Speak and

Write
FOR A PURPOSE
(revised: May 2020)

by
Adlai C. Castigador, Ph.D., MAEd, BSE,
BSSW,

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The Elements of Communication

Communication is composed of five elements: 1) the

sender, 2) the message, 3) the channel, 4) the receiver
and 5) feedback.

1. The sender

The sender is the first element of communication, the

origin of the communication. The contribution of the
sender to the success of communication is vital, in that
he/she is the source of the message. A good “sender”
should be effective in formulating his/her message,
whether this be in verbal form (spoken) or non verbal
form (written, signals, body movements). A good “sender”
should be able to know and understand the channel in
which he/she could send the message through. A good
“sender” should be able to study the channel by which
he/she could use to send the message. A good “sender”
should know and understand the receiver of his/her
message.

2. The message

What are the characteristics of a good message? A good

message should be clear for it to be easily understood. It
should be specific - - meaning it should be definite and
distinctive. A definite or distinctive message is one that is
very clear and free from any doubt.

3. The channel

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What are the qualities of a good channel? A good channel
is one, which could transmit the message clearly,
faithfully and efficiently. The channel should be able to
transmit the message exactly/accurately - - neither less
nor more.

4. The receiver

What are the attributes of a good receiver? A good

receiver is someone who is a good listener, who could
comprehend the message accurately, thus one who is free
from any emotional or psychological baggage that could
affect his/her perception, appreciation and the accuracy
of the message.

5. The feedback

Feedback is the response to the message given by the

receiver. What are the qualities of a good feedback? A
good feedback is given on time, i.e., as quickly as
possible after the message has been received. Feedback
should not only be timely, it should also be responsible,
meaning, the person giving the feedback should be
accountable/answerable to give his/her response
accurately and on time.

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https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/professionalcomms/chapter/12-
elements-in-communication/ (retrieved May 7, 2019)

The Ethics of Communication

1. Honesty. This quality is very important for

communication to succeed. Webster defines
honesty as the act, quality, or condition of being
truthful.

Perhaps there may be instances when a person

may be forced to lie, as in misleading an enemy in
a war, who is asking important information about
the whereabouts of friendly forces. Button opines
that honesty is more than just not lying, it is being
open and offering whatever information you have,
even if it puts your own short-term interests at
stake.

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 When a foreign TV newscaster reported about the
lack of government services in a city, which was
devastated by a typhoon, he placed his welfare at
risk, and was, in fact ostracized for his report.
Honesty in communication is essential because it
is equated with trust. Trust in communication can
only thrive in an atmosphere of honesty.

2. Openness to other views. Your willingness to be

open to views, which differ or even run against
your ideas, is one crucial factor for communication
to succeed.

An environment where people are not free to

express their ideas, especially if these may be
unpopular, is not an ethical environment. The free
flow of communication is vital to the welfare and
development of an organization, and of the
country for that matter.

3. Commitment. Webster presents an interesting

definition of commitment, i.e., being bound
emotionally/intellectually to a course of action or
to another person. Commitment is a promise or
agreement to do something. It is also a state of
being pledged or engaged.

In communication one is bound by a number of

commitments or promises: to be honest or
truthful, to be sincere in what you say or write.
Thus, “fake” news is a big NO in communication.

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 4. Build consensus. Consensus is a general
agreement among the members of a given group or
community, each of which exercises some
discretion in decision-making.

The story of the buffaloes and the tiger, gives us a

clear example of the benefit of consensus. When
the buffaloes were united against the tiger, which
attacked them frequently, the tiger was no match
to the strong team of buffaloes, thus did not
succeed in eating them.

But one day, the buffaloes fought against each

other and became dis-united, thus they were
easily defeated by the tiger, and was eaten one
after the other. Ethical communication should
lead to consensus.

Communication should promote unity. Hence, it is

the responsibility or must be the commitment of
the sender of the communication to ensure that
his message would promote agreement
(consensus), harmony and unity.

Principles of Communication
1. Relevance. An important consideration in sending
your message is the value or relevance of your message
to your receiver. Thus, foremost, a speaker or a writer
should ask him/herself the following questions: what is
the value of my message to my receiver? Will my
message appeal to the interest of my receiver? Will my
message add value to my receiver or to the company of
my receiver?

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2. Be positive. Formulate your message with an
open and positive attitude. It is an accepted rule in
physics that an action requires an equal amount of
reaction. It is believed that if a speaker or a writer has a
positive attitude then his message would be received
positively by the audience/reader.

3. Choose the best medium. An equally important

principle in communication is the medium, the means
that a speaker or a writer use, as channel of
communication.

It is advisable that the speaker or the writer utilize

effective communication systems to drive through the
message. Nowadays, it is said that the attention span of
people is shorter, thus the need to maximize their
attention to drive through your message. Gone are the
days when the longer your speech or your letter, the
more impressive it is.

Because of the short attention span of people, the

speaker or the writer has to make use of tools, which
could catch their attention. So a speaker or writer must
be able to maximize the use of audiovisual
presentations, charts and graphs.

4. Study your audience. It is a must that a speaker

or writer knows the audience or reader. Thus, the
speaker or writer should study the socio-economic
profile, the interests, and the aspirations of his/her
audience/reader; more importantly, what appeals to
them. If your audience/reader is politically inclined,
then talk of something related to current political issues.
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5. Be enthusiastic. Enthusiasm is a very important
quality of a speaker or writer. Enthusiasm is defined as
divine inspiration or frenzy. Simply said enthusiasm is
the intensity of feeling, excitement interest or eagerness.

6. Maintain an intense focus. To be effective, a

speaker or writer should be fired with intense feeling or
be passionate. Webster believes that the sender of the
communication should be given to a strong feeling,
sometimes even romantic and/or sexual.

Implications of Globalization to Communication

Communication competence is one factor in the success

of an individual, including success in business.
However, globalization has created a big impact in
dramatic ways on the way people communicate. Part of
this global development is the advent of the fourth
industrial revolution (4IR), which brought about massive
developments in information technology, including
artificial intelligence.

Nowadays, one needs not fly to other countries to

conduct meetings. It is now possible to do
teleconferencing. Moreover, one can communicate via
email, skype, viber, facebook, instagram, and twitter,
etc. and study via learning management systems.

These developments also entail changes in the way we

communicate, although the same ethical considerations
and principles would hold true.

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Virtual Interactions

Because of globalization, virtual communication has

become in vogue, thus has accelerated the flow of
communication in exponential terms.
Around ten or so years ago, one has to make an overseas
call to communicate with a friend or relative in a foreign
country. Nowadays, through the use of the internet and
modern gadgets, communicating to any part of the world
has become as easy as the click of a finger.

Information Highway

The channel of communication has become doubly

efficient brought about by the availability of numerous
service providers offering internet, cable TV and mobile
telephone facilities.

Business Transactions

The speed and efficiency of communication entails new

approaches to transact business around the globe.
Travelling to another country to transact business could
be forgone in lieu of internet facilities and mobile
services, a number of them for free.

One can do teleconferencing with a business partner

abroad, without spending much for travel expenses.
Thus, promotions, marketing and selling products
across the globe has become easy and very quick
because of virtual communication. Moreover, because of
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the availability of quick communication facilities,
information flow has been significantly facilitated and
decision making has become faster.
Social Media Power

One effect of globalization is the prevalence of social

media networks, resulting in social awareness of people
in a global sense. The advent of advanced
communication technology promoted the “massification”
of information, views, research studies, opinions, and
prototypes. Where before society is fragmented because
of geographic separation, now a global society has
become a reality, courtesy of social media.

Consequently, the political, economic and social impact

of this communication revolution could only be
unimaginable because the world has virtually shrunk
like an apple, due to the speed by which communication
could be transmitted.

Ethnocentrism

The Webster Third International Dictionary defines

ethnocentrism as a habitual disposition to judge foreign
peoples or groups by the standards and practices of one’s
own culture or ethnic group. It is a belief that one’s own
practice is the proper way of life. People from another
country tend to judge those coming from other countries,
based on their standards, cultural practices, values and
beliefs thus, the tendency to look down upon the culture
of other peoples, resulting in inaccurate assumptions.
Thus, those who have not been exposed to other
cultures, may have the tendency to impose his/her own
beliefs, find it challenging to relate with other people
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belonging to another culture and result in a gap in the
relationship.

Ethnocentrism could be a source of bias or prejudice

that may hence affect relationship and communication in
an intercultural setting. To illustrate, negative pre-
judgment and dislike of food from other countries is an
example of ethnocentrism. For instance, the Indo-
Chinese people love to eat raw vegetables, which for
Filipinos may be a practice that would not be too
welcome.

What are the possible effects of ethnocentrism to

intercultural and global communication?
1.
Bias – is the inclination, predisposition or
partiality towards something. Bias connotes a
favorable impression towards a culture or belief.
Thus, the effect of bias in a relationship or
communication situation is something positive.

2.
Prejudice – is the opposite of bias. Prejudice is
defined as an adverse judgment or opinion formed
beforehand, without knowledge of the facts. The
effect of prejudice to communication is negative, in
the sense that a person may have an adverse
prejudgment of another person coming from
another culture, thus could hinder intercultural
understanding and communication.

3.
Discrimination – is the unfair treatment of a
person or group as a consequence of an adverse
judgment or opinion of a culture.

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 4.
Loyalty – ethnocentrism can cement loyalty within
the same social grouping or people belonging to
the same society. For instance the world football
games had strengthened loyalty among the
competing countries, since the tendency is for
people to support their own team.

5.
Miscommunication – communication is affected by
either bias or prejudice, positive or negative. Bias
for another culture could create a positive
impression, thus facilitate better communication.
On the other hand, pre-judgment of one culture
brought about by prejudice could lead to
misunderstanding.

