Introduction to Coloration

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Introduction

Once the textile materials have been prepared, the textile materials
would be introduced to the process of coloration, i.e. dyeing
(penetrate into fibre) and printing (attach in fibre surface).

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Dyes and Pigments

• The coloration of textiles may be carried out using either dyes or

pigments.

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Dyes and Pigments

Colorants

Dyes Pigment

Acid

Azoic

Basic
Note- Colorants are used to add colour
Direct during dyeing and printing.
Disperse

Reactive

Sulphur

Vat

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 Differences between dyes and pigments

Dyes Pigments
u Soluble in water, at uInsoluble in water
least at one stage of
dyeing uHaving no substantivity
for a fibre, and held
u Able to penetrate into mechanically on the
a fibre and having a surface of the fibre only
certain degree of
substantivity for it

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Dyes –soluble in water

Textile wet processing – water as a treatment medium to bring dye

into textile materials

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Differences between dyes and pigments

Substantivity can be
defined as the attraction
between the colorant and
the fibre.

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Differences between dyes and pigments

•Dyes usually possess different degree of

substantivity for different fibres.

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9
Principles of Dyeing

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Principles of Dyeing

• The composition of textile fibre, if enlarged, is like a dry

sponge with loose structure.

• Imagine that a sponge is immersed in water which contains

some dissolved dyes.

• Because of the loose structure of the sponge, the mixture of

water and dye penetrates into it easily.

• However, if the sponge is washed in water, the absorbed

dyes will be washed away, because they have no
substantivity for the sponge.

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 Principles of Dyeing
•Although textiles (fibre, yarn, fabric, garment)
absorb dyes in much the same way as a
sponge, they differ from a sponge in that dyes
have substantivity for them.

•This means that an absorbed dye will not be

washed away by water, but will either combine
chemically with the textile fibre or be locked
inside it.

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Principles of Dyeing

During the dyeing operation, three processes are

occurred as follows:

(1) transport of the dye to the fibre surface;

(2) sorption (absorption/adhesion) of the dye at
the fibre surface;
(3) penetration of the fibre by dye, i.e. dye
diffuses into fibre.

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 Dyebath: a bath containing
Principles of Dyeing dyeing solution

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Dyeing

• Step (1): Heat energy, dye molecules gain heat energy to move to
fibre surface
• Step (3): Time – allow sufficient time for dye molecules penetrate
into fibre

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Principles of Dyeing

• The diffused dye must be retained by the fibre in order to increase the
build-up of dye inside fibre (colour development) and give suitable
fastness (no lose of colour upon usage).

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 Principles of Dyeing

Retaining of dye inside fibre occurs due to certain

force of attraction between the dye and the fibre such
as:

(i) Van der Waals’ forces (physical attraction);

(ii) hydrogen bonding (physical attraction);
(iii) ionic forces (salt formation) and
(iv) covalent bonding (bond formation).

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Van der Waals’ forces
(physical attraction)
(for reference only)

• Attraction between
atoms or molecules
when placed in very
close distance

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Hydrogen Bonding (physical
attraction)
(for reference only)

• Sharing of electrons or
hydrogen atoms
between dyes and fibre
molecules

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 Ionic forces (salt formation) (for reference
only)
• Attraction between positively and negatively charged ion,
one on the dye and the other on fibre

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Covalent bonding (bond formation) (for
reference only)
• Chemical bond formed between dye and fibre

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 Principles of Dyeing
• In the dyeing process, chemicals (such as alkalis or
acids) and other substances (such as salt) may be
needed in addition to the dye, in order to improve the
dye penetration and substantivity (attraction)
for a fibre.

• Those “chemicals” and “other substances” are known

as AUXILIARIES.
• In a dyebath, it contains dye and auxiliaries (one or
more than one chemicals to assist the dyeing process)

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Principles of Dyeing
•High temperature is also generally required
for dyeing, since heat energy can swell the
fibre, so speeding up the dyeing process.
•- thermal expansion, increase internal
volume
•- speeding up dyeing process

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Principles of Dyeing

• A good dye must possess an acceptable degree of

substantivity for the fibre to which it is applied, to
enable it to withstand later treatment such as
washing and rubbing.

