ELECTROCHEMISTRY - involves a redox reaction and a flow of electrons GALVANIC CELLS - Galvanic cells are devices used for

cells are devices used for conversion of chemical energy to

REDOX REACTION electrical energy.
● OXIDATION involves the loss of electrons which results in an INCREASE in the ● The ANODE is the electrode at which oxidation occurs.
oxidation number of the atom. ● The CATHODE is the electrode at which reduction occurs.
LEORA
Loses Electrons, OXIDIZED, Reducing Agent

● REDUCTION involves the gain of electrons which results in a DECREASE in the

oxidation number of the atom.
GEROA
Gains Electrons, REDUCED, Oxidizing Agent

OXIDATION NUMBER
• Free element = Zero Oxidation number

NOTATION FOR A VOLTAIC CELL - The components of each half-cell are written in the
same order as in their half-reactions.

If needed, concentrations of dissolved components are given in parentheses. (If not stated, it is
assumed that they are 1 M.)

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS - Electrochemical reactions are redox reactions which

involve a flow of electrons from one substance to another. These reactions takes place in:
● Galvanic cells – where the positive (+) electrode is the cathode and the negative (-)
electrode is the anode. In galvanic cells, chemical energy is produced by a
spontaneous reaction to electrical energy.
*primary - non-rechargeable/secondary - rechargeable*
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
● Voltage across the electrodes of a galvanic cell is called the cell voltage, or cell
potential.
● Another common term for cell voltage is the electromotive force or emf (E), which,
despite its name, is a measure of voltage, not force.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf)
0
● It is the sum of two half-cell potentials using the standard cell potential values (𝐸 )
● The values measured at standard-state (The Standard Hydrogen Electrode) (SHE)
Conditions:
● Reference cell – Hydrogen electrode
0
● Temperature - 25 𝐶
● Pressure – 1 atm
● Concentration solutions – 1M
STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL
● E° is the standard reduction potential, or the voltage associated with a reduction
reaction at an electrode when all solutes are 1 M and all gasses are at 1 atm.
● Are arranged from least active metal to most active metal (Li is the most active
metal followed by K)
● Are arranged from highest to lowest standard reduction potential.
● Can be used to determine whether reaction is spontaneous or nonspontaneous.
REMEMBER:
● Given the value for the forward reaction which is REDUCTION as obtained from
the table:
2+ − 𝑂
𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 → 𝑍𝑛( 𝑠) 𝐸 =− 0. 76
● If the electrode is OXIDATION, the reverse reaction is used and the sign of the
value is changed.
2+ − 𝑂
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 𝐸 = 0. 76
● The standard potential values are intensive properties, hence are not affected by the
change of stoichiometric coefficients during balancing.
2+ − 𝑂
2𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 2𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 4𝑒 𝐸 = 0. 76

0
STANDARD emf (𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)
0 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
 0
SIGNIFICANCE OF 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Amount of Electrical Energy (EE) Unit is in J

0
EE = 𝑛𝐹𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Where:
−
n = mol 𝑒
F = 96500 C/mol (Faraday’s Constant)
0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙= Standard emf
1 J = 1C x 1V ELECTROLYTIC CELL

• In an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is used to make non-

spontaneous reaction to occur. This process is called

electrolysis.
• The electrolytic cell contains a pair of electrodes:
−
• Anode (+) where oxidation (lost of 𝑒 ) occurs.
−
• Cathode (-) where reduction (gain of 𝑒 ) takes place.
ELECTRODE PRODUCT - Predict the substance deposited at each electrode when the
following electrolytes are electrolyzed between inert electrodes.

ELECTRODE PRODUCTS (FOR DILUTED AND AQUEOUS)

● Oxygen gas is liberated during the electrolysis of most salts with anions containing
oxygen.
● Halogen gas

ELECTRODE PRODUCT
● EXAMPLE: Predict what is liberated at each electrode when each of the following
electrolytes is electrolyzed between inert electrodes.

ELECTROPLATING - is the process of plating one metal onto another by hydrolysis, most
commonly for decorative purposes or to prevent corrosion of a metal.
● There are also specific types of electroplating such as copper plating, silver plating,
and chromium plating.
○ The Purposes of Electroplating:
○ Appearance
○ Protection
○ Special surface properties
○ Engineering or mechanical properties
● The cathode would be the piece to be plated and the anode would be either a
sacrificial anode or an inert anode, normally either platinum or carbon (graphite
form).
● The process is undergone using silver as the anode, and a screw as the cathode. The
electrons are transferred from the anode to the cathode and are undergone in a
solution containing silver.
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS - The mass of the chemical substances
produced at the electrode is directly proportional to the electricity passed through the solution.
𝐴 ↑ 𝐴𝐷 ↑
𝑡 ↑ 𝐴𝐷 ↑
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
● Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure.
Preservation of Food: Food Irradiation
● Food can be irradiated with γ rays from 60Co or 137Cs .
● Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo. without refrigeration.
RADIOACTIVITY
● The spontaneous decomposition of an unstable nucleus into a more stable nucleus by
releasing fragments or energy.
● Discovered by Antoine Henri Becquerel in 1896.
● His work with uranium salts lead to the conclusion that the minerals gave off some
sort of radiation.
● Physicist Ernest Rutherford demonstrated that two distinct types of radiation could
be distinguished.
● Alpha rays (α) bend away from a positive plate indicating they are positively
charged. A helium nucleus, 4-Helium.
● Beta rays (abbreviated β or β-) emission of a high-speed electron from a stable
nucleus.
● Gamma rays (γ) The particles unaffected by the magnetic field. High-energy
photons of electromagnetic radiation.