6.
Division – unity could not be achieved among
different cultures under a situation where
prejudice abounds. If people have adverse
assumptions about foreign peoples or groups, this
could adversely affect communication and thus
lead to division, or even worse to conflict or at the
extreme, war.

Cultural Relativism

The concept of cultural relativism implies that a person’s

beliefs and practices should be perceived by others, in
the context of his culture. This also means not judging
the culture of other people that are not the same as
yours. Similarly, we should appreciate the cultural
practices of other societies in the context of their culture.
For instance the Filipino food “balut” may be disgusting
for other cultures but one would learn to appreciate it by
knowing the nutritional value of the “balut”. Thus,
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understanding fully one’s beliefs and practices would
require a study of his/her culture. A related situation is
the issue of whale catching. While many countries and
worldwide organizations forbid the catching of whales,
other countries engaged in the practice would not find
this acceptable, since it has been a part of their culture
for generations to catch whales. Thus, the question is:
who should set the standards for right or wrong?

For cross-cultural communication to succeed, it is

helpful for one to think about the culture of other
countries in such a way that we could appreciate their
practices in light of their beliefs.

Cultural Appreciation

Cultural appreciation happens when a person attempts

to appreciate and study about another culture, for one to
widen his understanding and relate with others in a
cross-cultural setting. Cultural appreciation could
facilitate cross-cultural understanding and
communication.

Cultural Appropriation

Cultural appropriation is taking one component of a

practice belonging to another culture and using it for a
purpose. For instance, buying an ethnic clothing from
the natives of the Mountain Province and using it to
make someone look fashionable, without knowing the
appropriate occasion and its meaning when this clothing
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is used may be offensive to the ethnic group. So, the call
for us is: understanding the culture of others and
sensitivity to and consideration of their beliefs and
traditions.

Successful Communication in an International and

Intercultural Setting

The advent of information and communication

technology has made the globe smaller, where it has
become as easy as a flick of a finger to communicate and
interact with people around the world. Thus, political,
social and economic interactions among countries and
peoples had been facilitated - - now called globalization.
Consequently, relationship between peoples had been
globalized. Globalization hence, is the word of the day.
Because of that, interaction and communication among
peoples had become frequent and inevitable.

The effect of globalization is internationalization and

inter-culturalization. The question now is: in light of
these developments, how could one be an effective
communicator? The following tips may be worth
considering:

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1. Global awareness. One should be knowledgeable of
developments and issues obtaining in countries
around the world. We are blessed by information
technology to have global television channels and
media to search information from any part of the
world, thus one should take advantage of this.

2. Cultural sensitivity. To be an effective

communicator, we have to know, accept and respect
the culture of our audience/reader.

3. Cultural intelligence (CQ) and competence. This

quality relates to the capability of a person to adjust
to and cope with situations in which differences in
cultures and beliefs had been observed.

4. Respect for the cultures and beliefs of others. Our

success in our relationship with others hinges on our
respect for their cultures and beliefs. In other words,
respect begets respect. People will respect you if they
sense that you also respect them. This applies to
communication situations. Respect of your
audience/reader begets respect for you.

5. Openness and positive attitude towards others.

The key to a successful relationship is an open and
positive attitude towards others. Start a conversation
by a positive comment and you will almost certainly
get a positive response.

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Important Pointers in Communication

1. Be ethical. Different countries have distinct ethical

rules to follow in communication. Thus, it is highly
recommended that you make a simple study of your
audience/reader, their culture and the way they
communicate, and the basic rules they follow.

2. Use Standard English terms and sentences. It is

advised that a speaker/writer avoid the use of
esoteric terms, which means words used by specific
professions or groups. Slang and idiomatic
expressions, which are not common to the audience
should be avoided.
3. Use a reasonable pace/speed in speaking. Be
sensitive and considerate of your audience. A public
speaker should avoid delivering a speech using a
conversational speed. Calibrating your pace
according to the reactions of your audience could
help a speaker succeed. It is advised that you use
simple rather than compound and complex
sentences.

4. Keep it short and simple (KISS). So that you can

easily remember this pointer, let us adopt an
acronym: “KISS,” meaning be as simple and as brief
as possible. Researchers believe that the interest
span of a normal audience has shortened. Thus, the
longer your sentences and your speech/write up for
that matter, the less your chances of succeeding.
Shorter words and sentences are easy to digest and
comprehend than longer words. For instance use
“everyone” instead of the cliché “each and everyone”
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 say “good morning” instead of a “pleasant good
morning”.

5. Be a good listener. One speaker said to his

audience: “I hate people who speak, while I am
interrupting.” This trait is common to a number of
people. Filipinos are said to be not so good listeners,
thus we need to develop our active listening skills,
meaning: imagine what a speaker is saying; make a
picture of the ideas that are being put across. Ask
questions to make sure that you understood well
what the other person is trying to communicate. Do
wait for your turn to speak, never interrupt. For
many cultures interrupting a speaker is rude.

6. Keep tabs of important details. It is advisable to

write important details, especially complicated
figures or ideas to help your audience understand
your message.

7. Encourage interaction. Interaction is very

important for feedback and successful
communication. Sharpen your questioning
techniques by learning to use open-ended questions.

CHAPTER TWO
Local and Global Communication in
Cross/Multi-cultural Settings
Communication is culture-bound. Communication is a
reflection of the culture of a society or community. It is safe
to say that communication is developed because of culture.
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Hence, communication and culture are two interdependent
concepts. This theory is validated by Edward Hall, when he
observed that communication is culture and culture is
communication. In fact our verbal and non-verbal
communications reflect our culture and vice-versa. Thus, a
word that is spoken carries with it the culture of that
person and his/her society. Our manner of dressing, our
bearing, and our lifestyle, which form part of our
communication systems reveal so much about our culture.

Communication in Cross/Multi-cultural Settings

Intercultural communication is interaction and

communication among persons and communities with
varied cultural backgrounds. Communication is a process
of interaction among persons that is complex. This entails
verbal and non-verbal relationships among persons and
even assumptions that are commonly agreed among them.
Because of the complexity of the communication process,
miscommunication and problems may arise, as a result. To
facilitate communication among persons, understanding
and acceptance of the cultures of parties involved in the
communication process is necessary. Appreciation and
understanding of the cultures of the parties involved in the
communication process, which influence their behaviors
and thinking process manifested through words, symbols
and pictures are required for both parties, to fully
understand and interact with each other effectively.
Factors that Affect Cross/Multi-cultural
Communication

The following elements determine the outcomes of

cross/multi-cultural communication:

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 1. Inability to understand one’s culture, values and
beliefs – the lack of understanding of the culture of
the persons involved in the communication process
affects the interaction among them.

2. Lack of acceptance of the culture of a person/

attitude – inability to accept the culture of the
person you are interacting with, adversely results in
poor communication.

3. Prejudice/bias – some people tend to think superior

of themselves over other cultures, hence have the
tendency to pre-judge others, and hence hamper
communication.

4. Lack of education/limited exposure – people who

lack education do not have the appropriate
information about other cultures, thereby affecting
interaction and communication.

5. language barrier – inability to speak a common

language, obviously hampers understanding and
communication.

The Nature and Functions of Verbal and Non-verbal

Communication in Cross/Multi-cultural Settings

Verbal communication is a way of interacting using oral

language. Verbal communication may be the quickest and
most efficient way to communicate. However, caution
should be taken and sensitivity should be applied in the
use of words, which may vary in meaning from culture to
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culture. For a Cebuano, “sabot” means to understand, but
may be obscene to an Ilongo. “Kabatete” in Ilocano is a
vegetable but the sound of the word is quite offensive for
the Tagalogs.

The use of esoteric words, which are used and understood

only by a chosen few or an enlightened inner circle could
also affect communication, thus should be avoided. For
instance, words that are used in the engineering circle may
not be understandable to other audiences/people coming a
different discipline.

Why do we need to engage in verbal communication?

Some people are just too introvert and self-centered to

spend some of their time for meaningful and precious
conversations. However, much as some would be too shy to
avoid conversations, we are humans and social creatures,
thus we need to interact - - with our family members, with
our neighbors, with our friends, with classmates and with
others! No man is an island and nobody lives by himself
and for himself. We live with others, for a purpose and for a
reason.

It is believed that any situation is a learning opportunity. A

conversation is a powerful tool to learn. You learn from
intelligent people you interact with, and believe me - - much
like learning from reading a book. How to start and
maintain a conversation, however, requires some
techniques.

Starting a conversation is a big challenge for a number of

reasons. First, many of us have some kind of fear the first
time we meet people. We fear that people might judge us;
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we fear that we might look ridiculous to some people; we
fear that we might not be received positively by others; we
fear the unknown outcomes of our interaction, and a host
of other fears. As in any public speaking situation, this fear
is natural; thus, we can overcome this fear by considering
some techniques.

Techniques in Making Verbal Communication

Productive and Meaningful

1. Think of the advantages of conversing with

someone, rather than your fear. Converse with a
purpose: to establish friendship, to explore a
business opportunity, to share brilliant insights, to
learn and for many other reasons.

2. Maintain a positive attitude. A positive attitude

attracts positive reactions. Be enthusiastic and
proactive; start the conversation by saying
something positive about the event, the situation or
the person you are talking to.

3. Be respectful and polite. Respect other people’s

opinion, even if they are contrary to yours. Some
people could be “abrasive” and offensive in their
language; thus, it would be to your advantage not to
reveal your emotions and displeasure.