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Principles of Dyeing

•“Fastness” is referred to a dye’s ability to

withstand treatment such as washing and rubbing)
or in normal usage.

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 Principles of Dyeing

•If a dye does not have any loss in colour after

exposure to sunlight, it can be described as
having good fastness to light.

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 Principles of Dyeing

•Thus, if a dye can be washed without any loss

in colour, it can be described as having good
fastness to washing.

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Principles of Dyeing

The textile goods should have one or more of the

following common fastness requirements:

(i) light,
(ii) washing,
(iii) dry-cleaning,
(iv) rubbing (also known as crocking), and
(v) perspiration,

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Fastness

• Rubbing (EU/UK market)

• Crocking (US market)
• Colour fastness to washing / laundering (you need to know the
details about the washing / laundering requirements from your
client)

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Fastness

• Curtain fabric – which fastness is most important?

• Silk evening gown ??

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Principles of Dyeing

Remark
•Different dyes may have different fastness
properties to various treatments, so that a
dye can have good fastness to washing but
with poor fastness to light.

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Care label

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Dyes and Their Selection

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Dyes and Their Selection

•Since many dyes can be used to dye a

given type of textile fibre, dyes are
classified for convenience in various ways.

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 Dyes and Their Selection

• There are thousands of different substances that can be used as

colorants, both natural and synthetic.

• Colour Index classification

• Colour Index is an authoritative, descriptive catalogue of natural

and synthetic colorants and intermediates in terms of generic (or
commercial) name and constitution (chemical structure) where
disclosed.

• On-line version

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Colour Index

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E.g. C.I. Direct Red 28

Application class + base colour + number

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Dyes and Their Selection

Classification of dyes
•Chemical Type
•Application Type
Dyes and Their Selection

Chemical Type
•classification is to group dyes based on the same
chemical class.

e.g. azo -N=N-

Anthraquinone
Dyes and Their Selection

Application Type
• However, dyers are more likely to use classification system
based on the dyeing method and the suitability of the group
of dyes for a certain type of fibre.

• The most common classification is therefore based in the

application method of a dye.
 Dyes and Their Selection
Material
Cellulosic fibres
(e.g. cotton, flax and ramie)
(vegetable / plant fibre)
Protein fibres
(e.g. wool and silk)
(animal fibre)
Synthetic (Man-made) fibres
(e.g. polyester, nylon,
acrylic)
Dye Class
e.g. Direct dyes, Vat dyes,
Sulphur dyes, Azoic dyes
and Reactive dyes
e.g. Acid dyes, Chrome
dyes, Metal-complex dyes
and Reactive dyes
e.g. Disperse dyes
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Dye structure

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Dye structure

• Chromophores are chemical structures with alternate

single and double carbon–carbon bonding and the system
is called the conjugated system. Commonly, structures are
in shapes such as aromatic ring, azo bond, etc. – provide
colour

• Auxochromes are chemical structures that can assist

chromophores to intensify the colour, enabling dye water
solubility and affinity (attraction/substantivity). Colourants
without auxochrome are pigments. Common auxochrome
structures are hydroxyl, carboxyl, sulfonic, amino groups,
etc. – assist dye to have attraction to the fibre

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Example (reference only)

• Direct dye

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Example (reference only)

• Vat dye

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Example (reference only)

• Reactive dye

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Example (reference only)

• Disperse dye

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Dyes and Their Selection

The main factors for selecting dyes include:

(i) the colour range (availability of colour),

(ii) the degree of difficulty of application,
(iii) the cost and
(iv) the fastness properties.