POWER OF RADIATION
NUCLEAR REACTIONS Balancing Nuclear Reaction
● The nucleus is composed of nucleons ● The total charge is conserved during a nuclear reaction.
○ Protons ○ This means that the sum of the subscripts for the products must equal the
○ Neutrons sum of the subscripts for the reactants.
● A nucleus is characterized by two numbers ● The total number of nucleons is also conserved during a nuclear reaction.
○ atomic mass number(A; total # of nucleons) ○ This means that the sum of the superscripts for the products must equal the
○ atomic number (Z; number of protons) sum of the superscripts for the reactants.
● A nuclear equation is a symbolic representation of a nuclear reaction using nuclide NUCLEAR EQUATION
symbols. ● The radioactive decay of
238 4
𝑈 by alpha-particle emission ( 2𝐻𝑒 loss of a nucleus )
92
● For example, the nuclide symbol for uranium-238 is:
is written:
○ 238 is the Atomic mass number of Uranium.
238 234 4
○ 92 is the Atomic Number of Uranium. 92
𝑈 → 90
𝑇ℎ + 𝐻𝑒
2
● Reactant and product nuclei are represented in nuclear equations by their nuclide
symbol
Types of Particles in Nuclear Reactions EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Name Symbols Representation Description Technetium-99 is a long-lived radioactive isotope of technetium. Each nucleus decays by
emitting one beta particle. What is the product nucleus?
Alpha Particle 4 4 (High-energy) helium nuclei ● The nuclear equation is:
𝐻𝑒 𝑜𝑟 2α
2 consisting of two protons and
neutron ● From the superscripts, you can write:

● Similarly, from the subscripts, you get:

Beta Particle 0
𝑒 𝑜𝑟
0
β (High-energy) electrons
1 −1 ● Hence A = 99 and Z = 44, so the
product is:

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
● The spontaneous change of an unstable nuclide into another.
Positron 0
𝑒 𝑜𝑟
0
β Particles with the same mass as an ● The unstable nuclide is called the parent nuclide; the nuclide that results from the
+1 +1 electron but with 1 unit of positive decay is known as the daughter nuclide.
charge

Proton 1
𝐻 𝑜𝑟 1𝑝
1 Nuclei of hydrogen atoms
1

Neutron 1 Particles with a mass approximately TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

𝑛 Alpha Decay
0 equal to that of a proton but with no
4
charge ● Alpha emission (abbreviated α ): emission of a 𝐻𝑒 nucleus, or alpha particle,
2
from an unstable nucleus.
Gamma Ray γ Very high-energy electromagnetic ● An example is the radioactive decay of radium-226
radiation
Example Problem Positron Emission
Complete the equations for each of the following nuclear decay processes. ● Positron emission ( abbreviated
0
β ): emission of a positron from an unstable nucleus.
210 206 4 1
A. 84
𝑃𝑜 → 82
𝑃𝑏 + 2
𝐻𝑒 ● This is equivalent to the conversion of a proton to a neutron.
232 228 4
B. 90
𝑇ℎ → 88
𝑅𝑎 + 2
𝐻𝑒
Beta Decay
● Beta emission (abbreviated β or β-): emission of a high-speed electron from a stable Example Problem
nucleus. Complete the following equations with the correct particles and identify the mode of decay.

14
● 𝐶 is produced by neutron absorption by a nitrogen-14 nucleus:

● Carbon-14 is radioactive and eventually undergoes beta decay:

KINETICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radiactive Decay
Example Problem
● Each decay produces a high-energy particle or photon, which allows us to count the
− 0
Now complete the equations for each of the following decay reactions, β using −1
β to decays in a given time period.
represent the beta particle. ● The rate at which a sample decays is called the activity of the sample.
● For a sample of N nuclei, the rate of disintegration is given by ∆N/∆t.
A. ● The SI unit of nuclear activity is the becquerel (Bq), defined as one nuclear disintegration
per second (N/s).
B. Rates of Radiactive Decay
Gamma Decay All radioactive decays obey first-order kinetics. Therefore, the rate of radioactive decay at any
● Gamma emission (abbreviated g): emission from an excited nucleus of a gamma photon, time t is given by:
−12
corresponding to radiation with a wavelength of about 10 m and the frequency is about Rate of decay at time: t =kN
20
3 𝑥 10 /𝑠.
8
● This corresponds to energy of 10 kJ/mol, which is several orders of magnitude larger
than the energies of ordinary chemical reactions.

Electron Capture
● The result is that a proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron. In effect, electron
capture is the reverse of beta emission.
● As in beta decay, an additional particle is needed to conserve energy; in this case, that
particle is a neutrino, v. HALF-LIFE
● The time it takes for 𝑁0 to decay to one-half its original value is given by:
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
−13
The decay constant for the beta decay of technetium-99 is 1.0 x 10 s. What is the half-life
of this isotope in years?

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The half-life of carbon-14, used in radiocarbon dating, is 5730 years. What is the decay
constant for carbon-14?
Given: 𝑡1/2 = 5730 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 Derive the formula: NUCLEAR STABILITY
0.693 ● A nucleus is stable if it cannot be transformed into another configuration without adding
Required: k 𝑡1/2 = 𝑘
energy from the outside. Of the thousands of nuclides that exist, about 250 are stable.
0.693 0.693 ● A plot of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons for stable nuclei reveals
Solution: 𝑡 = 𝑘 =
1/2 𝑘 𝑡1/2
that the stable isotopes fall into a narrow band.
Substitute the given: ● This region is known as the band of stability (also called the belt,zone, or valley of
0.693 −4
𝑘 = = 1. 209 𝑥 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 stability).
5730 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
● The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that would be released if the nucleus were
formed from a collection of free nucleons.
● The greater the binding energy, the more stable the nucleus. A variety of units are commonly used for nuclear binding energies, including electron volts
● The answer is contained in Einstein’s famous equation, which describes the (eV), with 1 eV equaling the amount of energy necessary to the move the charge of an electron
interconversion of mass and energy: −19
across an electric potential difference of 1 volt, making 1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J.
2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐
8
● The velocity of light, c, is 2. 9979 𝑥 10 m/s.
BINDING ENERGY
● This difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as
the mass defect (∆m) of the atom with a unit of amu (Atomic mass unit).
26
○ 1 𝑘𝑔 = 6. 022 𝑥 10 𝑎𝑚𝑢
● Subatomic Particles