4. Start the conversation by talking about a hot

topic, a current and relevant issue or a very
interesting topic. You can start by making a neutral
yet stimulating comment like: politics is starting to
be hot, now that some politicians have started filing
their candidacy. Alternatively, you can start your
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 coversation with useful cliches like: a comment on
the weather, the food or the drinks; but be sure not
to give offensive comments.

5. Allow somebody you are conversing with, to talk

about his/her interests, career and
accomplishments. After all, the list of things that
are of interest to him/her, might also be interesting
to you. So that would be a common interest that you
could pick up and make for a very good topic of your
conversation.

6. Raise interesting questions about the person you

are talking with; but avoid asking too personal,
offensive and sensitive questions that may intrude
into his/her privacy. Asking about one’s company or
career is an effective way of starting an interesting
conversation.

7. Know how to direct and redirect the

conversation to a topic that is meaningful to the
person you are conversing with and to you.

8. Be sensitive of the feelings and situation of the

person you are talking with. A conversation is a
good start for a relationship. Do a very quick study
of the profile of the person you are talking to. If it is
a scheduled meeting, it would be helpful to gain
some information about the person you will meet
from a facebook, a twitter account or from a Google
search. Your simple study could guide you to the
topic you are going to start with.

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 9. Be sincere. People will feel if you are not truthful
and if you have hidden motives. Know how to
appreciate truly the person you are conversing with
as well as his affiliations and the things associated
with him/her.

10. Know how to listen. “I hate people who are talking

while I’m interrupting.” This statement indicates the
inability of many people to listen and the tendency
to be rude, to interrupt while someone is talking.
Listening is different from merely hearing the person
you are conversing with. Listening is keeping
genuine interest in and understanding what he/she
is talking about. Paying sincere interest in a person
will result in a friendly conversation and a good
start of a relationship.

11. Know how to end the conversation politely.

Being sensitive with the person you are talking with
could give you a cue to end the conversation. Thus,
you can do a gracious closure by saying the
following:

“It has been nice talking with you, but I’m afraid I really
have to go.”

“I have taken much of your time. It was such an interesting

conversation with you. Thank you for your time.”

“It was great talking with you. Here’s my business card, in

case you might need to get in touch with me in the future.”

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 “It’s getting late, I really have to go. It has been a pleasure
talking with you.”

“It was fun talking with you, but you have to excuse me.
Have a nice day!”

The Elements of Verbal Communication

1 Variation in speed – the speed of the speaker

affects communication. Filipinos are exposed to
American English, thus the difficulty in
understanding British and Australian speakers,
especially because of their accent and speed.

2 Volume – Be sensitive of your voice in comparison

with the number of people you are talking to and
your distance.

3 Intonation – variations in the rising and falling of

the voice affects the communication process.
Speakers are influenced by the intonation of the
language or dialects they speak, thus the
tendency to apply the same intonation when they
communicate in a cross-cultural setting, hence
affect communication.

4 Gestures – your body language should support

your verbal communication. Try to learn
commonly acceptable and positive body language
to reinforce your verbal communication.

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 5 Emphasis – a speaker should be able to use
pauses, the proper volume and the right intensity
if you want to point out important ideas.

6 Rhythm – the variation, i.e., strong and weak,

duration and accent of sounds in your speech or
the beat in your speech could facilitate effective
communication.

7 Pitch – the intensity of your voice suggests how

important your ideas are. Thus, your voice should
be varied according to the importance of the ideas
you are putting across.

8 Pausing and phrasing – imagine a speaker who

speaks continuously without any break at all.
This may be boring and tiresome to the listener,
hence affect the communication process. For you
to be effective, you have to pause at certain points
of your conversation. This may be done by
observing proper phrasing of the words, phrases
or clauses that you use.

Non-Verbal Communication

On the other hand, non-verbal communication is an

interaction using non-spoken language. Non-verbal
communication consists of gestures, facial expressions,
actions or even unconscious behavior that may either
reinforce or hamper communication. For communication to
be effective, there should be consistency in the verbal and
non-verbal communication systems. For instance, you may
25
say you are happy, but if your facial expression shows that
you are not, then it is possible that people may not believe
you. We heard of politicians embracing and carrying babies
while campaigning, purportedly demonstrating their
genuine concern for the masses, yet manifest facial
expression and non-verbal behavior that contradict their
claim. This affects communication and their ability to
convince people of their true intentions.

Gestures are non-verbal cues that help facilitate or

emphasize communication. However, the meaning of
gestures varies from country to country. Thus, knowing
some of these gestures and cultural sensitivity in using
them is important, to ensure effective and successful cross-
cultural communication. For example a thumbs up gesture
may be commonly positive in many countries, especially in
western countries, but considered rude in Nigeria and very
offensive in Japan. The illustrations presented below,
(adopted from
https://prezi.com/ijytlwvviba7/ local-and-
globalcommunication-in-multicultural-setting, could help
in making you sensitive in a cross/multi-cultural
communication setting.

26
 CHAPTER THREE
The Elements of Verbal and Non-verbal
Communication in Cross/Multi-cultural
Settings
The elements of non-verbal communication

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 1. Body language – your movement contributes to
communication. Thus, oral communication should
be supported by body movement/gestures that would
reinforce the message. A smile captivates, hence
deliver your message with a smile.

2. Distance – the nearer you are to the person you are

interacting with, the clearer your non-verbal cues.

3. Touch – artistic and decent use of touch could

reinforce your message. However, a word of caution,
some cultures, especially conservative ones may be
sensitive and may not welcome touch. For reasons of
health and hygiene, it may not be advisable to touch
a person.

4. Eye contact – the eyes are the windows to the soul.

Thus, the sincerity of your message could be gleaned
from your eyes.

5. Pausing – at certain points, a pause may enable you

to emphasize important points of your message.

The Effects of Cultural and Global Issues in

Communication

Progress in technology has made the world “shrink”. For

instance, in the 16th century, it took Ferdinand Magellan
months to reach the Philippines by boat; whereas today,
generally, one can reach any part of the world by plane in
not more than 24 hours.
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While 30 or so years ago, you can get in touch with a
relative by phone after minutes of waiting for your cue from
a telephone operator, nowadays you can contact a friend or
business partner in practically no time at all. Information
technology has made communication and interaction
among the peoples of the world quick and easy.

Economic progress and the corresponding availability of

jobs in first world countries encouraged people to move
from less developed countries to find more rewarding jobs
in more developed countries. Similarly, transnational
corporations employ people from different countries and
assign them in various parts of the globe.

Moreover, man-made and natural disasters such as war,

persecutions, typhoons, tsunami, earthquake, and even
extreme temperatures, necessitated the movement of people
to safer places.

The above global developments and circumstances forced

people to interact and thus communicate in a cross/multi-
cultural setting. Whereas before, people only communicate
with others with similar cultural background, hence
making the communication setting homogeneous, simpler
and easier; today we have to communicate with people
coming from different cultures, beliefs and traditions. This
made communication heterogeneous and more complex,
thus require more skills in cross/multi-cultural
communication.

Effects of Cultural and Global Issues in

Cross/MultiCultural Communication
29
 1. Better relationship – interaction among different
peoples with different cultures enable them to study,
understand and appreciate the culture of each other.
This leads to more world harmony and peace.

2. Facilitates business and trade – better

communication and interaction among the peoples of
the world promotes business and trading.

3. Creates more job opportunities – due to better

relationships among peoples, and businesses that
are developed, more job opportunities are available.

4. Reduces division and enhances inclusion – harmony

that results from understanding and appreciating
each other’s cultures reduces conflict and promotes
inclusive development among nations.

5. Personal development – the net result of the peace,

understanding and harmony and interaction with
peoples of different cultures is the personal
development of individuals and society.

If we acknowledge the positive effects of cross/multicultural

communication, then we have to maximize its use for our
benefit. The following suggestions are offered, for one to
benefit from this type of communication.

Tips for Successful Cross/Multi-cultural

Communication

30
1. be sensitive to the pace of the person you are
communicating with

2. avoid questions that may offend or may be too

personal for the person you are interacting with

3. wait for the person you are talking with to finish

before you respond

4. write down important points

5. show support, especially in cases when you feel

he/she has difficulty in understanding and
articulating ideas

6. at certain points, check for understanding, to ensure

that the other person comprehends your message

7. avoid the use of slang or esoteric words

8. maintain respect for the culture and sensitivities of

the person you are talking with

6. Bearing – the way you stand and your posture may

reveal your composure. So, the more confident your
posture, the more convincing your message.

7. Pacing – the pace of a speaker could drive a message

toward uncovering his intentions. A jittery speaker
could create a negative impression of lack of
sincerity.

31
 CHAPTER FOUR
Varieties and Registers of Spoken and
Written Language
Language register is defined as the appropriateness of the
level and style of speaking and writing. It guides a speaker
or writer in the use of vocabulary, structure and grammar.

At least three language registers have been identified as the

most common ones:

1. Formal – formal register is the style of writing or

speaking for unfamiliar audience/readers or for your
superiors in an office.

2. Informal – the informal register, otherwise called

casual or intimate is recommended when
writing/speaking to friends and familiar persons.

3. Neutral – this register is the more objective,

impersonal and factual type of writing or speaking.

Formal register is the type of speaking/writing appropriate

for formal speeches, articles, studies, technical reports,
announcements, business letters and emails for business
purposes.

A number of rules govern the use of formal language

register, as follows:

32
 1. Use the third person – the undersigned, instead of
“I”, the reporter, instead of he/she.

2. Avoid contractions – use would not, instead of won’t,

cannot instead of can’t. However, note that
apostrophes are used to show possession, as in
Anna’s law office. On the other hand, an apostrophe can be
used to indicate the plural form of symbols or numbers, e.g.
BMW’s, 7’s, etc.

3. Spell out numbers below one hundred – sixteen,

eight, ninety-five, etc.

