Sustainability 15 00530

sustainability
Article
Spatial Modeling for Residential Optimization in Dukuh Atas
Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Area, Jakarta, Indonesia
Ridho Masruri Irsal *, Hayati Sari Hasibuan and Sylvira Ananda Azwar
School of Environmental Science, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia

* Correspondence: ridho.masruri@ui.ac.id
Abstract: Jakarta, as a metropolitan city, has a complexity of urban problems, one of which is the
shape of the city, which is spread out and results in people’s dependence on motorized vehicles.
Transit-oriented development (TOD) areas are one alternative to solving these problems by increasing
density and accessibility between destinations and integrating modes of public transportation. This
article aims to predict the occupancy density that has not been optimized by vertical development
to optimize the use of space in the Dukuh Atas TOD area through spatial analysis. This study uses
quantitative analysis through the Geographic Information System (GIS) method by analyzing land
suitability through overlay techniques, calculating environmental carrying capacity in residential
areas, analyzing building density index using the Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI)
method, and extracting dense areas by superimposing on Floor Area Ratio (FAR) data. Based on
the results of the conformity analysis, it was found that there were areas that were not suitable
for approximately 16.33% of the total area of the Dukuh Atas TOD area, especially in the western
part. The calculation of environmental carrying capacity results shows that the TOD area of Dukuh
Atas can still accommodate 2.05 times the current population. To re-optimize it, an allocation of
residential density area is generated following the FAR in Jakarta’s Detailed Spatial Plan so that the
maximum number of floors can be achieved. The results of these calculations can produce predictions
of residential needs that are more detailed and consistent with the conditions of the TOD area in
Dukuh Atas.
Keywords: Dukuh Atas TOD area; NDBI; housing density