The mass defect for a Helium-4 nucleus is 0.0305 amu. Determine the binding energy for the
27 nuclide Helium-4 in:
Example: 13
𝐴𝑙
Atomic weight of Aluminum is 26.98
Total number of nucleons is 27
Total number of protons is 13 (1 Proton = 1.0073 amu)
The number of neutrons is (27-13=14) (1 Neutron = 1.0087 amu)
m = 13(1.0073 amu) + 14(1.0087 amu) = 27.22 amu
∆m = 𝑚𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡.𝑤𝑡.
∆m = 27.22 amu – 26.98 amu = 0.2400 amu
19
a. 9
𝐹Proton: (9x1.0073 amu)
Neutron: (10x1.0087 amu)
m= 9.0657 + 10.0870 = 19.15 amu
∆m = 𝑚𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡.𝑤𝑡.
∆m = 19.15 amu – 19.00 amu = 0.1500 amu
126
b. 53
𝐼 Proton: (53x1.0073 amu)
Neutron: (73x1.0087 amu)
m= 53.3869 + 73.6352 = 127.02 amu
∆m = 𝑚𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡.𝑤𝑡.
∆m = 127.02 amu – 126.90 amu = 0.1200 amu
2
𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚𝑐
Where:
2 2
𝐸𝑏 = Binding energy in J (1 J = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑚 /𝑠 )
∆m = Mass defect
8 2 2
c = speed of light (3. 00 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 /𝑠 )
 FISSION
● Splitting of a nucleus (fissionable or fissile)
● Some fission reactions are spontaneous, meaning that a large nucleus simply breaks into
smaller pieces.
● Other fission reactions must be induced by neutron bombardment. (Neutron
bombardment can also be used to increase the rate of decay for what might already be a
spontaneously fissile nucleus.)

Calculate the energy released by a nucleus of uranium-235 if it splits into a barium141 nucleus FUSION
and a krypton-92 nucleus according to the equation. ● Small nuclei combine to form larger, more stable nuclei.
● The energy of the sun:

2
● A more practical approach is to fuse two heavier isotopes of hydrogen: deuterium ( H )
3
and tritium ( 𝐻 ):

6
● Tritium can be produced from 𝐿𝑖 :

MEASURING RADIATION EXPOSURE

TRANSMUTATION, FISSION AND FUSION
● Probably the best-known radiation instrument, the Geiger counter (also called the
TRANSMUTATION: Changing one nucleus to another
Geiger-Müller counter) detects and measures radiation. Radiation causes the ionization of
● Converting one element into another.
the gas in a Geiger-Müller tube. The rate of ionization is proportional to the amount of
14 4 17 1
7
𝑁+ α→
2 8
𝑂+ 𝑝
1 radiation.
14 17 ● A scintillation counter contains a scintillator—a material that emits light (luminesces)
● 𝑁(α, 𝑝) 𝑂
7 8 when excited by ionizing radiation—and a sensor that converts the light into an electric
56 54
● Example: 𝐹𝑒(𝑑, α) 𝑀𝑛 signal.
26 25
● Radiation dosimeters also measure ionizing radiation and are often used to determine
personal radiation exposure. Commonly used types are electronic, film badge,
thermoluminescent, and quartz fiber dosimeters.
● The SI unit for measuring radiation dose is the gray (Gy), with 1 Gy = 1 J of energy
Isotopes of Symbol
absorbed per kilogram of tissue.
Hydrogen
● In medical applications, the radiation absorbed dose (rad) is more often used (1 rad =
Protium 1 0.01 Gy; 1 rad results in the absorption of 0.01 J/kg of tissue).
1
𝐻

Deuterium 1
𝐻
1

Tritium 1
𝐻
1
FUELS
● A substance that produces useful energy either through combustion or through
nuclear reaction.
● Dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy services such as
heating, transportation, and electrical generation.

Types of Fuels
Primary fuels - are processed to make something chemically distinct from how they were
harvested from a natural resource. Iclude nuclear fuels, biofuels and fossil fuels.
Secondary fuel - were processed from the form found as a natural resource. Secondary fuels
are easier for engines to burn, so are often made from crude oil as a way of getting the most
energy out as possible. Eg. butane and LPG
3 Sources of Fossil Fuels
Coal - unang unang ginamit nung mga unang tao para mag generate ng energy. It is a complex
solid material derived primarily from plants that died and were buried hundreds of million
years ago and were subsequently subjected to high temperatures and pressures. Because plants
contain large amounts of cellulose, derived from linked glucose units, the structure of coal is
more complex than that of petroleum.
Coalification - the process of formation of coal:
1. Peat
2. Lignite
3. Coal

Petroleum
- the clear, oily liquid, usually green or black in color.
- It has a very strange smell and is a mixture of petroleum gas, diesel, paraffin wax,
petrol, lubricating oil, etc.
Crude Oil
- Also termed as black gold.
- namimina sa dagat.
- It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (compounds are made up of carbon and hydrogen.)
- Can be used in the production of crude oil

