.3 (d)
• GTP then binds to G protein which change
the shape of G protein. (refer 10.3 (d)
• Then G protein bind and activate adenylyl
cyclase
• Adenylyl cyclase catalyse the conversion of
ATP to cAMP (cyclic adenosine
monophosphate)
• cAMP act as a second messenger (10.3c)
• ATP → cAMP + 2Pi

Figure 10.3 (d)

• cAMP activates protein kinase in the cell. Protein kinase activates other enzymes by
phosphorylating them (cascade effect).

• After cAMP is activated, the hormone dissociates from the receptor and carried by the blood
to other target cells

• Example: Overall effect of adrenaline (epinephrine) → protein kinase activates the enzyme
phosphorylase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose
 COORDINATION

***Search : What is meant by cascade effect ?

http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=32065
Action of one enzyme will activates another enzymatic reaction → amplification → produce more &
more product molecules rapidly

Compare between gene activation and cAMP activation

2. Hormone binds with 2 Hormone binds with

receptor in cytoplasm to receptorcomplex
in plasma
form hormone-receptor membrane to form
complex hormone-receptor complex

3. Hormone-receptor 3. Hormone-receptor
complex activate gene on complex activate
DNA G-protein

i. Both hormones act

4. cAMP is produced from
4. There is no production on specific target
ATP (catalyze by activated
of cAMP cells
adenylyl cyclase)
ii. Both hormones
5. Transcription and
bind with specific 5. Transcription and
translation occur translation do not occur
receptor forming
hormone-receptor
6. There is no cascade complex
effect 6. Cascade effect occur

7. Produce long term effect 7. Produce short term

effect
 COORDINATION

10. 4 PHOTOPERIODISM

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Explain the role of phytochrome in the regulation of flowering.

ROLE OF PHYTOCHROME IN REGULATING FLOWERING

What is a phytochrome?
• Phytochrome is a light sensitive blue-green pigment in leaves which function as biological
clocks in the plants.
• Act as photoreceptor

1 functional phytochrome
consists of 2 subunits
Each subunit has 2 domains :
i. Photoreceptor with chromophore
(light-absorbing part)

ii. Kinase (trigger cellular response)

10.4 (a) Structure of phytochrome

• Exist in 2 interchangeable forms : Pr and Pfr

• Pr is inactive form , Pfr is in active form
• Plant synthesizes phytochrome in its inactive form, Pr

10.4 (b) Mode of Action:

 COORDINATION

Phytochrome Pr or P660 Phytochrome Pfr or P730

Pr absorbs red light (λ = 660 nm) & rapidly Pfr absorbs far red light (λ = 730 nm) &
converted to Pfr ( P730) converted to Pr ( P660)

red light (λ = 660 nm) far red light (λ = 730 nm)

Pr Pfr Pfr Pr
(Inactive) (Active) (Active) (Inactive)

During daylight, since sunlight is In darkness, there is spontaneous & slow

predominantly red light, Pr absorbs the red conversion of Pfr to Pr.
light and changes to Pfr Also rapid conversion to Pr by exposure to
far-red light

More Pfr exists More Pr, less Pfr exists

What is meant by photoperiod and photoperiodism ?

PHOTOPERIOD
The relative lengths of daylight and darkness in each 24-hour cycle

PHOTOPERIODISM
A physiological response of a plant to changes in day length.

Control of flowering
• Duration of the night length controls flowering
• A minimum length of uninterrupted darkness is needed to determine whether flowering
occurs or not : critical night length (CNL)
• According to different response of plants to the exposure of the CNL, they are divided into 3
groups :

i.SHORT DAY PLANT Give examples of each plants:

 _Chrysanthemums, soybean , morning glory

ii.LONG DAY PLANT

 Iris, spinach

iii.DAY-NEUTRAL PLANT  Tomatoes, paddy

 ___________________
 COORDINATION

i.SHORT DAY PLANT ii.LONG DAY PLANT

Flowers when the night period is longer Flowers when the night period is shorter than a
than a certain critical night length. ( or certain critical night length / (light period is
light period is shorter than a certain longer than a certain critical night length)
critical night length )

Flower in late summer, fall or winter Flower in late spring or early summer

0 12 24 0 12 24

Critical night Critical night length

length

Pr →Pfr Pfr →Pr Pr →Pfr Pfr →Pr

Low level of Pfr promotes flowering High level of Pfr promotes flowering

A flash of light in the dark period can reverse the effect

iii. DAY-NEUTRAL PLANT

➢ Flowers when they reach a certain stage of maturity, regardless of day length
➢ Examples : tomatoes, rice, dandelions
 COORDINATION

Check your understanding !!!

Write F for flower, NF for no flower

NF F NF F NF F

F NF F NF F NF

Note : The plant respond to the last flash of light

Describe how phytochrome trigger flowering ?

In Long Day Plant when the plants are more
exposed red light or sunlight, more P r is
converted to Pfr, thus high level of Pfr
stimulates the conversion of inactive hormone
precursor into florigen

In short day plant, where plant are exposed

to darkness or far red light, Pfr is converted
to Pr, thus low level of Pfr (high level of Pr)
stimulates the conversion of inactive
hormone precursor into florigen

The florigen is passed from the stimulated

leaves to the bud to induce flowering

https://highered.mheducation.com/sites/9834092339/student_view0/chapter41/animation_-
_phytochrome_signaling.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UW1NH02jV0Q