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Dyes and Their Selection

Colour range (availability of colour)

• Not all colour on textile can be produced by a single

DYE, but

• By different dye combination (Red, Blue and Yellow)

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Colour range

Red, blue, yellow – primary colour

Red + blue = violet / purple
Blue + yellow = green
Red + yellow = orange
Red + Blue + Yellow = Black ?
In textile dyeing production, can me make black by mixing red, blue
and yellow??
Turquoise

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Dyes and Their Selection

Degree of difficulty of application

• E.g. the availability of machine

• Some dyes must be used under high temperature of 130ºC

• E.g. dyeing polyester with disperse dye
• High temperature may decompose dye – lose colour

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Dyes and Their Selection
Cost
• Raw material cost for purchasing dye (e.g. dye purity)
• Same dye from different manufacturers in different
countries will have different purity – different cost
• Add auxiliaries to lower the dye concentration

• Production cost (the method of applying dye)

• Customers’ requirement (fastness requirements)

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Dyes and Their Selection

Fastness properties

• End uses of the dyed products

• E.g. Curtain fabric – Should have excellent light fastness requirement

• Customers’ requirement(s) – reasonable?? 5 to 1

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Dyes and Their Selection

Remember:

No dye is perfect but it is important to

consider all factors in order to make the best
choice possible.

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Dye and Toxicity

• E.g. Congo Red

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Dye and Toxicity

• Congo Red is well known a carcinogenic dyestuff that has been banned
long ago.
• It is a kind of azo dye. The toxicity comes from the reduced amino
products.
• The European Union (EU) has already banned textile products that
contain azo dyestuff with restricted amines.

Reference
Oeko-Tex
https://www.oeko-
tex.com/en/business/certifications_and_services/ots_100/ots_100_limit_
values/ots_100_limit_values.xhtml

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Dye and Toxicity

• EU has also complete restriction on textiles with sensitized and

carcinogenic dyes. They are disperse dyes.
• Check sewing thread – polyester – dyed by disperse dye

• Dye toxicity is particular concerned in infant and children products as

they may put textiles into their mouths. Saliva resistance is an
important test in infant and children products.
• Fastness to saliva in infant and children products

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The Application of Pigments

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The Application of Pigments

• In addition to dyes, pigments are very important in the coloration of

textiles, especially in printing.

• Since pigments are insoluble in water and do not have

substantivity for textiles, their application is very different (not
difficult).

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 The Application of Pigments

There are two common methods for the

application of pigments to textiles:

(i) incorporating the pigment inside the textile

fibre; and
(ii) sticking the pigment on the outside of the
textile fibre by means of adhesives.

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Incorporating the pigment inside the textile
fibre

•The incorporation of pigments is mainly used

in the production of synthetic filaments.

•During the spinning process (wet, melt, dry)

of the polymer (synthetic fibre), pigments
(colour) are added to the polymer solution
(no colour, transparent).

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 Incorporating the pigment inside the textile
fibre

•When the polymer is spun into filaments, the

added pigments are encased in the filament, so
colouring it and giving it very good all round
fastness properties.

•This process is generally known as mass

pigmentation or dope dyeing.

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Mass pigmentation of
polyester
Add
colour
(pigment)

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 Incorporating the pigment inside the textile
fibre

Normally, the application of pigment by mass

pigmentation is:

•suitable for the mass production of a large quantity of

filaments or fibres of the same colour.

•the colour preferably not be one that is influenced by

fashion trends and therefore not subjected to frequent
changes.

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 Incorporating the pigment inside the textile
fibre

Therefore

Any change in colour for mass pigmentation will

require a complete cleaning and stoppage of the
spinning plant resulting in a loss of production.

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Sticking the pigment on the outside of the textile
fibre by means of adhesives

•Using adhesives to apply pigments is more

popular in the coloration industry, especially in
the printing of textiles.

•This method involves the use of adhesives

(commonly known as binders) to bond the
pigments to the surface of the fibre so that the
colorants can achieve a certain degree of
fastness.

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 Sticking the pigment on the outside of the textile fibre
by means of adhesives

•In contrast with dyes, the fastness properties of

the pigments with the exception of light fastness
and fabric handle, depend solely on the properties
of the binders.

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Pigment dyed
textiles generally
have inferior
fastness properties,
especially with
regard to rubbing
and dry-cleaning
(organic solvent,
dissolve binder
(organic in nature).