Natural gas
- it is a clean and non-toxic fossil fuel.
- Colorless and odorless and can be easily transferred through pipelines
- Stored as compressed natuga; gas (CNG) under high pressure
- It is a less polluting and less expensive fossil fuel
- Methane is the most important natural gas
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL
1. HIGH CALORIFIC VALUE – higher calorific value means greater is heat is liberated per
unit mass or volume.
2. IGNITION TEMPERATURE – lowest temperature at which a fuel must be heated to start
burning.
3. MOISTURE CONTENT – should be low, presence of moisture lowers the calorific
value.
4. NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATTER – reduces the calorific value.
5. VELOCITY OF COMBUSTION – relates to the rate of combustion.
6. COMBUSTION PRODUCTS – should be harmless and non- polluting.
7. COST OF FUEL – readily available at low cost.
8. STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION – easy to handle, store and transport a low cost.
9. SIZE – for solid fuels, size should be uniform.
10. COMBUSTION SHOULD BE CONTROLLABLE – it can be started or stopped when
required.
CALORIFIC VALUE
The total amount of heat liberated when a mass or volume of fuel is burnt completely.
● UNITS OF HEAT
○ Calorie
■ Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
■ 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
○ Kilocalorie
■ Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.
■ 1 kcal = 1000 cal
○ British Thermal Unit (BTU)
■ Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound (lb) of water
by 1°F.
■ 1 BTU = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal = 1054.6 Joules
○ Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU)
■ Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound (lb) of water
by 1°C.
■ 2.2 CHU = 1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
UNITS OF CALORIFIC VALUE
The units of calorific value for solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are given below:
GROSS AND NET CALORIFIC VALUE
● GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV)
● HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE (HCV) - Total amount of heat produced when a unit
quantity (mass/volume) of fuel is burnt completely, and the products of combustion are
cooled to room temperature. HCV (higher calorific value) refers to the amount of heat
evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is
completely burnt and the products of combustion cooled to the normal conditions (with
water vapor condensed as a result).
● LOW CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV) - also termed as net calorific value (NCV) and is
defined as the heat produced when a unit quantity (mass/volume) of a fuel is burnt
completely and the hot combustion products are allowed to escape. LCV (lower
calorific value) refers to the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in
the case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and water vapor leaves with
the combustion products without being condensed.
● LCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapor formed
● As 1 part by weight of hydrogen gives 9 parts by weight of water.
𝐻2 +
1
𝑂2 → 𝐻2𝑂
2
LCV = HCV – Weight of Hydrogen in Unit mass/volume x 9 x latent heat of steam
EXAMPLE: c = 2.46 J/g.°C
1. Two kg of a coal sample was burnt in a bomb calorimeter. The heat liberated was Required: q
estimated and found to be 14114 kcal. Calculate the calorific value of coal sample in Solution:
Joules/kg. q= mcΔT
Given: q= (11.25g)(2.46 J/g.°C)(52.1°C- 25.0°C)
m = 2 kg q=750 J
Heat liberated = 14114 kcal
Required: Calorific Value in Joules CONSTANT VOLUME CALORIMETER
Solution: - In this device, the reaction is carried out at constant volume and with no heat flow
14114 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
= 7057 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔 𝑥
1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑥
4.184 𝐽 7
= 2. 95 𝑥 10 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 between the calorimeter and the outside. The heat changes occur only among the sample,
2 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙
closed bomb and the water. The heat given off (or absorbed) by the sample is absorbed
2. The gross calorific value of a fuel containing 8% hydrogen was found to be 9225.9
(or released) by the water and the bomb.
kcal/kg. Find out its net calorific value if the latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/kg.
- For the reason that no heat enters or leaves the system, the 𝑞𝑠𝑦𝑠 is zero. This can be
Given:
GCV = 9225.9 kcal/kg represented as:
Latent heat of steam = 587 kcal/kg
% Hydrogen = 8%
Required: NCV
Solution:
NCV = GCV – 0.09 x %H x Latent Heat of Steam Where:
NCV = 9225.9 – 0.09 x 8 x 587 𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙 = heat change for the calorimeter
NCV/LCV = 8803.26 kcal/kg 𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛= heat change for the reaction
EXAMPLE 1:
CALORIMETRY
Calculate the heat change of the combustion of 1.78 g benzoic acid (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) in a
- The measurement of heat changes.
- The specific heat ( c ) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the constant-volume bomb calorimeter. As measured, the temperature rises from 15.17°C to
temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. It has the units J/g .°C. 28.52°C and the heat capacity of the bomb plus water is 5.714 kJ/° C. Express in kJ/g and
- The heat capacity ( Cp ) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the kJ/mol.
temperature of a given quantity of the substance by one degree Celsius.