4. Use formal words rather than slang and clichés –

examples of slang are: “cool” for very good or “dough”
for money.

5. Acronyms may be used in formal speaking and

writing, but you have to spell it out first and put the
acronym in parentheses, e.g. non-government
organization (NGO), thereafter you may use the
acronym in other parts of your paragraph.

6. Use complete sentences in your write up/speech–

avoid the use of phrases and clauses, in lieu of a
complete sentence.

7. The use of active rather than passive sentences is

preferred. Use “A singer entertained the guests”
instead of “The guests were entertained by a singer.”

33
 8. Simple sentences rather than compound and
complex sentences, would help make your write
up/speech shorter and easier to understand.

9. Use conjunctions, to indicate transitions or imply

continuity or cause and effect relationship in the
ideas of your sentences. Conjunctions such as
however, nevertheless, similarly, and on the other
hand could help relate or show contrast in the ideas
in your sentences.

Informal language register is used for informal and friendly

letters/speeches for your acquaintances, friends and family
members, thus written in an informal style. This is the type
of writing you adopt for short messaging system (text
messages) friendly letters, personal e-mails, diaries,
journals and blogs. Informal writing is the opposite of
formal letters, hence, does not require formal and strict
rules to follow. Here you may use figures of speech,
personal pronouns, symbols, acronyms, slangs and even
incomplete sentences, phrases and clauses.

Finally, the neutral language register is neither formal nor

informal, thus applicable for non-emotional and factual
themes. This style of writing/speaking is usually seen in
articles, technical reports and magazine reviews.
Varieties of Language

The different kinds of English language used around the

world led to varieties in the use of English. The reason for
this is historical: England used English as its native
language for more than 1,000 years. However, eventually
the use of English spread in many parts of the globe like
Canada, U.S.A and Australia because of migration,
34
employment and economic reasons. Since language is
dynamic and culture-bound, the differences in culture
eventually resulted in changes in the original English
language.

There are at least three main varieties of English: British

English, American English, and Australian English.
However, variety and even sub-varieties had been noted in
other countries where English is used. There may be
varieties in spelling. For instance, color in American English
is colour in British English.

On the other hand, varieties had been observed in

grammar. For instance for British speakers they would say:
“Have you eaten all those fruits?” while for Americans, they
would say: “Did you eat all those fruits?” This is due to the
fact that British English at times use the present perfect
tense of the verb, whereas, American English would prefer
using the past simple tense. More examples could be seen
below of the varieties in American and British English.
British Have you eaten all those Happybee
English: fried chicken?
American Did you eat all those Happybee fried
English: chicken?

British Have you ever watched the TV

English: series, Ang Probinsiyano?
American Did you ever watch the TV series,
English: Ang Probinsiyano?
For tag questions, the following varieties were observed
between British and American English:

35
British I’ll upload these pictures in
my Facebook, will I?
English:

American I’ll upload these pictures in

English: my Facebook, right?
Still, variety in English was noted in the use of
prepositions. For instance the British would say: The time
is 15 minutes past five. For Americans, they would say: The
time is 15 minutes after five.

For adverbs, the following varieties in informal speech

between British and American English had been noted:

In American English, cases in the use of adverbs without

the -ly ending:

American English: Tagaytay was real cold last February.

British English: Tagaytay was really cold last

February.

For vocabulary, varieties of English could be seen mainly

between American English (AmE) and British English (BrE),
the two most prevalent varieties of English:.

Meanings

In some instances variety between British and American

English was seen, such as in the use of the word cab for
36
Americans while the British uses the word taxi, although
both refer to only one and the same thing.

However, noted were differences in meaning in the use of

the word “quite” . In American English the term “quite” is
used as an intensifier:

He was upset a while ago and that was all right, but now
he’s quite upset so we have to leave!

In British English, however, “quite” is used to lessen the

intensity of the term.

He was upset a while ago, so I was thinking of leaving; now,

he’s still quite upset so I think it’s all right to stay.

Listed below are more differences in variety in the meaning

of words between British and American English.
In the listing, Australian English and New Zealand English
are the same as British English, except in very few cases.

Road/Traffic

Australia New
American British n Zealand
English English English English

automobile car
c t
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37
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Exercise

Identify whether the following underlined word is British

English or American English by using the symbols BrE for
British and AmE for American English.

______ 1. The durian was really sweet.

______ 2. Seeing the rice terraces was truly amazing.

______ 3. The picnic to Boracay was a real experience.

______ 4. Tibo bought a pair of beautiful trousers.

______ 5. May I use your toilet?

______ 6. The building is tall, so let’s use the lift.

50
______ 7. Our office janitor is very conscientious in cleaning
our workplace.

______ 8. Please throw your rubbish in the proper waste

can.

______ 9. The plants were arranged beautifully in the

ground floor of the building.

CHAPTER FIVE
Evaluating Messages and Images

Critical evaluation, one of the levels of comprehension

advanced by Benjamin Bloom, requires a thorough analysis
and critical look at information, messages and images that
we get from or use for reading materials, lectures or
presentations, for one to obtain or use accurate
information.

Evaluating Images

Since media messages are developed, they could be altered

or disintegrated. Lately, many fake news and altered media
materials misled people into accepting and believing them.
Thus, media messages and images should be evaluated to
ensure their validity, reliability and appropriateness.
Content and visual analysis could be applied to messages
and images, using a checklist, as follows: (from Evaluating
Media Messages

51
http://thoughtfullearning.com/inquireHSbook/pg240
Retrieved May 14, 2019)

Sender

1. Who created the message? Was it by a news

organization, a public citizen, or an advertiser?

Message

2. What does the message say (subject, main point,

support)
3. Is the information fair and logical?
4. What points of view are shared in the message?
Which ones are left out?
5. What images or sounds catch my attention?

Medium
6. What type of media is used to deliver the message?
7. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the media
format?

Receiver

8. Who is the target of the message?

9. How might people different from me interpret this
message?

Context
52
 10.What is the purpose of the message?
11.Who controls the transmission of the message?

Evaluating Messages and Images vis-à-vis Deceptive

Appeals

At this point, you may have already mastered the methods

in evaluating messages and images. However, at times, you
may fall into the trap of being convinced of the accuracy
and validity of the message and image due to the use of
appeals, which are illogical or improper. Thus, it would be
good to know some of this not-so-appropriate variety,
which is called deceptive appeal. They are also called
fallacies. Deceptive appeal is the technique used in
conviction or persuasion, in which the writer/author uses
incorrect reasoning. So that you can avoid falling into the
pitfall of believing this incorrect writing, it would be good
to study them.

1. Sweeping generalization. This error in reasoning is

committed when a statement puts all members of a
group into a category. An infamous example of this
fallacy is the definition in one dictionary of the
word “Filipina” which was defined as a maid.

This invalid definition stems from the observation

that some Filipinas are employed as maids abroad.
Since a number of Filipinas were seen as maids,
53
 the sweeping and incorrect generalization is that all
Filipinas are therefore maids.

2. Incorrect sampling. When some people concluded

that many Filipinos want an amendment of the
constitution based on the opinion of mayors and
barangay captains, there is an obvious flaw in this
conclusion, since the sample was taken only from
one sector of society. Deanne Milan observes, that
for a sample to be valid, the number of people who
should be interviewed should be large enough and
that the sample should be taken from a cross
section of the general population, considering the
geographic area, income, ethnicity, religion and
educational level.
3. Argumentum ad hominem. This invalid reasoning
happens when an argument assails the character
of a person instead of the beliefs he stands for.
Asserting that poor people should not be believed
because they are needy is a classic example of this
incorrect reasoning.

4. Argumentum ad baculum. The term literally

means argument using a stick. This error in
reasoning arises when one uses force instead of
reason to win an argument. This is common
among Filipino parents who would threaten to
spank a child instead of explaining a wrongdoing.

5. Begging the question. When a statement assumes

that an argument has been proven but it actually
was not, the fallacy of begging the question is
committed. The opinion that we cannot question
the decision of the judge who was given the
54
 constitutional power to try and decide commits
this erroneous reasoning.

6. Either or fallacy. This incorrect reasoning is also

called false dilemma. When a writer or speaker
sees a complicated issue from the point of view of
only two choices but forgetting other possibilities,
the either or fallacy arises. For instance, the claim
that all government officials are either corrupt or
immoral is an erroneous reasoning, because other
possibilities were not considered like many of these
officials may really be honest and upright.

7. False analogy. An analogy is a comparison of two

things that are unlike, except for one feature. A
false analogy is committed when the resemblance
between two things that are compared is vague or
unclear or when there is no resemblance at all. A
teacher told a student who requested for a removal
test because she failed the examination that if she
undergoes an x-ray, which is also a test, and the
results proved that she has tuberculosis, then a
re-examination would not change the results at
all. A false analogy is committed in reasoning,
because the analogy between a classroom test and
an x-ray is not clear.

8. False cause. This false reasoning arises from an

error in the cause and effect relationship. For
instance, in the 1992 U.S. presidential elections
debate, George Bush claimed credit for ending the
tension between the U.S. and Russia, Bill Clinton
responded: “Mr. Bush’s taking credit for ending the

55
 cold war between the U.S. and Russia is like the
rooster’s taking credit for the dawn”.

9. Over-simplification. If a writer claims “corruption

among the police can be stopped by increasing
their salary,” don’t be misled by the claim, because
corruption is caused by many other factors, not
only the low salary. Hence, it is an over-
simplification to look at the problem of corruption,
which is definitely complex, from one angle, i.e.,
salary.

10. Non sequitur. This erroneous reasoning is

committed when the conclusion does not
reasonably follow from the arguments. Writing for
example that students study their lessons,
teachers teach, therefore computer programmers
prepare software or computer programs are
arguments that are not related thus could not be
valid bases for concluding that computer
programmers prepare software or computer
programs.