Citation: Irsal, R.M.; Hasibuan, H.S.;
Azwar, S.A. Spatial Modeling for
Residential Optimization in Dukuh
Atas Transit-Oriented Development
1. Introduction
(TOD) Area, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 530. https:// Nowadays, cities face various problems, including increasing population growth. In
doi.org/10.3390/su15010530 2018, more than 50% of the world’s population lived in urban areas, which is predicted
to reach 68% by 2050 [1]. It is estimated that there will be an increase in population by
Academic Editor: Cheolho Yoon
70% of the world population today in 2050, and around 66% of the increase in population
Received: 14 November 2022 will occur in urban areas [2,3]. Jakarta, a metropolitan city with an area of 4384 km2 and
Revised: 23 December 2022 a population density of 13,000 people/km2 , whose population has reached 10.56 million
Accepted: 25 December 2022 people with a population growth rate of 0.92%, has a complex issue, one of which is sprawl,
Published: 28 December 2022 where the rapid growth of the city restructures the shape of the city to be scattered and in-
creases individual dependence on motor vehicles [4–6]. The urban sprawl phenomenon as
a form of urban growth has a tendency to extend the urban areas to their peripheries, which
growth also affects the demand for supporting infrastructures such as roads, clean water
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
networks, wastewater networks, and facilities such as schools, commercial, residential, and
This article is an open access article
recreational areas [7]. This phenomenon also causes inequality or gaps between planned
distributed under the terms and and unplanned areas [8–10]. Dependence on motorized vehicles is shaped by a transporta-
conditions of the Creative Commons tion system that responds to the spatial shape of the city, which spreads out further, giving
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a domino effect on increasing congestion and greenhouse gas emissions [11,12]. Within
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ten years, from 2010 to 2020, the number of motorized vehicles increased significantly and
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 530. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010530 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 530 2 of 20
was dominated by private vehicles. According to the Central Bureau of Statistics in Jakarta
Province, motorcycle sales increased by 69.21% in 2020, while car sales increased by 23.7%.
Urban planners use various solutions to reduce the problem of urban mobility and
population density with the concept of a compact city, where the main principles are
compactness, density, mixed land use, sustainable transportation, and green spaces [13,14].
As a result of the spread of activities, urban problems and complexities such as urban
sprawl, high-density population, and reliance on private motorized vehicles have increased
the development of compact cities that contain an integration of mass transit systems,
one of which uses the concept of transit-oriented development (TOD), which develops
land use by considering integration with the transportation system where transportation
nodes such as stations and terminals are located [15,16]. Along with that, the built envi-
ronment also influenced travel demand with three principal dimensions known as “3Ds”:
(1) density, (2) diversity, and (3) design, which further conclude to add two more principal
dimensions: (4) destination accessibility and (5) distance to transit. These principles were
adapted to TOD principles and became known in the American planning community as
the 5Ds [17–19].
On the local level, the TOD concept has already been implemented in Indonesia
through the construction of the MRT (Mass Rapid Transit) in Jakarta, the LRT (Light
Rail Transit) in Palembang and Jakarta, as well as the Jakarta-Bandung HSR (High-Speed
Rail). This development resulted in an increase of up to 55% in LRT daily passengers.
Research has concluded that TOD significantly maximizes transit ridership due to mixed-
land use [20–22]. A few researchers focused on TOD’s potential applicability in the Jakarta
Metropolitan Area using sustainability principles, and as a result, the development could
reduce congestion by shifting away from private vehicles, increasing transit ridership,
and improving mobility options such as walking and cycling, resulting in a reduction of
emissions and energy conservation. Adding to that, the Dukuh Atas and Lebak Bulus TOD
areas also created a socio-economic phenomenon related to the stable condition for mobility
movements due to short travel and transit times, the proliferation of commercial areas, and
changes in the quality of life that emerged as a beneficial factor. The environmental carrying
capacity of these two TOD areas is also in a condition that has not been exceeded [23–25].
Regarding mobility, the Dukuh Atas TOD area is served by at least five mass public
transportation systems, each with a medium-to-high capacity at each stop. However, based
on previous research, it was found that the pedestrian metric value in the Dukuh Atas
TOD area still needs to be fully achieved. This is because pedestrian paths, bicycle lanes,
and several other facilities still need to cover all available public road segments within
a 500-m radius of the transportation stop point [26,27]. As a result, the TOD concept is
expected to be an alternative or a solution for reducing Jakarta’s level of congestion, one of
which is the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which has become one of Jakarta’s TOD-based regional
developments [26–28]. Furthermore, density is also one of the TOD principles in the 5Ds,
but its applicability in the Dukuh Atas TOD area is still not suitable. This could be because
landed-house buildings still make up most of the residential buildings; the number and
density of workers in the area are still not optimally distributed, and it is still not best to use
the minimum average Floor Area Ratio (FAR) value in transit areas, causing the percentage
of total conformity of the density aspect of the TOD concept to be only 50% [29,30].
Meanwhile, housing is one of the most critical issues related to population change.
It has been found that among the socio-cultural characteristics of people living in transit
areas, housing characteristics play the most important role in reshaping the local mobility
culture and determining the identity of the people living in the transit areas [24]. The
concept of TOD also does not stop at the exchange of modes; more than that, TOD can be
seen as a tool to integrate land use and transportation systems with the concepts of density
and diversity, and in residential contexts where it is characterized by very high density,
integration between land use and mass transit systems is encouraged from an early stage,
not only to manage land density but also to restructure settlements [19,31,32].
As seen in previous research, there have been few studies on housing aspects in TOD
development, with the majority focusing on the environment and transit ridership. It
means that the scope must be seen at the city scale during development through land use
planning. Therefore, this research intends to analyze the housing density to optimize land
capability using a geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing techniques
in the Dukuh Atas TOD Area. Through the spatial analysis, this research suspects land
availability in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which could be a suitable location to develop
for residential optimization. This study is located in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which
was chosen because Dukuh Atas is one of the busiest TOD areas in Jakarta, with four
modes of mass transportation in place (MRT Jakarta, Commuter Line, TransJakarta, and
Airport railways), and it is important to create compactness and support the TOD concept
by providing high-density housing. This study focused on an area within a radius of 400 to
800 m from the transit stop, which was considered suitable for walking distance and could
become part of a network for the transit system, which aims to realign urban regions in
terms of rail transport [33].
2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area
The study area of this paper is the Dukuh Atas TOD area, located in Central Jakarta,
Indonesia (6◦ 120 07.400 S, 106◦ 490 22.500 E). Three districts are included in the TOD area:
Menteng District, Setiabudi District, and Tanah Abang District (Figure 1). The Dukuh Atas
TOD area is one of the TOD areas developed by the DKI Jakarta provincial government by
appointing PT. MRT Jakarta as the manager of the area. Dukuh Atas TOD area delineation
is issued in Jakarta Governor’s Regulation No. 107 of 2020 (https://jdih.jakarta.go.id
(accessed on 1 March 2022)). Other developing TOD areas, such as the Lebak Bulus TOD
area, the Fatmawati TOD area, the Blok M–Sisingamangaraja TOD area, and the Istora–
Senayan TOD area, are contained in the Jakarta Governor’s Regulation No. 55 of 2020
(https://jdih.jakarta.go.id/himpunan/produkhukum_detail/10661 (accessed on 1 March
2022)), the Jakarta Governor’s Regulation No. 56 of 2020 (https://jdih.jakarta.go.id/him
punan/produkhukum_detail/10662 (accessed on 1 March 2022)), the Jakarta Governor’s
Regulation No. 57 of 2020 (https://jdih.jakarta.go.id/himpunan/produkhukum_detail/1
0663 (accessed on 1 March 2022)) and the DKI Jakarta Governor’s Regulation No.99 of 2020
(https://jdih.jakarta.go.id/himpunan/produkhukum_detail (accessed on 1 March 2022)).
This study used the Urban Design Guidelines in the Dukuh Atas TOD area delineation,
which contains 146.7 ha and is located in the heart of Jakarta City. The delineation area of
Dukuh Atas TOD Area was first determined by MRT Corridor Development Jakarta Phase
1 in 2012, then the Public Works, Spatial, and Land Planning departments adjusted it to
include Waduk Melati on the west side in 2019. The TOD Area stands in one of the Central
Business Districts (CBD) alongside Jl. Jenderal Sudirman is one of the most important
arteries in Jakarta. This area was on a regional service scale. Many office towers and other
commercial buildings are neatly scattered throughout the area. This made the TOD area in
Dukuh Atas one of the most developed areas in Jakarta.
There are also residential areas categorized as “very dense settlement”, despite being
located in the heart of Jakarta. Figure 2 shows how dense the settlement is, with a road
width of only 1.5 m to accommodate accessibility through the settlement. It should be noted
that the characteristics of dense settlements in Jakarta, Indonesia, are marked by the narrow
roads and the condition of houses that do not have a distance between the building and the
road or any yard in front of the house. In addition, the density in Jakarta is dominated by
settlements in the low-rise category because the majority of vertical or high-rise housing
in Jakarta is flats, which are relatively more organized than the organic settlements built
by the community decades ago. This condition is why the development of TOD areas in
Dukuh Atas is important, especially vertical housing development, to address the backlog
and land availability issues.
rise housing in Jakarta is flats, which are relatively more organized than the organic set-
tlements built by the community decades ago. This condition is why the development of
TOD areas in Dukuh Atas is important, especially vertical housing development, to ad-4 of 20
Sustainability 2023, 15, 530
dress the backlog and land availability issues.
INDONESIA
Java Island
Figure 1. Dukuh AtasFigure