HEAT ABSORBED BY THE FUEL

q= mcΔT
Where:
q = heat
m = mass
c = Specific Heat EXAMPLE 2:
ΔT = change in temperature 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 A 0.3786 g unknown substance is burned in a constant-volume bomb calorimeter that has a
heat capacity of 1.173 kJ/0C. After the reaction, the temperature increases by 1.5620C. Find
EXAMPLE:
the heat given off by the burning of the unknown, on kJ/g.
An 11.25 g ethanol is heated from 25.0°C to 52.1°C. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed by
the ethanol.
Given:
m = 11.25 g
𝑇1 = 25.0°C
𝑇2 = 52.1°C
EXAMPLE:
A 150 mL water is poured in a 252g beaker. The beaker plus water is then weigh 400g. A
spirit burner containing butanol is weigh 142g. The spirit burner and beaker is arrange in the ENERGY DENSITY
set-up (Refer to the image). The initial temperature of water is 23.4°C. The spirit burner is lit - It is the amount of energy that can be transformed into electrical energy
until the water reached 20°C higher than the initial temperature. The temperature is measured - It is the amount of energy that can be stored in a given system, substance, or region of
to be at exactly 45.0°C. The fire is extinguished and the spirit burner is cooled and weigh, 138 space
g. Calculate the heat of combustion per mole. - When calculating the amount of energy in a system, most of ten only useful or extracable
Given: energy is measured. In scientific equations, energy density is often denoted by U.
Butanol Two types of Energy Density
● Volumetric energy density - how much energy a system contains in comparison to its
Mass of beaker 252 g volume; typically expressed in watt-hours per liter (Wh/L) or Megajoules per liter
(MJ/L).
Mass of beaker + water 400 g ● Gravimetric energy density - how much energy a system contains in comparison to its
mass; typically expressed in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg), or Megajoules per
Mass of water 148 g
kilogram (MJ/kg). Gravimetric energy density can also be referred to as specific energy.
Mass of spirit burner + butanol 142 g
JOULES TO WATTS
Mass of spirit burner + butanol after lighting 138 g W = 1000 x kJ/s
Example: What is the power of a 1 kg of charcoal can produce for 10s in watts?
Mass of butanol (before - after lighting) 4g 𝐸𝑑 = 34.7 MJ/kg
W = 1000 x 34700 kJ/10s
Initial temperature of water 23.4°C
W = 3470000 W or 3470 kW
Final temperature of water 45.0°C
ENERGY DENSITY and SPECIFIC ENERGY
The formula for energy density is:
𝐸
𝐸𝑑 = 𝑉
The formula for specific energy is:
𝐸
𝐸𝑠 = 𝑚
ENERGY SOURCES
● A fuel is a substance that releases energy when it undergoes a chemical or nuclear
reaction.
● Enthalpy of Reaction ΔH
● - ΔH – from system to surroundings; exothermic reaction; decreases
● + ΔH – from surroundings to the system; endothermic reaction; increases
PROBLEM 1: Measuring crude oil - the standard industrial unit of measure for crude oil is the 42 gal/barrel
𝑔
Propane (𝐶3𝐻8) has a density of 0.585 3 . The standard enthalpy of combustion (Δ𝐻°𝑐 ) of
𝑐𝑚
propane is -2219 kJ/mol. Calculate the specific energy and energy density of propane. Molar
mass (MM) of 𝐶3𝐻8=44.1 g/mol.

PROBLEM 2:
Calculate the specific energy in (MJ/kg) and energy density if Ethanol produces 1367 kJ/mol
3
with a density of 0.789 g/𝑐𝑚 . MM of Ethanol is 46.1 g/mol.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTALS STRUCTURE

Converting Coal to Gaseous and Liquid Fuels

Coal to Syngas
● A great deal of current research focuses on developing methods to convert coal to
gaseous fuels (coal gasification) or liquid fuels (coal liquification). In the most
common approach to coal gasification, coal reacts with steam to produce a mixture
of CO and 𝐻2, known as synthesis gas or syngas: because coal is 70-90% carbon by
mass, it is approximated as C in equation
𝐶(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐻2(𝑔) ∆𝐻 = 131 𝑘𝐽 MATERIALS AND PACKING
Crystalline materials…
● Converting coal to syngas removes any sulfur present and produces a clean-burning ● atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
mixture of gases. ● typical of: -metals
● Syngas is also used as a reactant to produce methane and methanol. A promising -many ceramics
approach is to convert coal directly to methane through a series of reactions -some polymers
Non-crystalline materials...
● atoms have no periodic packing
● occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Non-crystalline
UNIT CELL
● A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.
● Each sphere represents an atom, ion, or molecule and is called a lattice point.
SEVEN TYPES OF UNIT CELLS

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

PACKING SPHERES
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
APF =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
SIMPLE CUBIC CELL (SCC)
● The basic, repeating unit in the array of
spheres.
● Coordination number = 6
● APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
● Contains 8 x 1/8 = 1 Atom/unit cell
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC (BCC)
● A body-centered cubic arrangement
differs from a simple cube in that the
COORDINATION NUMBER second layer of spheres fits into the
● The coordination number is defined as the number of atoms (or ions) surrounding an depressions of the first layer and the
atom (or ion) in a crystal lattice. third layer into the depressions of the
● Its value gives us a measure of how tightly the spheres are packed together—the second layer.
larger the coordination number, the closer the spheres are to each other. ● Coordination number = 8
● APF for a body-centered cubic
structure = 0.68
● Contains (8 x 1/8) + 1 = 2 Atom/unit cell
FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CELL (FCC)
● Spheres at the center of each of the six
THREE TYPES OF CUBIC CELLS faces of the cube, in addition to the eight
corner spheres.
● Coordination number = 12
● APF for a face-centered cubic structure =
0.74
 ● Contains (6x1/2)+(8x1/8) = 4 atoms/unit cell NA = Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 10 atoms/mol
23

SINGLE HEXAGONAL UNIT CELL (SH) PROBLEM 1:

● The Simple Hexagonal Gold (Au) crystallizes in a cubic close-packed structure (the face-centered cubic unit cell) and
(SH) unit cell can be 𝑔
has a density of 19.3 Calculate the atomic radius of gold in picometers.
imagined as a hexagonal 𝑐𝑚
3

prism with an atom on

all 12 corners, and both
faces. It is an
uncommon crystal
structure that doesn’t
show up in any pure
elements, but it does
exist in some alloys.
● Simple hexagonal has 3
atoms per unit cell (or 1 per primitive cell), lattice constant a = 2R, Coordination
Number CN = 6 (or 8), and Atomic Packing Factor APF = 0.61 PROBLEM 2:
When silver crystallizes, it forms face-centered cubic cells. The unit cell edge length is 408.7
CLOSEST PACKING pm. Calculate the density of silver.