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The handle (fabric
hand feel) of the
textile is also
adversely affected
because of the
binder film which is
formed on the
surface of the fibre.
If too much binder is
applied in the fabric,
the fabric softness
will be reduced

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 The Application of Pigments

•The application of pigment can also be carried

out using the padding process, in which
pigments are forced mechanically onto the
surface of the fabric.

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E.g. Padding of Pigment

Roller /
Mangle

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• Amount of pigment absorbed in fabric surface depends on the
pressure between the rollers
• 1) high pressure – less amount (pale shade)
• 2) low pressure – large amount (dark shade)
• Amount of pigment absorbed in the fabric surface – colour depth

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Qualities of Dyeing

The qualities of dyeing (coloration) are often

judged by criteria such as (i) colour shade, (ii)
colour yield, (iii) levelness and (iv) the colour
fastness.

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Qualities of Dyeing

(i) Colour shade

- Match the colour with customer

(ii) Colour yield

- Amount of colorant absorbed which may
affect the production cost
(uptake vs. wastage) high uptake, less wastage

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Qualities of Dyeing

(iii) Colour levelness and evenness

- Uniformity of colour on the dyed fabric

(iv) Colour fastness

- Meet end uses requirements

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 Factors Affecting Dyeing
(1) Substrate
(2) Agitation
(3) Liquor-to-goods ratio
(4) Temperature
(5) pH of dyebath
(6) Chemical and auxiliaries

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Substrate

• Different substrates may vary in their affinity or

substantivity for dyes.

• This affects dye uptake.

Cotton / Wool 79
 Agitation

• Material agitation or liquor circulation generates relative motion

(flow of dyebath) of fibre and dyebath.

• The flow of dyebath carries fresh dye with it and tends to keep
dyebath concentrations uniform.

• Increase the contact between fibre and dye in the dyebath → more
chance for the dye molecules approaching the fibre

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Liquor-to-goods Ratio

• The ratio of the weight of liquor

employed in any treatment to
the weight of material treated.

• This refers to the amount of dye

liquor relative to the material.

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Liquor-to-goods Ratio

•A shorter liquor ratio means a higher dye

concentration based on a fixed amount of dye
and results in a higher dye uptake.

•Short liquor ratio is also more economical in

terms of savings in water, dyes, chemicals and
heating energy.

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The effect of SHORT (LOW) liquor-to-goods ratio (LR) on a dyeing
process in term of saving: ENERGY, WATER and CHEMICAL.

• Liquor-to-material ratio (LMR)

• Material-to-liquor ratio (MLR)
• Liquor = bath volume
• Goods = weight of goods (e.g. fibre/yarn/fabric/garment)

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• E.g. 2kg fabric
• LR = 50:1 (long/high liquor ratio)
• LR = 20:1 (short/low liquor ratio)
• LR, 50:1, 1 kg material requires 50kg liquor (50L, assume the
density of liquor is same as water)

• So
• 50:1, 50x2kg = 100kg (L)
• 20:1, 20x 2kg = 40kg (L)
• Save water 100L-40L = 60L (save water)

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• Chemical: usage based on bath volume, 2 g/L

• 50:1, 50x2kg = 100kg (L)

Chemical: 100L x 2g/L = 200g

• 20:1, 20x 2kg = 40kg (L)

Chemical: 40L x 2g/L = 80g

Save chemical: 200g – 80g = 120g

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 Temperature

• The dyeing temperature affects the dye exhaustion /

dye uptake.

• A higher temperature in dyeing will promote

penetration and migration of dyes.

• Generally speaking, the heating should be carefully

controlled during dyeing to ensure a better
distribution of temperature in the dyebath.

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 pH of dyebath

• When dye/fibre attraction is ionic in nature, the rate of

exhaustion and the final exhaustion is greatly influenced
by dyebath pH.
E.g. Dyeing wool or nylon with acid dyes

• On others, pH affects the solubility and the stability of

dyes in the dyebath.
E.g. Dyeing cotton with reactive dyes

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Chemicals and auxiliaries

• Other than dyes, chemicals and dyeing assistants are often added to
dyebath to improve the dyeing properties
E.g. levelling agent and dyeing accelerants.

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