TOD1.Area.
Dukuh Atas TOD Area.
Sustainability 2023,15,
Sustainability2023, 15,530
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
of 20
20
Figure2.2.Dense
Figure Densesettlements
settlementsin
inDukuh
DukuhAtas.
Atas.
2.2.
2.2.Data
DataSource
Source
This
Thisstudy
studyused
usedsecondary
secondarydata
dataobtained
obtainedfrom
fromvarious
varioussources.
sources.Secondary
Secondarydatadatawere
were
collected
collectedfrom
fromprimary
primarysources
sourcesand
andmade
madeavailable
availabletoto researchers
researchersforfor use
use in
in their research.
research.
Most
Mostofofthe
thedata
dataare
arespatial
spatialand
andcan
canbe
beprocessed
processedwith
withthe theGIS
GISsoftware.
software.TheThespatial
spatialdata
data
were acquired from the European Space Agency (ESA) at https://sentinel.esa.int/web/s
were acquired from the European Space Agency (ESA) at https://sentinel.esa.int/web/sen-
entinel/home (accessed
tinel/home (accessed on on
22 22 March
March 2022)
2022) andand used
used to analyze
to analyze thethe spatial
spatial condition
condition of
of the
the TOD area in Dukuh Atas. Nonetheless, statistical data are also used to
TOD area in Dukuh Atas. Nonetheless, statistical data are also used to calculate the calculate the
assumption of population data in the area. The statistical data are obtained from the Bureau
of Statistics in Jakarta Province.
The data obtained are the actual data for the period in which this study was conducted,
i.e., 2021. The data used in this study are existing land use data as of 2021 (https://earthexp
lorer.usgs.gov/ (accessed on 22 March 2022), Urban Design Guidelines for the Dukuh Atas
area that were issued in 2021 (https://mrtjakarta.co.id (accessed on 1 March 2022), which
refer to the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan that was issued in Regional Regulation of Jakarta
Province Number 31 of 2022 (https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/ (accessed on 1 March 2022),
and population data for 2021 for the Dukuh Atas TOD area obtained from the Central
Bureau of Statistics of Jakarta Province (https://jakarta.bps.go.id/ (accessed on 1 March
2022). Data processing (BPS) has gone through further calculations, bearing in mind that
the data at BPS is on an administrative scale while the study area is on a regional scale.
Data on the daily number of passengers at transit stations in the Dukuh Atas TOD
area are also used as secondary data. The transit stations determined in this study are
Dukuh Atas MRT station, Sudirman KRL station, Transjakarta Tosari 1 bus stop, and Tosari
ICBC. In total, 52 percent of passengers disembark in the Dukuh Atas TOD area for work
purposes [34]. This is then used as the basis for the assumption of the number of people
and the number of households predicted to choose to live in the TOD area and then to
include potential residents in the vertical housing planning in the Dukuh Atas TOD area.
In normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) analysis, Sentinel-2A satellite imagery
data were used with the Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) band (Band 11) and Near-Infrared
band (Band 8) to obtain the density index of buildings in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The
two bands in Sentinel-2A satellite imagery with image tile T48MYU (date acquired: 9 April
2022) were processed mathematically using QGIS 3.28.1.
2.3. Research Approach

1. This research has been conducted since October 2020 and involves four stages of
analysis (Figure 3): The first stage is to analyze the conformity between the existing
land use in the Dukuh Atas area and the Urban Design Guidelines for the Dukuh
Atas TOD area, which refers to the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Planning in 2022 (Jakarta
Detailed Spatial Plan). The purpose of this conformity analysis is to find suitable
and unsuitable loci to produce locus output that can be developed to conform to
the applicable urban design guidelines [35]. The suitable area is given a high score,
indicating that it has more potential than the unsuitable area because the suitable area
has certainty in the direction of its development. The second stage is to calculate the
environmental carrying capacity for residential. The focus of this second stage is to
analyze how the environment’s carrying capacity can support the increasing demand
for housing in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The results of environmental carrying
capacity can be one of the inputs in land conversion from land that is unsuitable to
be in accordance with the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan. Carrying capacity analysis
for residential can also determine the intensity of the settlement zone, which includes
several parameters such as Building Covered Ration (BCR), zonation, and maximum
building height.
2. Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI) to analyze the building density index
in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The results of the NDBI analysis will show areas with
high and low densities, which will be analyzed by superimposing them on the land
suitability analysis conducted previously. The NDBI value is exposed in the range
from −1 to 1, where the closer to 1, the denser a certain area is in the Dukuh Atas
TOD area. If the building density index is higher, the area tends to have higher
development potential, considering the relationship between the density of buildings
and the number of people living there.
3. The fourth stage is to extract dense areas and do a weighted overlay analysis with
FAR data. This analysis aims to find potential areas that have not been optimized
by vertical residential development. This is useful for obtaining a vertical allocation
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
Sustainability 2023, 15, 530 3. The fourth stage is to extract dense areas and do a weighted overlay analysis7 of 20
with
FAR data. This analysis aims to find potential areas that have not been optimized by
vertical residential development. This is useful for obtaining a vertical allocation of
land
of forfor
land development
developmentthatthat
can can
be used to provide
be used sustainable
to provide housing
sustainable in the in
housing Dukuh
the
Atas TOD
Dukuh Atasarea.
TODThe higher
area. The an area’sanFAR
higher value,
area’s FARthe higher
value, theits potential
higher for develop-
its potential for
ment, particularly
development, verticalvertical
particularly development.
development.
Figure3.3.Research
Figure Researchmethod
methodflowchart.
flowchart.
2.4.
2.4.Data
DataAnalysis
AnalysisApproach
Approach
The data analysis
The data analysis approach
approach usedused
in this
in study is GIS is
this study analysis with thewith
GIS analysis overlay
themethod
overlay
and
method and an analysis of land carrying capacity for settlements. The overlaywas
an analysis of land carrying capacity for settlements. The overlay analysis per-
analysis
formed to compare and determine compatibility between the existing land use in the area
was performed to compare and determine compatibility between the existing land use in
and Jakarta’s detailed spatial plan. In contrast, the specific analysis method was carried out
the area and Jakarta’s detailed spatial plan. In contrast, the specific analysis method was
using the overlay analysis method with the GGIS approach in ArcMap software.
carried out using the overlay analysis method with the GGIS approach in ArcMap soft-
The carrying capacity of the land for settlements is the next analysis. The purpose of
ware.
calculating settlement carrying capacity is to identify the ability of an area to accommodate
The carrying capacity of the land for settlements is the next analysis. The purpose of
residents, which is explained by the following formula [36]:
calculating settlement carrying capacity is to identify the ability of an area to accommo-
date residents, which is explained by the following LPm formula [36]:
DDPm = (1)
JP ×𝐿𝑃𝑚
α
𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑚 = (1)
where DDPm is the environmental carrying capacity, 𝐽𝑃 LPm
𝛼 is the residential land area, JP is
the population,
where DDPm is and is the coefficient
theαenvironmental of spacecapacity,
carrying requirement
LPmarea.
is theTable 1 is a standard
residential land area,perJP
capita
is thespace requirement
population, and αthat cancoefficient
is the be used asofa guideline for calculating
space requirement area.the carrying
Table 1 is a capacity
standard
index value space
per capita of settlements
requirementcontained in the
that can Regulation
be used of the Minister
as a guideline of Publicthe
for calculating Works No.
carrying
11capacity
of 2008 index
(https://legalitas.org/peraturan-menteri-kementerian-negara-perumahan-rak
value of settlements contained in the Regulation of the Minister of Public
yat-no-11-permen-m-2008-tahun-2008-tentang-pedoman-keserasian-kawasan-perumaha
Works No. 11 of 2008 (https://legalitas.org/peraturan-menteri-kementerian-negara-pe-
n-dan-permukiman (accessed on 12 March 2022).
rumahan-rakyat-no-11-permen-m-2008-tahun-2008-tentang-pedoman-keserasian-kawa-
san-perumahan-dan-permukiman (accessed on 12 March 2022).
Table 1. Coefficient of Space Requirement Area.
Table 1. Coefficient of Space Requirement Area.
No. Geografic Location Space Requirements (ha/capita)
No. 1 Geografic
Rural Zona Location Space Requirements (ha/capita)
0.0133
1 2Rural Zona
Suburban Zone 0.0133
0.0080
2 3SuburbanUrban
Zone Zone 0.0080
0.0026
3 4Urban Zone
City Center Zone 0.0026
0.0016
4 City Center Zone 0.0016
5 Metropolitan City Center Zone 0.0006
The calculation result from the above equation is a multiple of the population of the
environment in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The result of the population multiplication can
be assumed as a prediction of the population in the future, which can then be processed
into the number of households under the assumption that 1 household contains 4–5 people.
Assuming that 1 household occupies 1 residential unit, it can be seen that there will be
housing needs in the Dukuh Atas TOD area in the future. This figure will then become one
of the inputs in finding potential locations for land use change, especially from loci that are
not in accordance with the Urban Design Guidelines and the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan.
The following analysis is the NDBI analysis, which is used as one variable with the
aim of identifying the density of the built-up area in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. This NDBI
approach is an algorithm modification of the Natural Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
approach, which is used to identify the vegetation density index [37]. The value generated
by the NDBI analysis varies from −1 to 1, where the closer to 1 it is, the higher the value of
building density. The NDBI formula is as follows:
SW IR − N IR
NDBI = (2)
SW IR + N IR
where SWIR is Short-wave Infrared band, and NIR is the Near-Infrared band.
This SWIR and NIR channel (band) is found in satellite imagery that can be down-
loaded from the state-owned space agency. This study used Sentinel 2A with a spatial
resolution of 15 m. A spatial resolution of 15 m means that each existing pixel represents
an area of 15 × 15 m in the field [38]. It is crucial to identify the density of buildings in
the Dukuh Atas TOD area because there are different approaches to developing vertical
housing in an empty area and in an area with a high residential density but with a typology
that tends to be sporadic. Furthermore, the data needed are intensity data, especially in the
Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan settlement zone, as stipulated in the Regional Regulation of
Jakarta Province No. 31 of 2022 (https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/228166/perg
ub-prov-dki-jakarta-no-31-tahun-2022 (accessed on 12 March 2022). These intensity data
determine which areas are allowed or permitted for the development of vertical housing or
mixed-use developments.
The four results of the analysis are then combined with a weighted overlay analysis,
which is one of several methods. The weighted-overlay method uses the pixel values in
the raster data, so the results of the analysis must first be converted into raster data [39].
This weighted-overlay method relies on weighting each layer of the variables analyzed.
Each attribute in each variable is also given a value in the form of a score that is arranged
ordinally, or in other words, based on ranking [40].
The scores listed in Table 2 are defined between 1 and 5, where the higher the value,
the higher the potential for the area. The highest weight is the FAR and the intensity
of the settlement zone, which refers to the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan and the Urban
Design Guidelines (UDGL) of the Dukuh Atas TOD area as the highest limit, which is
the regulation for development in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The second-highest weight
is NDBI, and the lowest is conformity. Weighting is performed after each variable goes
through the scoring stage. Weighting is performed to express the level of influence of a
variable on other variables [41]. The weighting method used in this study is based on
previous studies that included four variables, as shown in Table 2. These variables include
conformity, FAR, NDBI, and residential zone intensity.
Conformity is obtained by overlaying existing land use with the Detailed Spatial Plan
of Jakarta. The weighting process for this variable is the smallest among the other variables.
This is because the conformity variable does not directly impact conformity dynamics
resulting from the overlay analysis [42]. In addition, the potential for the development of
vertical housing can be based on both suitable and inappropriate areas, as well as dense
and less densely populated areas [28]. NDBI is an indicator to measure an area’s building
density level [37]. In this case, NDBI is another important component in determining
the allocation of residential density besides FAR and Residential Zone Intensity [43]. In
addition, NDBI provides an overview of the density in the Jakarta TOD area. The score
on the NDBI value is divided into five classes, where the NDBI value < 1 is given a score
of 1 (N/A) because it is not a built-up area, while the rest, NDBI > 1, is divided into four
density classes with equal intervals.
Table 2. Weighted-Overlay Variables.
Analysis Unit Value Score Weight