● Closest packing, the most efficient

arrangement of spheres
Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
● ABA Arrangement
● Examples: Magnesium, Titanium, and
Zinc

Cubic close-packed (ccp)

● ABC Arrangement
● Examples: Aluminum, Nickel and Silver

Theoretical Density, ρ
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ρ = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
𝑛𝐴 ● lack a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms
ρ = 𝑉𝑁 ● Glass commonly refers to an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic
𝐶 𝐴
materials that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing
Where: n = number of atoms/unit cell
GLASS
A = atomic weight
3
VC = Volume of unit cell = 𝑎 for cubic
 ● By fusion product we mean that the glass is formed by mixing molten silicon
dioxide (𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ), its chief component, with compounds such as sodium oxide (boron
oxide (𝐵2𝑂3 ), and certain transition metal oxides for color and other properties.
COLOR OF GLASS
The color of glass is due largely to the presence of metal ions (as oxides).
1. Green glass – Iron (III) Oxide or Copper (II) Oxide
2. Yellow glass – Uranium (IV) Oxide
3. Blue glass – Cobalt (II) Oxide and Copper (II) Oxide
4. Red glass – Small particles of Gold and Copper
METALS
Metallic Bonding And Properties
METALLIC BONDING - is a type of chemical bonding that occurs in metals. It is the force of
attraction between positively charge metal ion and negatively charge delocalized electrons.
METALLIC PROPERTIES
● Conductivity
● Malleability
● Ductility
● Luster
● High melting point
● High boiling point
● Density
Metallurgical Process - Metals are extracted, refined, and processed from their ores or other
raw materials using a variety of metallurgical processes. These procedures are required for the
production of various metals, alloys, and materials used in different industries.
1. CRUSHING AND GRINDING THE ORE - also known as Pulverization, this is the first
process in metallurgy wherein the ores are crushed into a fine powder. This is often
achieved through mechanical means, such as crushing, grinding, or milling using a jaw
crusher or ball mill.
2. CONCENTRATION OF ORE - Mineral concentration, often called ore dressing, is the
procedure used to purge contaminants from ore. The ores are concentrated based on the
type of impurities.
3. CONVERSIONS OF ORES TO OXIDES - A crucial step in metallurgy in the extraction
of metal from the ores. It has two processes:
a. Smelting - a high-temperature process of melting raw ore to separate the desired
metal from impurities.
b. Roasting - the process of heating ore in the presence of air to remove impurities
and convert it into its oxide form.
4. METHOD OF REDUCTION OF METALLIC OXIDES - Electrochemical reduction is used
to obtain metals from oxides of active metals because these metals attract more oxygen than
carbon.
5. REFINING PURE METALS - In metallurgy, liquefaction is the process by which a solid
metal or metal compound is changed into a liquid state. Under appropriate pressure and
temperature circumstances.
METAL ALLOYS - are materials composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is
a metal. These combinations create materials with unique properties that often exceed those of
their individual components. There are numerous metal alloys, each with specific properties
and applications.
● Steel - Made mostly of iron with added elements like carbon and other metals to enhance
its properties, making it stronger, more durable, and resistant to corrosion.
● Brass - Primarily composed of copper and zinc. Brass alloys are known for their
yellowish color and are valued for their properties like corrosion resistance, malleability,
and acoustic qualities.
● Bronze - A metal alloy primarily consists of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn). It is appreciated for
its durability, corrosion resistance, and historical significance.
● Titanium Alloys - A material primarily composed of titanium with small amounts of
other elements like aluminum, vanadium, or nickel.
● Stainless Steel - A corrosion-resistant alloy primarily composed of iron (Fe), chromium
(Cr), and often nickel (Ni).
● Monel - Corrosion-resistant alloy primarily composed of nickel and copper. It may also
contain small amounts of other elements like iron and manganese.
● Aluminum Alloys - A material composed primarily of aluminum(Al) with varying
amounts of other elements, such as copper, magnesium, or silicon.
● Copper Alloys - A copper alloy is a material primarily made up of copper (Cu) with other
elements added to enhance its properties.
CORROSION is a natural process that involves the deterioration of materials, typically metals,
due to chemical reactions with their surrounding environment. It can lead to the degradation of
the material's properties and structural integrity over time.
TYPES OF CORROSION OF METALS
1. Uniform corrosion - It is occurs evenly across the entire exposed material. It often results
in gradual thinning of the material.
2. Galvanic corrosion - arises when two dissimilar metals are in contact and exposed to an
electrolyte. One metal acts as an anode and corrodes faster, while other one serves as a
cathode and is protected.
3. Pitting corrosion - manifests as localized, small pits or holes on the metal surface. It can
penetrate deep into the material, leading to structural damage.
4. Crevice corrosion - occuring in the confined spaces or crevices, this type of corrosion
results from limited oxygen circulation and can be particularly problematic in joints and
gaskets.
5. Intergranular corrosion - occurs preferentially along the grain boundaries of the metal,
often due to impurities or sensitization of the material.
6. Stress corrosion cracking - arises when materials are under tensile stress and exposed to
corrosive environment. It can lead to sudden material failure.
THEORIES/MECHANISM OF CORROSION
1. Acid Theory - The acid theory of corrosion is an explanation for how some metals
corrode in the presence of acids. It's based on the chemical reactions that occur when a
metal reacts with an acid.
2. Dry/Chemical Theory -According to this theory, corrosion on the surface of metal is due
to direct reaction of atmospheric gases like oxygen, halogen, oxides of sulphur, oxides of
nitrogen, hydrogens upside and fumes of chemicals with metal.
3. Galvanic Theory
- It is a common type of corrosion of metal in corrosive environment
- This type of corrosion occurs when the metal comes in contact with a conducting
liquid or when two dissimilar metals are immersed or dipped partially in a solution.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
- also known as "Electrochemical Protection". It refers to the process of forcing the
vulnerable metal (anode) to be converted as CATHODE.
2 Methods of Cathodic Protection
1. Galvanic Anode - known as "Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection". It happens
when the ANODE is connected to MORE ANODIC METAL. Therefore, the MORE
ANODIC METAL will CORRODE.
*Based on the Galvanic series, we can identify which is more anodic metal
Galvanic Series
* The active metal and most noble is the ANODE, and the least noble is the CATHODE.
Galvanic Anode Process
The MORE ANODIC METAL will be the SACRIFICIAL ANODE to protect the vulnerable
metal.
2. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) - It happens when ELECTRON
CURRENT IS IMPRESSED IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION to corrosion current.
The POWER SOURCE will serve as the SOURCE OF ELECTRONS.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Process
* The electrons will travel from the power source towards the vulnerable metal. Therefore, the
vulnerable metal (anode) will be converted into CATHODE.
Anodic Protection - is a kind of corrosion protection designed to protect metals exposed in
highly corrosive environments that are either too acidic or too basic for metals. Anodic
protection uses a layer of protective coating on the surface of the metal, which is commonly
known as the substrate.
METHODS OF ANODIC PROTECTION
1. Polarization curves depicting -If an active-passive alloy such as stainless steel is maintained
in the passive region through an applied potential (or current) from a potentiostat.
USE OF PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Protective coatings and films on metals serve as barriers between the environment and the
underlying substance, preventing the metal from corrosion and abrasion. It is essential to use a
coating that will corrode before the underlying metal does, thus keeping the metal as protected
as possible.
3 Types of Protective Coatings
1. Powder Coating - is a dry-finishing process that involves applying a fine powder
onto metal surfaces. This powder is then heated, causing it to liquefy and form a
hard finish that can withstand moisture, scratches, and other wear and tear.
2. Epoxy Coating - is one of the most widely used protective coatings on the market
due to its versatility and durability. It comes in two parts – a resin that must be
mixed with a hardener before application – which makes it easy to customize for
different surfaces and needs.
 3. Anodizing Coating - is an electrochemical process that coats metals with an oxide POLYMERS – a polymer is a large molecule or a macromolecule, which essentially is a
film layer via electrolytic passivation. This coating typically consists of aluminum combination of many subunits.
oxide but can also include titanium dioxide or zinc oxide, depending on application - Polymers come from the Greek word “poly” means “many” and “mers” means
needs. “units”