11. Post ergo propter hoc. This error in reasoning

results when a conclusion is drawn from a cause
and effect relationship that is purely coincidental.
For instance, when one says he had a bad morning
because a black cat crossed his way, an error in
reasoning arises because there is no scientific
proof that a black cat causes bad luck. In fact,
some people would love black cats as their pet. It
was purely a coincidence that the bad experience
happened when a black cat crossed one’s way.

56
12. Fallacy of reduction. This faulty writing is similar
to the previous fallacy, post ergo propter hoc,
because it identifies one reason for a problem but
does not consider other possible causes. For
example in the statement: “he became successful
because of good luck”, good luck certainly is one
factor for success but there may be other reasons
not the least of them is prayer, hard work and
others.

13. Slippery slope. As the phrase connotes, this

defective writing arises when one conclusion is
deemed to have “slipped down the slope” thus, the
situation has gone out of control. The assertion
that legalizing “jueteng” will lead to more vices may
certainly be true, but is a classic example of an
argument that commits this error.

14. Two wrongs make a right. This manipulative

technique in writing is often used to justify a
wrong doing just because a similar wrongdoing
was committed. This false reasoning is seen in
statements like: “I will enrich myself through
corruption since my colleagues are also doing it
anyway”.

15. Argumentum ad populum. This erroneous writing

makes use of an appeal to popular prejudices
rather than an appeal to reason. Claiming for
instance that Mr. Gleam is the best toothpaste
because it has been endorsed by many dentists, is
an example of this fallacy.

57
16. Argumentum ad miserecordiam. This technique
appeals to pity. It ignores the point at issue, but
instead appeals to our emotion to have pity on the
unfortunate. To justify one’s act of stealing from
someone because the robber’s family is miserable,
commits this erroneous reasoning.

17. Ignoratio elenchi. The term means ignorance of the

argument. E.P. Corbett (Classical Rhetoric p. 79)
calls this the “Red Herring” referring to the act of
dragging the herring across a track to mislead the
hunting dogs from tracing or following their prey.
This faulty reasoning is characterized by diverting
an issue to a side issue, to win an argument. For
instance, a government official who was alleged to
have enriched himself from illegal activities
demanded, “let’s investigate the bank accounts of
all government officials”, to divert the attention of
people away from the real issue.

18. The complex question. This mode of erroneous

reasoning arises when one asks a complex
question - - a loaded question which essentially is
composed of two issues. For example, a lawyer may
ask: “Why did you kill the man?” The question
assumes that the accused really killed the man. If
the accused answers the question directly, then he
falls into the trap and is considered guilty. Thus,
since there are actually two questions loaded into
one complex question i.e., “Did you kill the man?”
and “Why did you kill him?” The first question
should be answered first before the second.

58
Evaluating Messages and Images in Light of
Miscellaneous Deceptive Appeals

Some messages and images could be manipulative

and misleading that we could readily believe them. For
instance, because of the convincing way fake news had
been presented, many people had been misled. Thus, one
should know manipulative or erroneous appeals, to
evaluate effectively messages and images and avoid being
manipulated and misled.

Deanne Milan, enumerated some of the most

commonly used manipulative techniques employed by
writers.

1. Use of authority. This manipulative technique,

common in advertisements, uses popular people
like movie stars and celebrities in endorsing
products. The manipulation occurs when they
speak in favor of a product as if they are authorities
in the field. As a writer, it would be wise to avoid
this strategy, first because these celebrities are not
really knowledgeable about the subject, and second
they are beholden to the product because they are
paid to endorse it. On the other hand, as a reader,
being aware of this technique could enable one to
avoid being manipulated by unscrupulous writers.

2. Bias. Favoring one side over another is the essence

of bias. A number of writers commit this error when

59
 they write positive things in favor of a person/group
in relation to a controversial issue.
Claiming that the decision to offer our bases to the
U.S. is disadvantageous for us, without considering
its advantages, is a statement tainted with bias. As
a reader, applying critical thinking would enable
one to avoid believing easily a message with bias.

3. Lying with the facts. This term for a manipulative

technique which originated from Phil Trounstine of
the San Jose Mercury News, means releasing a
series of statements, each of which is arguably true,
but taken as a whole constitutes a lie.

4. Misleading statistics. The use of statistics can

mislead readers. Thus, statistics should be treated
with care because some writers may be tempted to
use them to misled the readers. The claim that our
growth rate is following an upward trend is
heartwarming news. However, what these statistics
mean in real terms, in the context of the number of
unemployed and underemployed, number of
squatters living in subhuman conditions, leave
much to be desired.

5. Linking. A MacDonald (The Macmillan College

Workbook p. 326) notes that this manipulative
technique is committed when one links a popular
person with an issue, without presenting the clear
connection between the person and the issue. This
faulty reasoning is common in advertisements
showing a product that even celebrities would use.

60
 CHAPTER SIX
Communication Aids with Strategies in
the
Use of Technology and Tools
Sign Language

Communication between cultures is facilitated by

the availability of a common language. However, in
instances when there is no common language between
persons involved in spoken communication, the use of sign
language through body language comes handy. In
instances when verbal communication is not possible, in
the absence of a common language, sign language can be
the most practical solution. Sign language is probably
older than spoken language. This may comprise of hand
signals, shrugs, facial expressions or coded manual signals

61
reinforced through the use of words spelled out in a
manual alphabet.

In the case of the Chinese and Japanese, whose

languages use the same characters, although they
pronounce them very differently, they communicate
through sign language. This was done by tracing
mutually understood characters in one’s palm. The
use of sign language to communicate was noted in
North America, Australia and Africa. In the 19 th
century, the case of the Plains Indians, whose
languages were dissimilar is interesting, where they
were able to communicate with each other, by using
the many shared elements in their culture and
adopting common symbols. For instance, a circle
drawn against the sky was used to indicate the
moon. A person on horseback is illustrated by two
fingers astride the other index finger. Moreover, two
fingers spread from the mouth represented a lie.
These are among the familiar sign language that
enabled large groups of Indians to communicate with
each other.

Communication Strategies Using Tools of Technology

Audio-Visual Aids

Theories in communication suggest that in any

communication situations, the more senses you are able to
activate, the more you will be able to put across your
message to your audience; the easier your audience would
understand your message; and the more effective you will
be. Thus, you can connect effectively with the person you

62
are communicating with through the sense of hearing,
seeing, touching, smelling, and taste etc.

That communication theory is validated by theories

in holistic language learning, which recommend the use of
supporting communication systems, such as visual aids to
make the teaching of language effective. Similarly, the use
of supporting communication systems must be maximized
to make you effective in any communication situation.
Visual aids could arouse the senses, tickle the imagination
and stimulate your audience; thus, could be a handy tool
for you.

Visual aids could be in the form of illustrations,

pictures, charts, graphs, and film clips. The most popular
and easy to use would be a power point presentation.
However, you have to make your visual aids stimulating,
colorful and appealing. You cannot just pick any visual
aid. You should be guided by some principles in preparing
your power point presentation, for you to be successful.

Here are some tips, which could help you prepare an

effective power point presentation:

Tips in Preparing a Power Point Presentation

1. Consider the time and the venue of your

presentation. The time and the lighting would tell
you the kind of visual aids you will use. For
instance, it may not be possible for you to use an
63
 LCD/LED projector if you are in an open
auditorium; thus, you may have to use an
alternative material such as a chart or visual aid.

2. Study your audience, the number, their profile, the

age grouping, their norms, and their culture. It
would be to your advantage if you can incorporate
in your visual aids a little of their language/dialect.

3. Identify the likes and dislikes of your listeners. You

can fit your materials easily to what you anticipated
would be appreciated by your listeners. On the
other hand, you have to take care not to offend your
audience.

4. Be guided by your purpose. Plan your visual aids

and power point presentation to suit your purpose,
the audience, the location and the time of your
presentation. Before putting your ideas in your
slides, draft your plan on paper to see how your
material will look like and to ensure proper
sequencing of your ideas. It would be helpful to
sketch your presentation in frames on a scratch
paper. Then, as soon as you have firmed up your
plan, you can start working on your power point
presentation. Note that younger audiences may
prefer colorful and cartoon-like materials; while
adult listeners would prefer more serious
audiovisuals.

5. Choose pictures, video clips, graphs and charts

that are relevant, stimulating and could attract the
interest of your audience. It is highly recommended
that you integrate pictures, graphics, tables, charts
64
 and graphs in your text to help explain your point
to your audience.

6. Ensure that the size and font of your text would be

enough to be seen by everyone. The font size
for a listener of 20 will be smaller than if you have
100 in your audience. So check the size of the text
of your audio-visual aids versus the number of your
audience. Consider the following:

6.1 a font size of one inch could be clearly seen

within five feet;
6.2 a font size of two inches could be clearly seen
within ten feet; and
6.3 a font size of three inches could be clearly seen
within thirty feet;

Be sure to check your visual aids before your

speech to ensure that they are readable,
considering the number of your audience.

7. Design your visual aid/power point presentation so

that it comes handy to your audience and help
them understand your important points. Limit your
bullet points to five to seven lines. Some
communication experts believe in the 555-
principle, i.e., five lines per frame, five words per
line and five frames of text. More than these
recommended lines would make your presentation
look heavy and affect adversely the interest of your
listeners. Avoid presenting your ideas in sentences
or worse in paragraphs - - that would appear like a
book; thus, may make your presentation look heavy
65
 and boring. Summarize your important ideas so
that you can present them in phrases in bullet
points and in one compact material per slide.