Unsuitable 1
Conformity 15
Suitable 5
Low 1
FAR 30
Mid-High 5
N/A 1
Not Dense 2
NDBI Low Density 3 25
Medium Density 4
High Density 5
Residential Zone Potential 5
30
Intensity Not-Potential 1
The FAR weighting was chosen based on the limited space in the Dukuh Atas TOD
area, which requires a development approach to measure intensity through volume, the
bulk of buildings, and mass. The practice of building intensity in Dukuh Atas TOD is still
not appropriate because many land housing projects have not applied an equal distribution
of FAR values [30]. At the same time, the design of the TOD area supports land use with
a maximum FAR [44,45]. Therefore, in the analysis unit FAR, the score is divided into
two values: a score of 1 is for a low FAR number, while a score of 5 is for a mid-high
FAR number.
Weighting for residential areas is given because this study aims to find the land
allocation for settlements. Therefore, the highest weight is given to areas where land use
has the potential to be allocated as residential areas, such as mixed-use zones, vertical
housing zones, and medium-high FAR residential zones [45].
3. Results
3.1. Analysis of Conformity between Urban Design Guidelines for the Dukuh Atas TOD Area and
Existing Land Use
The TOD area of Dukuh Atas has an area of 146 hectares, consisting of various types of
land uses. The dominant land uses include (1) housing and settlements/residential areas,
(2) business/trade and commercial services, (3) socio-cultural areas, (4) spiritual areas, and
(5) other uses. Based on the five types of land use, it can be further broken down into
ten existing land uses, namely: (1.1) mixed function; (1.2) settlement; (2.1) offices, trade,
and services; (2.2) public services; (2.3) government; (3.1) education services; (4.1) religion;
(5.1) green open space; (5.2) blue open space; and (5.3) vacant land.
Figure 4 shows the percentage of existing land use in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. Based
on these data, it can be seen that the Dukuh Atas TOD area is dominated by offices, trade,
and services (44.19%) and followed by residential areas (29.33%). This finding shows that
the Dukuh Atas TOD area meets the characteristics of an urban area in the downtown zone
of the Jakarta metropolitan area.
Based on Figure 5, it can be identified that the Jakarta Spatial Plan contained in the
Dukuh Atas TOD Area consists of ten zones, which include the mixed zone, green line zone,
public and social service zone, government zone national office, trade and service zone,
medium-high BCR housing zone, vertical housing zone, foreign country representative
zone, city/environmental park zone, and blue open zone. Each of the ten zones has its
sub-zone according to its designation, which is also equipped with a “Zoning Regulation
Table” as a guide for planning the area.
Figure 4. Comparison of Dukuh Atas Existing Land Use and Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan. (a)
Dukuh Atas Existing Land Use and (b) Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan.
Dukuh Atas TOD Area consists of ten zones, which include the mixed zone, green line
zone, public and social service zone, government zone national office, trade and service
zone, medium-high BCR housing zone, vertical housing zone, foreign country representa-
tive zone, city/environmental park zone, and blue open zone. Each of the ten zones has its
sub-zone according toofits designation, which is also equipped with a “Zoning Regulation
Figure4.4.Comparison
Figure Comparison ofDukuh
DukuhAtas
AtasExisting
ExistingLand
LandUse
Use and Jakarta
and Detailed
Jakarta Spatial
Detailed Plan.
Spatial (a)(a)
Plan. Dukuh
Table”
Atas as a
Existingguide
Landfor
Useplanning
and (b) the area.
Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan.
Dukuh Atas Existing Land Use and (b) Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan.
Dukuh Atas TOD Area consists of ten zones, which include the mixed zone, green line
zone, public and social service zone, government zone national office, trade and service
zone, medium-high BCR housing zone, vertical housing zone, foreign country representa-
tive zone, city/environmental park zone, and blue open zone. Each of the ten zones has its
sub-zone according to its designation, which is also equipped with a “Zoning Regulation
Table” as a guide for planning the area.
Figure 5. Existing Land Use in Dukuh Atas.