Methods of Applications of Metal Coatings

There are four commonly used methods of applying metal coating to steel surfaces. The latter
two processes (Electroplating and Sherardizing) are not used for structural steelwork but are
used for fittings, fasteners, and other small items.
1. Hot-dip galvanizing – Hot-dip galvanizing is a process that involves immersing the steel
component to be coated in a bath of molten zinc (at about 450°C) after pickling and
fluxing, and then withdrawing it.
2. Thermal spraying – Thermally sprayed coatings of zinc, aluminium, and zinc aluminium
alloys provide long-term corrosion protection to steel structures exposed to aggressive
environments. They are an important component of coating systems that are currently
specified by Network Rail (the owner and infrastructure manager of most of the railway Polymer’s basis of origin:
network in Great Britain), and they are commonly used on steel bridge decks. Natural Polymers – These are polymers that are found in living organisms, often occurring as
a. Twin-wire arc metal spraying – There are many processes for thermal spraying, but large, complex molecules.
twin-wire arc metal spray is the preferred type of metallization due to its 100%
reliability. It is used to repair over 400 industrial equipment components by
awestern machine using this process without failure and with a bond strength
approaching 10,000 psi.
3. Electroplating – Process of aligning another metal onto a metal. This is accomplished
using an electroplating apparatus that includes a brine solution, a battery, wires, and
alligator clips that hold carbon rods attached to the metal to be electroplated and the
metal to be layered.
Synthetic Polymers – These are man-made polymers that do not occur naturally and are
4. Sherardizing – is a solid diffusion process in which goods are heated in the presence of
synthesized through chemical processes.
zinc dust and inert material as sand. The process is normally carried out in a slow rotating
closed container at temperatures ranging from 320 oC to 500 oC. Sherardizing coatings
show a harder, smoother surface finishing compared to hot dip galvanizing, as well as a
better control of coating thickness

Non-Metallic Coatings
Non-metals are used as coating material in case of non-metallic coatings. Common types of
such coatings are plastic or rubber coating. This involves application of a layer of the given
polymer onto a substrate material. Semi-synthetic Polymers – Polymers that are created by chemically modifying natural
1. Wire and Cable Coating – In this case whole length of conducting wire or electrical cable polymers to add new properties or to enhance their existing properties.
is coated with plastic or polymer to provide thermal or electrical insulation.
2. Ceramic Coatings – it is often applied to high- temperature components for thermal
insulation and protection against extreme heat and wear.
3. Contour coatings – It is applied over a three dimensional object. It can be accomplished
by dipping or spraying.
4. Polymeric Membrane – It is used in roofing and waterproofing applications to provide
against water infiltration.
Polymer’s Basis of Monomer Composition Classification of Polymers based on CHAIN STRUCTURE
Based on the monomers, polymers can be classified as: - Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating subunits called monomers. On
1. HOMOPOLYMERS - These polymers are composed of repeating units of a single the basis of chain structure, polymers can be classified into three main categories:
type of monomer. linear polymers, branched-chain polymers, and cross-linked polymers.
Linear Polymers – are structured such that they have long and straight chains.
ex.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is used in electric cables and pipes.

Branched-chain Polymers – Branched-chain polymers are characterized by the presence of

branches in the polymer chain. These branches are formed when some of the monomers in the
chain have additional side chains attached to them.
Cross-linked Polymers – Cross-linked polymers have bifunctional and trifunctional
2. HETEROPOLYMERS - A polymer derived from two or more different (but often monomers. As compared to linear polymers, these have a stronger covalent bond. Examples
similar) types of monomer include melamine and bakelite.