8. Rehearse the use of your visual aids, to ensure that

you master them and assure ease in using them.
Never assume that your materials, once prepared
are 100% fool proof, zero glitch and perfect.
Moreover, you have to practice coordinating your
presentation and your equipment. Proper
coordination could add to mastery and increase
your self-confidence.

You do not only rehearse for mastery, but also to

further improve your audio-visual materials. As you
rehearse, imagine the impact of your audiovisual
materials to your listeners so that you can fit or
reconfigure your presentation.

Before your presentation, check your equipment,

where you will position them, plug them and how
you are going to operate them. By doing this, you
could make your presentation smooth for yourself
and convenient for your audience.

Web-based Application

(retrieved 05-12-19 https://purposive communication.

news.blog/2018/09/07/types-of-speech-and-
publicspeaking/)

66
 A program accessed over a network connection
using http is called a web-based application. This is also
known as web apps. This application often runs inside a
web browser. On the other hand, web-based applications
may also be client-based, in which a small part of the
program is downloaded to a user’s desktop, but processing
is done over the internet on an external server.

Blogging

Blogging is one of the most common type of

communication through the use of technology that has
emerged. Even in the Philippines, this type of
communication has attracted many audience and has
began to preoccupy the life of the Filipinos. Moreover, it
has become a significant tool of communication both in the
economic and political fronts. Blogging is now used both
for social media, for marketing, and even for political
purposes. In fact, a number of companies have hired an
official blogger.

A quick summary of how to set up a blog is

presented below:

1. Purchase your blog hosting — This is where you

install WordPress and host your future blog’s files,
articles and images.

2. Install Word Press from your new Panel — Install

WordPress with just a few clicks from inside your
host’s control panel.

67
 3. Choose a free theme for your blog — Pick a theme
that suits the colors, branding and goals for your blog
and install it from your new WordPress blog’s
dashboard.

4. Publish your first post — Now start writing amazing

blog posts that help people, attract traffic, get email
subscribers, and more.

Multi-modal Text

In this digital age, one effective way of

communicating meaning is through the use of rich
complex techniques - - multi-modal texts. Meaning can be
transmitted through multi-modal texts, with the use of
varied techniques, such as paper, live, digital or electronic
media, movies, storybooks, brochures, newspapers,
comics, novels and posters. For instance, digital animation
involves a design process that requires the use of a
combination of modes, such as language, image, spatial
design, sound, movement and even gestures.

Another example of multi-modal text is a live

dramatic performance, where music, dialogues, gestures
and space are featured. Furthermore, a web page has
components, such as oral and written language, still and
moving images, sound effects and music. These are all
important considerations in communication, in learning
and even for presentation purposes. Thus knowledge on
multi-modal texts is necessary.

When a text uses two or more semiotic systems, it is

considered multi-modal. The Cambridge English
68
Dictionary defines semiotics as the study of signs and
symbols, what they mean, and how they are used. At least
five semiotic systems have been tapped for producing
multi-modal materials:

1. Audio – this constitutes the pitch, rhythm, and

volume of music and sound effects.

2. Space –this covers features like the position of the

lay out, direction, distance and organization of the
images in relation to space.

3. Visual – this features the color, viewpoint and

vectors in still and moving objects.

4. Gesture – this component involves the speed, body

movement and language and facial expressions.

5. Linguistic – this covers the choice of words and

grammatical structure.

The use of the aforementioned semiotic systems is

governed by rules and limitations. While written texts are
effective communication tools, they have their own
limitations. Written texts are prone to many interpretations
and may lead to confusion. On the other hand, visual texts
are excellent purveyors of space, size and color. Moreover,
there are no strict rules required to interpret visual texts.
For instance reading requires starting from left to right,
from the uppermost part of the page to the lowest part. For
visual texts, the reader is free to start from any point and
could go anywhere in the page.

69
 The beauty of multi-modal texts lies in the fact that
one can use one, more or all of those modes, which can be
complementary, hence enabling easier understanding of a
lesson. Indeed the possibilities in the use of multi-modal
texts are fantastic, as seen in the following advantages of
the use of multi-modal media:

Benefits of using multi-modal texts

1. Multimodal text utilizes many senses, i.e., sight,

hearing, touch, smell, even taste, thus a very
powerful tool in communication.

2. It enables one to communicate meaning in the

mode that he/she is comfortable and confident
using.

3. The technique utilizes communication and semiotic

systems to make messages stimulating and clear.

4. It provides maximum stimulus to receivers, using

various media.

5. The strategy facilitates understanding

and communication.

6. Since the attention span of people nowadays is

shorter, the use of multi-modal text shortens the
communication process, yet accelerates
understanding of the text.
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 CHAPTER SEVEN
Types of Speeches and Public Speaking
Public speaking may be scary to many people; and
I’m not holier than thou, that include myself - - I always
have to struggle against that threatening feeling of
delivering a speech.

In fact, for many speakers, this experience may be

one of the most nerve-wracking one, akin to that of a
soldier being assigned to a war - - public speaking could
really be a challenging engagement! However, public
speaking is not an impossible task.

In my college days, I was struck by a lecture of our

professor in my speech class, who reassured his students
that delivering a speech is not impossible; if one
remembers the “ABC” and the “XYZ” of public speaking. I
immediately reacted with a question and asked my
professor what he means by that seemingly powerful yet
ambiguous pointer. In a very reassuring manner he said:
ABC means always be cheerful. But even more excited,
some of my classmates interrupted and quizzed our
professor: what about XYZ? So, he added: XYZ stands for
“eXamine” Your Zipper before you deliver your speech.

That may be a silly joke, but kidding aside, it has

serious implications. First, humor is very important in
71
public speaking. Humor is a good strategy to capture the
attention of your audience. Expert public speakers believe
that once you have captured the attention of your audience
and tickled their imagination at the start of your speech,
you have already won half of the battle. The rest of your
speech would come relatively very easy.

On the other hand, the second part of the comic tip, XYZ
really means that you have to examine yourself - - your
preparation, including the contents of and the materials for
your speech. The best speakers in the world will agree that
there is no substitute for a good preparation, for one to be a
successful speaker.

If you follow that advise, you will soon be able to give

an excellent speech.

Types of Speeches

1. Read speech – the practice of reading a speech is

quite common nowadays, especially so since people
are becoming so busy. This type of delivery is done
by reading from the written speech. The
disadvantage of this type of speech is it prevents an
informal and conversational delivery of the speech.
Moreover, eye contact with the audience may be
sacrificed.

2. Memorized speech – this entails memorizing your

speech. At present, due to the very busy schedules of
people, only few speakers opt to memorize their
speech, but instead go for other means of delivery.

72
 3. Impromptu speech – this type of speech allows a
speaker little or no time to prepare the presentation.

4. Extemporaneous speech – this speech is delivered

with some prepared structure, such as notes or an
outline. The notes enable the speaker to organize the
speech.

Pointers in Delivering a Speech

These pointers in delivering a speech are divided into

three phases: the writing, preparatory and delivery stages.

Let’s start with the writing stage. You get an

invitation to speak and you accepted the invitation.
Come to think of it, whatever your station in life - - a clerk,
a supervisor, a manager, a president of a company or
government official, the time will come that you will be
asked to deliver a speech and many more speeches.

It is said that to deliver an excellent speech,

successful speakers should view a speaking engagement
like doing a stage performance. You need to look at yourself
as the “star of the show,” thus, you have to prepare and
rehearse your speech until it becomes natural and
spontaneous, and so that you alone would be seen as the
sole authority in the room.

Try studying the steps listed below.

73
 So, the first logical thing that you should do is to
write your speech. How do you do that? The ten keys in
writing a speech could help you.

Ten Keys To Writing A Speech

74
 “I am the man of the hour,” is the attitude of many
who had been invited to speak. Unfortunately, this
mindset is bound to make a speech flop.

You may have experienced listening to a boring

speech, delivered by a popular personality but filled with
self-centered topics and senseless details. And you knew
something the speaker seemingly missed: this was the
time of the audience - - not the speaker. The speaker was
just a guest; thus, their attention was strictly voluntary.

In writing your speech, remember two important

goals: leave a good impression and stress to your
audience at least two or three important points. It is said
that the rest of the speech is just entertainment. But the
challenge is: how can you put across those two or three
critical points? At this point, you need to adopt some
strategies:

1) Make a memorable speech. The experience of

successful speeches tells us that an audience may only
remember a single line. For example, Abraham Lincoln
started his Gettysburgh address with this line:
“Fourscore and seven years ago, our forefathers brought
forth in this continent a new nation conceived in liberty
and dedicated to the proposition that “all men are
created equal.” Lincoln’s line encapsulated the main
point of his speech: We must fight for freedom and
75
equality. So you can learn from the example drawn from
Lincoln: condense your theme into a 15-20 word line and
build your speech around that line.

There are other figures of speech that could leave

an impression that is worth remembering. For example, a
president alluded to his vision by stressing “this country
would be great again” in his speeches. The message
expressed a strong identity and a promise. Naturally, the
audience would be struck by the message.

Simile, metaphor, irony, analogy, metonymy,

hyperbole and other figures of speech could work. You
just need to build up on them - - and use them in the
most ideal spot in your speech (preferably near the end).

CHAPTER EIGHT
Public Speaking
Preparatory Stage

A substantial part of your self-confidence as a

speaker will come from the kind of preparation that you
put in. Dr. C. E. Matthews opined that 75% of your
victory depends on preparation. So if you have the
choice, don’t ever venture into accepting a speaking
engagement, if you are not prepared. Here are some
pointers that could help you be well prepared for your
speech.
76
1. Learn from successful speakers. Study how impressive
speakers deliver those great speeches and study their key
messages, their speaking style, the techniques they use
in getting the attention of their audience, and the
forcefulness by which they present their ideas.