Figure 5. Existing Land Use in Dukuh Atas.
Figure 6 shows the percentage of the zoning area in the 2022 Jakarta Detailed Spatial
Figure
Plan. Based6 shows the percentage
on the chart, of thethat
it can be seen zoning area inDetailed
the Jakarta the 2022Spatial
JakartaPlan
Detailed
in theSpatial
Dukuh
Plan. Based on the chart, it can be seen that the Jakarta Detailed Spatial
Atas TOD area is dominated by the office, trade, and service zones (40.28%) andPlan in the followed
Dukuh
Atas TOD
by the area is dominated
residential by thewhich
zone (22.16%), office, is
trade, and service
divided in morezones
detail(40.28%)
into theand followed
medium-high
BCR housing zone (11.74%) and the vertical housing zone (10.42%). The Jakarta Detailed
Spatial Plan in the Dukuh Atas TOD area also shows that the Mixed Zone and Blue Open
Zone get a fairly large share, considering that the direction of the Dukuh Atas TOD Urban
Design Guidelines
Figure 5. focuses
Existing Land Use inmore on Atas.
Dukuh mixed-use development to support sustainable TOD.
Figure 6 shows the percentage of the zoning area in the 2022 Jakarta Detailed Spatial
Plan. Based on the chart, it can be seen that the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan in the Dukuh
Atas TOD area is dominated by the office, trade, and service zones (40.28%) and followed
Figure 7 compares the current land use and the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan in the
Dukuh Atas TOD area. There are significant differences in several types of land use, such
asbygreen
the residential
open space,zone blue(22.16%), which
open space, is divided
settlements, andinmixed.
more detail into thediscrepancies
This indicates medium-high
at several loci in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which we can see in Figure 7. The bigDetailed
BCR housing zone (11.74%) and the vertical housing zone (10.42%). The Jakarta differ-
Spatial
ence Plan
is in thein the open
blue Dukuh Atas This
space. TODisarea also shows
because that
there is nothe Mixed
river landZone and
use in theBlue Open
existing
Sustainability 2023, 15, 530 Zonebut
data, getthere
a fairly
is alarge
blueshare,
open considering that the Detailed
zone in the Jakarta directionSpatial
of the Dukuh Atas TOD
Plan, which Urban
includes
11 ofa20
Design Guidelines focuses more on mixed-use
river and pond at the “Patung Selamat Datang” Fountain. development to support sustainable TOD.
Dukuh Atas TOD area. There are significant differences in several types of land use, such
as green open space, blue open space, settlements, and mixed. This indicates discrepancies
at several loci in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which we can see in Figure 7. The big differ-
ence is in the blue open space. This is because there is no river land use in the existing
data, but there is a blue open zone in the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan, which includes a
river and pond at the “Patung Selamat Datang” Fountain.
Figure 6. Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan Percentage.