Classification of Polymers Based on chain composition

Homopolymers – are composed of repeating units of a single type of monomer. In other

words, all the monomers in the polymer chain are identical. For example, polyethylene (PE) is
a homopolymer made up of repeating ethylene monomer units.

Copolymers – are composed of two or more different types of monomers. These monomers
are joined together in a repeating pattern along the polymer chain.
a. Random Copolymers – Random copolymers, the monomers are arranged randomly
along the polymer chain. For example, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is a random
copolymer consisting of randomly distributed styrene and butadiene monomer units.
b. Block Copolymers – Block copolymers, the monomers are arranged in blocks or
segments along the polymer chain. Each block consists of a specific type of
monomer. For example, polystyrene-block-polybutadiene (PS-PB) is a block
copolymer consisting of polystyrene blocks and polybutadiene blocks

Terpolymers – Terpolymers are composed of three different types of monomers. These

monomers are joined together in a repeating pattern along the polymer chain. An example of a
terpolymer is styrene- acrylonitrile-butadiene (SAB) terpolymer.
Classification of Polymers based on polymerization mechanism
- Based on polymerization, polymers are classified as:
Additional polymerization – Small molecules that is also called as monomers add up together
on massive scales to form polymers.
Monomer - A molecule that can react with other molecules to form very large molecules, or
polymers.
Polymerization - Polymerization is the process to create polymers.
Polymers - Any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large
molecules, called macromolecules, which are multiples of simpler chemical units called
monomers.
CONDENSATION Polymerization – It is a form of a step-growth polymerization where
smaller molecules or monomers react with each other to form larger structural units (usually
polymers) while releasing by-product such as water molecule.
Classification of Polymer Based on Molecular forces
— ELASTOMERS - These polymers have weak intermolecular forces, allowing them to be
stretched and then return to their original shape.
EXAMPLE
1. NATURAL RUBBER
2. SYNTHETIC RUBBER
such as:
• Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
• Polyisoprene (synthetic version of natural rubber)
• Polyurethane
• Neoprene
— THERMOPLASTICS - These polymers have relatively weak intermolecular forces and can
be easily softened and reshaped upon heating. They can be molded and recycled.
EXAMPLE
1. POLYETHYLENE (PE) - Commonly used in packaging, bottles, and containers.
2. POLYPROPYLENE (PP) - Found in various applications such as packaging, textiles, and
automotive components.
3. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) - Widely used in construction materials, pipes, and
medical devices.
— THERMOSETTING POLYMERS - These polymers have strong intermolecular forces and
become permanently set after curing. They cannot be reshaped by heating.
EXAMPLE
1. EPOXY RESINS - Used in various applications such as adhesives, coatings, and composite
materials.
2. POLYURETHANE - Used in foams, coatings, and adhesives, depending on the specific
formulation.
— FIBERS - These polymers have strong intermolecular forces and a highly ordered structure,
making them strong and durable.
EXAMPLE:
1. NYLON - Used in textiles, carpets, and various industrial applications due to its strength
and durability.
2. POLYESTER - Commonly used in clothing, fabrics, and as a cushioning material in various
products.
3. POLYACRYLONITRILE - Primarily used in the production of carbon fibers, which have
high strength and are lightweight.
TACTICITY
- is a property of polymers that refers to the manner in which pendant groups are
arranged along the hydrocarbon chain.
Types of tacticity
1. ISOTACTIC -Side groups of the monomers lie on the same side of the chain
2. ATACTIC - Side groups are arranged in an irregular or random manner around the
main chain
3. SYNDIOTACTIC - Side groups of monomers are arranged in an alternate manner
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The chemical composition of a polymer typically consists of repeating units called monomers.
Polymers can be made from a wide range of monomers, and the specific composition can vary
greatly.
Common examples of polymers and their monomers
Polyethylene: Monomer - Ethylene (CH2=CH2) – is a widely used polymer, or plastic, that is
composed of repeating units of the ethylene monomer.
Polypropylene: Monomer - Propylene (CH2=CH-CH3) – is another type of
thermoplastic polymer or plastic. It is made from the polymerization of propylene monomers
and is known for its versatility and a wide range of applications.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Monomer - Vinyl Chloride (CH2=CHCl) – commonly known as
PVC, is a versatile thermoplastic polymer made from the polymerization of vinyl chloride
monomers.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): Monomers - Ethylene Glycol and Terephthalic Acid -
(PET) is a type of thermoplastic polymer that is widely used in various applications. PET is
created by polymerizing terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.
Polyacrylonitrile: Monomer - Acrylonitrile (CH2=CHCN) - (PAN) is a synthetic polymer that
is a precursor to various other materials and products. It is a polymer made by the
polymerization of acrylonitrile monomers.

MECHANISM OF POLYMERIZATION
Follows three steps namely:
Initiation
Propagation
Termination

RADICAL
● Unpaired Electron
● Very Reactive(Desperate to find a partner)
● Attacking Molecules
PLASTIC - A large molecules formed
by combing small molecules called
monomers through a process call
polymerations.
- The term "Polymer" =
Repeating identical units in
final product.
- All plastic is polymer but
not all polymers are plastics.
- Homopolymers = Single
monomers
- Copolymers = 2 or more
monomers

TYPES OF PLASTIC
Thermosetting Thermoplastic
- Cannot be melted - Can be melted And re shape.
- Dense - Lightweight
Example: Example:
Phenolics. Melamin resin Acrylic Polyethelylene.
Expoxy resin Duoro plast Polystyrene. Polycarbonate.
UreaFolmaldehyde Polypropelene.