2. Determine your goals. Ask yourself the following

questions, First, the rationale for your presentation. Be
truthful with yourself. If your answer is “to get a good
grade from my professor” or “because your superior
instructed you to do so,” you need to be aware of that fact
before your speech, so that you can plan it soon enough,
according to your rationale.

Secondly, what does your audience want? What

your audience needs are always important to consider,
since your presentation enables you to have direct, face-
to-face contact with your audience.

While a speaker may have a captive audience, the

audience can sneak out at the back of the room if they
are terribly bored, but remember that the audience
wants you to succeed. To compensate the attention of a
captive audience, you must make your speech
informative, interesting, and even a little surprising - -
especially if you are sharing a particular message that
you want your audience to take home with them.

77
3. Prepare your speech in advance. Avoid being over-
confident and never think that you could just appear in a
speaking engagement and present your speech, even
without preparing! Preparation includes rehearsing your
speech and your visual aids the day before, getting a good
sleep, and avoiding alcohol to the point of having a
hangover.

4. Organize your materials. Introductions and background

sections are boring. Do not waste everyone’s time by
giving them an entire laboratory report, or by dropping
the names of all the authors you have consulted. A
speaker who spends 15 minutes describing experimental
procedures or presenting them theoretically - - but only
devotes five minutes presenting and analyzing the results
of the original work already missed the point.

5. Organize your speech into manageable units but make

sure that your audience would leave the hall
remembering at least three important points from your
talk.

6. Practice your speech until you become confident. A

speaker’s confidence contributes to the effectiveness of
the delivery. Rehearse the presentation of your materials,
such as power point presentations, diagrams or charts.
Even great speakers rehearse their speech long before
their speaking engagement. Remember this: practice
makes perfect; but remember this more: correct practice
78
 makes perfect. So there is no substitute to “correct”
practice to achieve mastery of your speech.

7. Study the venue of your presentation. Look out for

switches of the lights, how to adjust the projector screen,
and how to focus your LCD/LED projector, etc.

8. Anticipate possible adverse situations. Your

computer file may crash, or you may loose your notes.
These may possibly happen. Thus, it would be advisable
to prepare a simple backup, such as overhead projector
or basic handouts.

CHAPTER NINE
Communication for Work Purposes
Effective communication is an important tool in
achieving productivity and maintaining rapport in all
levels of a company. Organizations, which invest money
and time to establish clear lines of communication
across all levels in the company could build trust among
its workforce, which could result in enhancing
productivity, work outcomes and morale among them.
Similarly, if the workforce could communicate effectively
among themselves, and with their managers and
customers, this could be a valuable asset to a company.
Moreover, competence in communication is a quality,
which could give a person a powerful edge in looking for
jobs.
79
 On the other hand, poor communication in the
workplace could result in a workforce with poor
motivation, as well as doubt their own confidence in
their capabilities and in the company too.

An organization is composed of a workforce that

comes from different backgrounds, cultures,
nationalities, traditions and beliefs. To enable employees
to understand each other, a common communication
system should be put in place. Effective communication
in the workplace, promotes a harmonious work
atmosphere, which facilitates the growth of individuals
and organizations. Hence, various forms of
communication should be adopted to promote effective
communication in the workplace. A workplace set up,
such as healthcare, education, business and trade, law,
media and technology usually observe a common
communication system.

General Categories of Office Communication

Verbal Communication

The most common form of communication in the

workplace is verbal communication. This form of

80
communication can be categorized into two
classifications, as follows:

Formal

Conferences, meetings, seminars, address,

training etc. are the common formal verbal
communication in the workplace. Interaction and
exchange of ideas can happen in different ways.
Meetings or conferences may be done in a small group
communication set up, like team meetings, board
meetings, departmental meetings or could be done in an
institutional level. In this set up, a facilitator usually
starts and manages the proceedings. Participants
usually attend the meetings with their own agenda and
opinions. On the other hand, formal communication can
take place face to face or exchange of ideas could be
done through the use of technology like video
conferencing.

Informal or Grapevine

One of the more interesting aspects of

communication in the office is the grapevine. This type
of communication does not follow the conventional rules
of communication in the office. Added to that, it is
deployed in all possible directions downward
(management to employee), upward (employee to
management), across (within peers), and diagonal
81
(within departments) etc. Usually, this type of
communication has become the source of all rumors and
gossips in the workplace. Thus, this type of
communication should be controlled effectively, or it may
adversely affect the work culture of an organization and
hamper its development.

Visual Communication

Visual communication is a form of

communication, which depends on interaction and
visual skills of employees. For an organization to be
effective, different strategies of visual communication
should be adopted. Visual communication in the
workplace consists of presentations, display charts,
figures and graphics posted on the bulletin board.
Moreover, important information could also be
disseminated through the presentation of an audio-
visual material on the topic.
Written Communication

In an office set up, written communication is the

more popular type of communication being used. This,
however, is considered to be the most primitive form of
communication in an office setting. Eventually, hand
written communication has been replaced by type
written memoranda. Formal written communication
comprises electronic or office memoranda, emails,
training materials and documents. On the other hand,
82
text messages, instant messaging etc. are some of the
informal written communication in the office.
Other Strategies of Communication in the Workplace

Team building – a strong team is one whose team

members communicate and collaborate together. For
purposes of improving morale and the satisfaction of the
workforce, the following may be done:

1. increase employee engagement - the

satisfaction of the workforce can be promoted, by
ensuring that their voice are being listened to,
both in terms of ideas or their concerns. Thus,
lines of communication should be established to
afford all employees, regardless of their position
and rank, the means to interact and communicate
with their peers and senior leaders.

2. innovation – an atmosphere, in which the

workforce are enabled to express their ideas
openly in a non-threatening manner, encourages
them to open up their ideas. This leads to
creativity and innovation.

3. growth – development projects hinge much on

strong communication among the workforce and
all stakeholders.

83
 4. strong management -senior leaders should be
effective communicators, for them to manage their
teams. The main functions of a leader, such as
delegation of tasks, conflict management,
motivation and relationship building (all key
responsibilities of any manager) are all much
easier performed, if he/she is an effective
communicator. Effective communication is not
only the competence to speak to your workforce,
but also to empower them to interact and
communicate among themselves. Promoting
effective communication channels is a crucial
factor in the success of an organization.

Improving Communication in the Workplace

Communication in the office could be enhanced

by adopting the following strategies:

1. Define goals and expectations – Senior leaders

should involve the employees in formulating clear
and achievable objectives, by defining clearly the
requirements for any project, and ensuring that
all the staffs are knowledgeable of the goals of the
project, the unit and the institution.

2. Clearly deliver your message – A manager

should ensure that his/her message is clear and
accessible to the intended recipients. Thus, it is
84
 important that a senior leader speak clearly and
politely – to put his/her message across clearly
avoiding confusion or offense.

3. Choose your medium carefully – Once the

message is completed, it should be delivered using
the best possible medium and format. It is true
that face-to-face communication may be the best
way to build trust among the employees; however,
it is not always applicable. Thus, a decision
whether information delivered in a printed copy
would work better than an email or a general
memo should be done.

4. Keep everyone involved – Participation in major

decisions develops the feeling of ownership among
the workforce. Hence, it should be encouraged.
The sense of ownership among the workforce
would make them accountable for the decision
and thereby promote active support and
involvement in realizing any project in the office.

5. Listen and show empathy – It is believed that no

company or individual could succeed, if it does
not listen to its workforce and encourage dialogue
among them. Listening demonstrates respect and
enables employers to learn about important
issues to address. (retrieved from:

85
 https://www.michaelpage.co.uk/advice/manage
m ent-advice/development-
andretention/importance-good-communication-
workplace, May 7, 2019)

CHAPTER TEN
Communication Materials in the Work
Place
In various settings, i.e., health care, education,
business and trade, law, media, science and technology,
communication in the workplace could be facilitated
through the use of tools. Some of these useful tools are
as follows:

1. Minutes of meetings – a record of what transpired

in the meeting could keep the workforce updated
on the recent and most important activities in the
office. The minutes of the meeting feature the
decisions adopted and actions identified. Minutes
are vital source of information for those who were
unable to attend and helpful tools to remind
employees of their responsibilities and the time
frame for doing them. The following format of
minutes of meeting may be used as reference:

PHILIPPINE QUALITY SERVICES (PQS)

86
 Minutes of the Staff Meeting
Board Room

Present Absent

Discussion Points

From Issues/Concerns Responsibilit Target Statu Remark

y Date s s
Call to order of 1:30 - - C -
pm

Opening Prayer - - I -

1. Review of the
minutes of the A
previous meeting
2. Business arising
from the minutes
of the previous
meeting
3. New business
4. Other matters

Legend: C – completed

I – information
A – action

CHAPTER ELEVEN
Writing A Research Paper
For several years, Bill Gates has consistently been
one of the richest persons in the whole world. Singapore,
87
with a per capita income of $ 50,523 in 2009, has the
highest per capita income in Asia. The U.S. still remains
to be the most powerful country in the whole world with
one of the highest per capita income of $ 46,381. These
facts are among the most striking realities of our times.
What is amazing about these facts is the impressive
progress some people or countries have attained. Bill
Gates was reputed to have come from humble
beginnings. He left college in 1975 and founded
Microsoft, later to become one of the richest
corporations in the world. In the 1990’s, Gates’ company
dominated the software market. Recently, Microsoft is
considered one of the biggest and most profitable in the
U.S.

Japan is hardly half a century past its history

when it lost the second world war. The country was
virtually devastated but was able to pick up from the
rubbles of war. America, judging from its per capita
income, certainly has been one of the most progressive
countries, if not the most progressive in the whole world,
but it has surely gone a long way before it earned its
stature.