Dukuh Atas TOD area. There are significant differences in several types of land use, such as
green open space, blue open space, settlements, and mixed. This indicates discrepancies at
several loci in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, which we can see in Figure 7. The big difference
is in the blue open space. This is because there is no river land use in the existing data, but
there is a blue open zone in the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan, which includes a river and
pond at the “Patung Selamat Datang” Fountain.
Figure 7. Land Use and Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan Comparison Chart.
Overlay analysis using the GIS method was carried out to see which loci or areas
within the Dukuh Atas TOD area were suitable and not in accordance with the Jakarta
Detailed Spatial Plan in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. However, there are areas of water
bodies that are determined to be restricted in the overlay process, even though there is
compatibility between the current land use and the Detailed Spatial Plan. This is due to
compatibility between the current land use and the Detailed Spatial Plan. This is due to
compatibility
restrictions onbetween the currentofland
the development use andareas,
residential the Detailed Spatial
which may notPlan. This is due
be developed to
over
water bodies. On the conformity map of the overlay results between the existing land use
and the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan, it can be seen which location are suitable, along with
their areas (Figure 8). The results show that the appropriate area (green) is 956.756.83 m2 ,
and the unsuitable area (red) is 186.680.73 m2 . This shows that 83.67% of the Dukuh Atas
TOD area is in accordance with the detailed spatial plan. Unsuitable conditions tend to
restrictions on the development of residential areas, which may not be developed over
water bodies. On the conformity map of the overlay results between the existing land use
and the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan, it can be seen which location are suitable, along with
their areas (Figure 8). The results show that the appropriate area (green) is 956.756.83 m2,
and the unsuitable area (red) is 186.680.73 m2. This shows that 83.67% of the Dukuh Atas
TOD area is in accordance with the detailed spatial plan. Unsuitable conditions tend to be
be found
found in in
thethe western
western part
part of the
of the Dukuh
Dukuh Atas
Atas TOD TOD area,
area, adjacent
adjacent to Kebun
to the the Kebun Melati
Melati Res-
Reservoir and residential areas bordering the Ciliwung River.
ervoir and residential areas bordering the Ciliwung River.
Figure8.8.Conformity
Figure Conformitybetween
betweenexisting
existingland
landuse
useand
andthe
theJakarta
JakartaDetailed
DetailedSpatial
SpatialPlan.
Plan.
Thisland
This landconformity
conformity mapmap willwill be one
be one ofinputs
of the the inputs for considering
for considering the search
the search for
for poten-
potential
tial locations
locations to increaseto increase the number
the number of dwellings
of dwellings in orderintoorder to accommodate
accommodate the in-
the increasing
density
creasingaccording to the design
density according in the
to the Dukuh
design Atas
in the TOD Urban
Dukuh Atas TOD Design Guidelines,
Urban which
Design Guide-
islines,
to increase
which is thetodensity
increaseofthe thedensity
area toofcreate an area
the area withan
to create thearea
concept
with theof one-stop
concept of living.
one-
The
stopone-stop living
living. The concept
one-stop was concept
living also supported
was alsobysupported
walkability byand mixed use.
walkability andIn termsuse.
mixed of
mixed
In termsuse,ofthe density
mixed helps
use, reduce transportation
the density expenses due toexpenses
helps reduce transportation the integration
due toofthe public
inte-
transport
gration ofand housing
public [46].and
transport Thehousing
walkability
[46]. of
TheTOD is a central
walkability concept
of TOD becauseconcept
is a central every
mobility
because action
every starts
mobilityandaction
ends with walking.
starts and ends Nonetheless,
with walking.it came with consequences
Nonetheless, as a
it came with
multi-dimensional
consequences as a concept that depends
multi-dimensional on thethat
concept components
depends on of the
the built environment,
components and
of the built
its performanceand
environment, is the
itskey to guaranteeing
performance its success
is the key and promoting
to guaranteeing its use,
its success andwhich includes
promoting its
urban design, transportation systems, the physical infrastructure of
use, which includes urban design, transportation systems, the physical infrastructure of roads, sidewalks, bike
paths,
roads,etc., urban use
sidewalks, bikepatterns, the urban
paths, etc., distribution of spacethe
use patterns, [47], and improving
distribution of spacewalkability
[47], and
in a TOD concept [48]. In addition, there has to be an intermodal integration of public
transportation that facilitates the accessibility and movement of people in the TOD area.
The design of the Dukuh Atas TOD Area reduces the distance between destinations that
accommodate the needs and activities of the people in the area. For example, if one needs
to fulfill daily needs, one only needs to walk for about 5–10 min. Moreover, the 5–10 min
walk was the criteria for connectivity to transit points, namely a maximum of 600 m from
commercial, service, or office areas and 600 m from residential areas [49].
3.2. Environmental Carrying Capacity Analysis for Settlements

The number of existing residents, the standard area of space requirements, or capita,
and the area of land suitable for settlements are all factors to consider when calculating the
environmental carrying capacity for settlements. The population variable is an estimate
of the population included in the delineation of the Dukuh Atas TOD area. It is necessary
to calculate the population with assumptions based on scientific calculations, where the
assumed population is obtained from the following equation:
JP
Kpdt = (3)
LW
where Kpdt is population density, JP is the number of population (people), and LW is the
area (ha).
The first stage is to find the average population density in the Dukuh Atas TOD area
by finding the average population density of the three sub-districts where the Dukuh Atas
TOD area is located, namely Menteng District, Setiabudi District, and Tanah Abang District,
by considering the ratio of the area located in each district. The next step is to calculate the
population range by multiplying the average population density by the area of the Dukuh
Atas TOD area to get the population range in the Dukuh Atas TOD area.
Based on Table 3, the range of the population in the Dukuh Atas TOD area can be
determined with the following calculations (Table 4):
Table 3. Population Density in Dukuh Atas TOD Area.
Population Population Density

No District Area (ha)
(Person) (Person/ha)
1 Menteng 653 68,415 105
2 Setiabudi 885 112,055 127
3 Tanah Abang 930 147,788 159
Table 4. Population Calculation.
Population Density Population

No District TOD Area (ha)
(Person/ha) (Person)
1 Menteng 44.61 105 4674
2 Setiabudi 4.54 127 575
3 Tanah Abang 96.31 159 15,304
Total 20,554
It is known from the calculation results that the range of the population in the TOD area
of Dukuh Atas is 20,554 people. After knowing the population, we can continue calculating
the environmental carrying capacity for settlements in the Dukuh Atas TOD area.
Based on Equation (1), it can be concluded that the land carrying capacity for a resi-
dential area is greater than 1, which means that the land in the Dukuh Atas TOD area can
accommodate residents. According to the calculation, the resulting DDPm, or environmen-
tal carrying capacity, for settlements is 2.05, indicating that the residential environment has
enough area to accommodate residents who are 2.05 times the current population. After
obtaining the value of the environmental carrying capacity for settlements, the optimal
population can be calculated as follows:
JPo = DDPm × JP (4)


𝐽𝑃𝑜 = 𝐷𝐷𝑃𝑚 𝐽𝑃 (4)
where JPo is the number of residents that can be supported by the environment’s carrying
capacity
where JPoinisthe
theDukuh
numberAtas TOD area,
of residents DDPm
that can beissupported
the environmental carrying capacity,
by the environment’s and
carrying
JP is the number of people (population).
capacity in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, DDPm is the environmental carrying capacity, and
Based
JP is the on the
number of results
people of the calculation analysis, it is found that the number of resi-
(population).
dents that on
Based cantheberesults
supported
of theby the carrying
calculation capacity
analysis, of thethat
it is found environment
the number inofthe Dukuh
residents
Atascan
that TOD area is 42.128
be supported people.
by the carryingHowever,
capacityitofshould be noted that
the environment this
in the formula
Dukuh Atasapplies
TOD
onlyisto42.128
area the horizontal growth of itsettlements
people. However, should be andnoted ignores vertical
that this growth,
formula so this
applies only research
to the
needs to begrowth
horizontal investigated further. and ignores vertical growth, so this research needs to be
of settlements
Suppose
investigated it is assumed that one household consists of four people, and one household
further.
Suppose
occupies one itresidential
is assumed thatIn
unit. one household
that consists
case, it can be seen of that
four the
people, and one household
environmental carrying
occupies
capacity one residential in
for settlements unit.
theIn that case,
Dukuh AtasitTOD
can be seen
Area canthat the environmental
support carrying
up to 10,534 residential
capacity
units onforthesettlements in the Dukuh
site (horizontally). If we Atas TOD Area
talk about can support
horizontal up to 10,534
development, residential
referring to the
units
Jakarta Spatial Plan, we will obtain a much larger number than the calculation results.the
on the site (horizontally). If we talk about horizontal development, referring to
Jakarta Spatial Plan, we will obtain a much larger number than the calculation results.
3.3. Normalized Difference Built-Up Index
3.3. Normalized Difference Built-Up Index
NDBI was used in the study as one of the primary considerations in determining
NDBIrelated
decisions was used in the
to land usestudy as one of
mismatches thespatial
with primary considerations
planning in determining
in the Dukuh Atas TOD
decisions related to land use mismatches with spatial planning
area. Figure 9 shows the NDBI value in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. Several density in the Dukuh Ataspoints
TOD
area. Figure 9 shows the NDBI value in the Dukuh Atas TOD area.
dominate in the sub-districts of Kebonmelati and Menteng. There is an uneven distribu-Several density points
dominate in the sub-districts
tion of building of Kebonmelati
densities, where the current and Menteng.
density There isbuildings
of existing an uneven is distribution
centered on
of building densities, where the current density of existing buildings is centered on several
several locations. Optimum building density allocation requires integration with spatial
locations. Optimum building density allocation requires integration with spatial planning
planning policies, especially those related to the land-use suitability of the Dukuh Atas
policies, especially those related to the land-use suitability of the Dukuh Atas TOD Area.
TOD Area.
Figure9.9.Normalized
Figure NormalizedDifference
DifferenceBuilt-up
Built-upIndex
IndexofofDukuh
DukuhAtas
AtasTOD
TODArea.
Area.
3.4.
3.4. Optimizing
Optimizing the
the Residential
Residential Development
Development of of the
the Dukuh
Dukuh AtasAtas Transit-Oriented
Transit-Oriented Development
Area
Development Area
Optimizing residential development
development entailsentails considering
consideringan aneven
evendistribution
distributionofofenvi-
en-
vironmental carrying
ronmental carrying capacity
capacity conditions
conditions withwith building
building density
density in theindeviation
the deviation area,
area, which
which
shouldshould be allocated
be allocated to with
to areas areasgreater
with greater potential
potential or suitability
or suitability for urban
for urban develop-
development.
ment.
Based Based
on the on the results,
results, we havewe havepotential
found found potential
areas forareas for area
housing housing area allocation
allocation based on
the spatial
based plan,
on the the conformity
spatial between the
plan, the conformity spatial the
between planspatial
and the existing
plan development,
and the and
existing devel-
built-up area
opment, density. There
and built-up are five There
area density. recommendation classes in the Dukuh
are five recommendation classesAtas TOD
in the area,
Dukuh
whereTOD
Atas the number one (1)
area, where therepresents
number one an area that is restricted
(1) represents an areaorthat
cannot be developed,
is restricted and
or cannot
thedeveloped,
be number five (5)the
and represents
numberan fivearea
(5) with great potential
represents to begreat
an area with developed forto
potential sustainable
be devel-
housing
oped allocation (Figure
for sustainable housing10). The higher
allocation areas
(Figure 10).ofThe
potential
higherfor housing
areas allocations
of potential are
for hous-
distributed in the middle area of the TOD Dukuh Atas. For example,
ing allocations are distributed in the middle area of the TOD Dukuh Atas. For example, for higher suitability
scores
for of 5,suitability
higher there are 2scores
ha of of
potential
5, thereareas
are 2and
ha of11.4 ha for scores
potential of 4.11.4
areas and In this case,
ha for 22% of
scores
theInpotential
4. this case,areas
22% are in the
of the TOD Dukuh
potential areas areAtas.
in the TOD Dukuh Atas.
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Potential
Potential Areas
Areas for
for Housing
Housing Development
Development in
in the
the TOD
TOD Dukuh Atas Area.
Dukuh Atas Area.
4. Discussion
The TOD policy contained in the Minister of Agrarian and Spatial Planning and Na-
tional Land Agency Regulation No. 16 of 2017 concerning Guidelines for the Development
of Transit-Oriented Areas accommodates residential development, which continues to
be driven by vertical development. Given that the availability of land is limited and the
urbanization process continues to increase in Jakarta, the Dukuh Atas TOD area, as one
of the strategic areas in the heart of Jakarta, requires vertical development, which is also
urgent. The existence of the Minister of Agrarian and Spatial Planning and National Land
Agency regulation, which was also revealed to be Jakarta Governor Regulation No. 107 of
2020 concerning the development of transit-oriented areas in Dukuh Atas, further accom-
modates the interests in the development of the TOD area in Dukuh Atas. With this policy,
planning documents align with the direction of developing transit-oriented areas. This is
confirmed by the update of the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan in 2022, which is contained in
Governor Regulation No. 31 of 2022 concerning the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan of the
Jakarta Province, which discusses the direction of regional functions, including but not
limited to the Dukuh Atas area, and which serves as a guide for the preparation of Urban
Design Guidelines for the development of TOD in Dukuh Atas.
Referring to the results of the analysis that has been carried out on both the conformity
and environmental carrying capacity of settlements, it can be seen that the Dukuh Atas
TOD area can support the growth of new housing both horizontally and vertically because
there is still land availability. In addition, from the conformity analysis, we can find out
which areas are not suitable so that in the future, the development of residential areas can
be directed to adjust areas that are not yet suitable in the Dukuh Atas TOD Area. This is
necessary for future environmental sustainability in order to control and sustain land use
dynamics. Several studies show that inappropriate land use can cause various problems,
such as environmental, social, and economic ones.
The results of the land’s carrying capacity analysis also show that the Dukuh Atas
TOD area can still support residential growth, and the population is 2.05 times the current
population, assuming that residential growth takes place only horizontally. However, in
the Dukuh Atas area, which is actually located in the Jakarta Metropolitan City, it will
be possible if the development occurs vertically, even in mixed use. This statement was
reinforced by [50] through their research, which calculates the Land Use Diversity Index in
the Dukuh Atas TOD, which has increased to 0.92 in 2020, whereas in 2013, it was only 0.88.
One of the reasons for the increase in the mixed-use function is the availability of public
services, mainly because it is integrated with transit modes. This allows the housing to be
built on top of other spatial functions such as trade and services, public services, and offices.
For example, there are flats above the market (Pasar Rumput Vertical Housing) and others.
There are medium-high BCR settlement zones and vertical settlement zones in the
Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan in the Dukuh Atas TOD area, with an area of 13.39 ha for the
medium-high BCR housing zone and 11.89 ha for the vertical housing zone (Figure 11).
This is interesting because, in further research, the analysis of the environmental carrying
capacity for settlements can be processed by taking into account the FAR values in the
Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan in order to obtain the maximum number of floors that can
be built in a zone. With the results of these calculations, it can produce a more detailed
prediction of residential needs in accordance with the conditions of the TOD area in
Dukuh Atas.
The purpose of this study is to show how many residents and the estimated number
of dwellings can be supported by the environmental carrying capacity in the Dukuh Atas
TOD area by taking into account an analysis of conformity as one of the inputs for potential
land development in the future.
Sustainability 2023,
Sustainability 15, x530
2023, 15, FOR PEER REVIEW 1717ofof 20
20
Figure 11. Housing Zones of Jakarta: Detailed Spatial Plan.