Come to think of it, what is the secret behind the

success of some people and some countries?

A close look at the factors that led to their success

shows an interesting common denominator - - they
made the right decision at the right time with the right
88
information. And the right and intelligent decision does
not come at the flick of a finger. This decision is a result
of data gathering, of scientific investigation, of
systematic analyses and interpretation of data – which
we actually call research.
While other factors may have substantially contributed
to the success stories above, it can be said that one of
the important factors that led to their success is
scientific problem solving and investigation - - research.

Windows, acclaimed to have accounted for the

substantial fortune of Gates is a result of research.
Japan started with industrial products, which have been
the subject of ridicule for several years. For instance,
several years back, when you buy a product like nuts
and bolts, the cheapest yet the least durable is one that
is made in Japan. At present, one of the best products
in the market is made in Japan.

The U.S. definitely was not born in abundance. Her

history marks her survival from one of the worst
economic depressions. Thailand used to be a developing
country but it was able to establish its strong
agriculture and industries through research. China
certainly labored through scientific investigations to be
able to provide for its billions of population. The success
stories can be endless; nonetheless, research would
always be one of the significant factors that account for
all those success stories.

89
 New ideas are not developed out of the blue. While
creativity feeds technology, information supports
creativity. That information, which supports creativity
and which consequently leads to technology, is really
born out of research.

Indeed, it is hardly conceivable for a person or a

country to achieve progress without research. Research
seemed to have become the “sine qua non” of progress.

Definition of Research

The Webster’s Universal Dictionary and Thesaurus

(1993) defines research as analysis, examination,
exploration, inquiry, investigation, scrutiny or study. The
crucial terms in this definition are investigation or
scrutiny. The word investigation implies that research is
an activity that one does to gather data, to discover
something and to solve a problem. On the other hand,
scrutiny means a careful and thoughtful look and
examination of a situation or a problem. Without
investigation or scrutiny, no solution to the problem can
be arrived at. The definition therefore suggests a positive
value of research - - that research is an essential
component of problem solving.

90
 Since we are always confronted with problems, day in
and day out, and since we need to investigate and
scrutinize the problem to solve them, thus research is
an essential requirement for life - - for a good life for that
matter!

N.L. Gage, on the other hand, defines research as an

activity aimed at increasing our power to understand,
predict and control events of a given kind. Several values
of research can be gleaned from this definition.

1. Research enables us to understand an event by

relating it logically to others.

2. It allows us to predict events by relating them

empirically to their antecedents in time.

3. Research ensures our control over events by

manipulating variables or situations.

There are other practical definitions of research.

You can adopt your own practical definition. One of the
more practical definitions can be formulated from the
words you can find in the exercise below. Try this simple
crossword puzzle for another definition.
Exercise. Read the definitions below, then identify the
word and write it in the numbered slots corresponding
to the number in the definition.

91
 1 1
♦ ♦
2 2
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
3 3
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
4 4
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
5 6
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
7 8
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
5
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
6
♦ ♦ ♦

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
7
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
8
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

92
Across

1. Step by step way of doing things

2. Utilize (progressive tense)
3. Looks for
4. A means of doing things
5. Preposition (_ _ my side)
6. Step by step way to do something
7. Relative pronoun (Move _ _ _ _ body)
8. Very important or useful

Down

1. The act of watching

2. Preposition (Lady _ _ Perpetual Help)
3. Responses
4. “Headaches”
5. _ _ _ _ (s) yes _ _ _ _ (s) no
6. Correct or exact
7. Conjunction (Romeo _ _ _ Juliet)
8. _ _ _ _ (s) yes _ _ _ _ (s) no

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The following values show the importance of research:

1. Research is a scientific approach to solve

problems. Research allows a step-by-step process
of solving problems. The procedures used in
research give us a systematic way of identifying
solutions to problems.

2. Research offers accurate answers to crucial

questions or problems. Because the approach
used in research is systematic, the answers that
are provided by research are almost always
correct.

3. Research allows us to explore the unexplored

aspects of life. It allows us to be more in control
of the situation instead of the situation
controlling us. Thus, research encourages people
to think and act beyond the ordinary things;
consequently we are able to discover more
opportunities, e.g. computers, audio-video
systems, exploration of outer space, etc.
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4. Research is a means to verify/validate
theories. Theories are speculations or hypotheses
and therefore not definite answers to
problems/questions. But research affords the
means to prove or to disprove the theories.

5. Research offers opportunities to formulate

new theories/principles. In the process of
verifying theories, research is able to produce new
theories and generally accepted truths about a
problem or issue.
Two General Types of Research Studies

Any research or study for that matter begins with a

problem or a question. While some problems may
lead to a definite solution, a number of them may
not. Other research problems may rather have
indirect answers. For instance, a study of the process
of water purification can lead to a definite answer. On
the other hand, if the research problem is about “can
AIDS be acquired from indirect sources such as
drinking glasses?” This problem may require indirect
answers and thus lead to many possible answers. So
the student can give answers coming both from
evidence taken from primary and secondary research
studies.
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Primary Research

Primary research can be done by way of gathering

data through recording and analyzing the behavior of
certain subjects. Hanson (1996) associates primary
research or field research with what scientists do –
observations, surveys, experiments and interviews.

Secondary Research

Secondary research, on the other hand, is

conducted by reading magazine articles and books. It
is the type of research that you do when you gather
data from books, which you can use in answering
questions or problems. This is secondary research
because it is based on other author’s research
studies. Information technology has made secondary
research very easy and quick with the availability of
the Internet. Moreover, some organizations and
offices have their own libraries, which can be good
sources of secondary research.

Field Research

Field research is a kind of primary research, which

may include surveys, observations, interviews and
experiments. Old newspapers, letters, and magazines
may be good sources of primary research. The
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 researcher writing a primary research can begin his
task from secondary research. This is so because the
researcher first establishes what has already been
discovered about the topic. Eventually, the study
graduates to primary research by interpreting
observations, surveys and interviews done by the
researcher.

Different Types of Research Papers

At times, you would be required to read a book, prepare

a summary and a presentation on a particular topic.
This report can be considered a research paper. There
are many types of research papers, which are important
to students and future professionals like you.

There are at least three types of research papers

according to Hanson (1996): the report, synthesis or
survey and argument papers.

1. The report

A report is a written and oral account about a

particular topic or subject that was assigned to you. It is
considered one type of research because it requires data
gathering from books, Internet, interviews and other
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sources, putting the data together, analyzing them and
drawing conclusions from the data that you have
gathered. This is finally presented to the class or in a
conference.

2. The synthesis or survey

Synthesis as defined by Webster, is the process of

combining separate elements of thought into a whole. To
synthesize, you put together and relate the important
concepts with each other. Bloom went a little bit farther
from this definition. He believes that synthesis is not
only relating the concepts with each other, but also
creating something new out of the concepts you have
studied. For instance, if you are studying fruits in your
science subject, you would not merely memorize the
scientific names and the types of fruits and relate them
with each other but you can go beyond the lesson by
developing a new variety or better kind of fruit.

3. Argument papers

Argument papers can also be considered a

research paper because it requires defending a stance as
regards an issue and convincing others that your
position/opinion is valid. When you defend an opinion
or a stance about a particular issue, certainly you have
to gather data, interpret them and draw your
conclusions.
Thus the steps you follow is really research.
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4. Reaction papers

Reaction papers are similar to argument papers

but they are more of a summary of a chapter/topic then
followed by the writer’s opinion/position about the topic.
The writer’s opinion is developed based on interpretation
of data then on a formulated conclusion.

The Process of Writing a Research Paper

While other countries have benefited so much from and

in fact became progressive because of research, it is
quite unfortunate that so many Filipino students abhor
or dislike research - - maybe because we think research
is a difficult task or maybe because we are not familiar
with how to do research. However, if you follow the steps
below, you will find that research is not, after all, an
impossible task to do. Here are the stages that you can
follow to help make research easy for you.

1. Study your reader, your topic and your purpose. The

type of reader and your purpose will give you ideas
on the style of your write up and direction in the
procedures you are going to follow in your research.

2. Get a topic that is interesting to you and your target

reader. Choose a relevant topic that is related to your
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 area of interest and specialization. A relevant topic is
one that helps solve a problem or develop the
community.

3. Limit your topic - - a broad topic may be difficult and

too lengthy to manage. Furthermore, a broad topic
may not allow you to focus your research and thus
lead to a superficial study on the topic. For instance,
you may be interested to study about computer
games. The topic computer games may be too broad
since there are so many computer games. So you can
focus your efforts to a more specific topic like “effects
of commando games”.

4. Gather information from magazines, journals,

encyclopedias, books, the Internet and other sources.
Maintain notes on the important information you
have gathered from your sources. You may either
summarize or quote the relevant information you got.
Remember to write the publication data such as the
name of the author, the title of the book, the title of
the article, the name of the magazine or journals, the
place and date of publication and the number of the
page. You will need these pieces of information to
acknowledge your sources of data. A stack of index
cards can be a handy tool for this task. You may
transfer these notes to a computer as soon as you
can.

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5. Write the outline of your research. Your outline is like
a blueprint or the plan for a house. It is also like the
skeleton of your paper. Your outline will be very
helpful when you are in the actual writing stage
because it will give you easy directions to follow.

6. Eventually, put the “flesh” on this skeleton by

explaining, illustrating, giving examples,
enumerating details and other ways of developing the
paragraph.

7. Review your research paper and edit/revise the

errors. There is no substitute for a perfect and
flawless research paper. Remember, your paper is a
reflection of the kind of person you are. So give time
to review, edit and revise it if needed.

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