Figure 11. Housing Zones of Jakarta: Detailed Spatial Plan.
The purpose of this study is to show how many residents and the estimated number
5. Conclusions
of dwellings can aims
This study be supported byoptimum
to find the the environmental carryingfor
space utilization capacity in the Dukuh
the residential Atas
allocation
TOD area by taking into account an analysis of conformity as one of the inputs for
in the Dukuh Atas TOD area through spatial analysis. This study uses several variables, poten-
tial
suchland development
as conformity, in NDBI,
FAR, the future.
and residential zone intensity. Based on the analysis of the
conformity of existing land use with the Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan and an analysis of
5.
theConclusions
environmental supporting capacity of the settlements in the Dukuh Atas TOD Area, it
can beThis study aims
concluded thattothefind the optimum
Dukuh Atas TOD space
Area utilization
is still ablefortothe residential
support allocation
an increase in
in the
the Dukuh Atas TOD area through spatial analysis. This study uses several
population up to 2.05 times the current population if it is assumed that housing growth variables, such
as conformity,
will only occurFAR,
graduallyNDBI, and residential
horizontally. zone
In this intensity.
case, this study Based
findsonthat
the22%
analysis
of theoftotal
the
conformity
area of Dukuhof existing
Atas TOD land use withand
is suitable thehas
Jakarta Detailed to
the potential Spatial Plan andespecially
be optimized, an analysis of
with
regard
the to the designation
environmental supportingof vertical housing.
capacity of theThen, the area
settlements indevelopment
the Dukuh Atas planTOD
contained
Area,
incan
it the be
Dukuh Atas TOD
concluded thatArea Urban Design
the Dukuh Atas TODGuidelines
Area is can
still be directed
able to areas
to support an that are not
increase in
suitable
the while up
population stilltopaying attention
2.05 times to other
the current areas that
population if ithave the potential
is assumed for mixed-use
that housing growth
development
will and
only occur vertical horizontally.
gradually development.In this case, this study finds that 22% of the total
area of Dukuh Atas TOD is suitable and has the potential to be optimized, especially with
The government can take several policy directions in housing development that are not
only horizontal but focus more on the development of vertical housing as a way to maximize
land use efficiency by considering several variables such as building density, conformity
of existing land use with urban planning documents, and residential zone intensity. The
existence of comprehensive vertical planning allows the concept of a sustainable TOD area
to be applied optimally and supports activities in the TOD area.
Further research is needed on the direction of residential development to support the
sustainable TOD concept, especially in the Dukuh Atas TOD area. The sustainable TOD
concept is meant to reduce the use of private vehicles by increasing the density between
zones, including by designing an integrated environment such as mixed-use planning and
integrating public transport intermodally.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M.I., H.S.H. and S.A.A.; Methodology, R.M.I.; Software,
R.M.I.; Validation, R.M.I., H.S.H. and S.A.A.; Formal Analysis, R.M.I.; Investigation, R.M.I.; Resources,
R.M.I.; Data Curation, R.M.I.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, R.M.I.; Writing—Review and
Editing, H.S.H. and S.A.A.; Visualization, R.M.I.; Supervision, H.S.H. and S.A.A.; Project Administra-
tion, R.M.I.; Funding Acquisition, R.M.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data will be available upon a reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors sincerely thank the Department of Environmental Science, Univer-
sitas Indonesia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with any financial,
personal, or other relationships with other people or organizations related to the material discussed
in the article.
Abbreviations
TOD Transit-Oriented Development

CBD Central Business District
NDBI Normalized Difference Built-up Index
NDVI Natural Difference Vegetation Index
GIS Geographic Information System
FAR Floor Area Ratio
BCR Building Covered Ration
MRT Mass Rapid Transit
LRT Light Rail Transit
HSR High-Speed Rail
SWIR Short-Wave Infrared Band
NIR Near-Infrared Band
ICBC Tosari—Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Limited
DKI Jakarta Daerah Khusus Ibukota/Capital City of Indonesia—Jakarta
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School of Environmental Science, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia

Keywords: Dukuh Atas TOD area; NDBI; housing density

Sustainability 2023, 15, 530. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010530 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Methods

Figure 1. Dukuh AtasFigure

2.3. Research Approach

Table 2. Weighted-Overlay Variables.

Analysis Unit Value Score Weight

Figure 5. Existing Land Use in Dukuh Atas.

Figure 6. Jakarta Detailed Spatial Plan Percentage.

3.2. Environmental Carrying Capacity Analysis for Settlements

Table 3. Population Density in Dukuh Atas TOD Area.

Population Population Density

Table 4. Population Calculation.

Population Density Population

JPo = DDPm × JP (4)

Sustainability 2023, 15, 530 14 of 20

Figure 11. Housing Zones of Jakarta: Detailed Spatial Plan.

TOD Transit-Oriented Development

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