THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
BS PHARMACY 1A (FINALS)
Organs of the Respiratory System
1. Nose
2. Larynx
3. Pharynx
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. Alveoli – lungs
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
 Gas exchanges between the blood and
environment which only occurs in the alveoli
Upper Respiratory
 Includes nose, larynx, and pharynx
Lower Respiratory
 Includes trachea, bronchi, and alveoli (lungs)
The Nose
 Externally visible part of the respiratory system
- Nostrils route through the air enters your nose.
- Nasal cavity interior of the nose
- Nasal septum divides the nasal cavity
 Olfactory receptors – are locates in the mucosa
 The rest of the nasal cavity is lines with the respiratory
mucosa.
- Moisten air
- Traps foreign particles
- Enzymes destroys bacteria chemically
Conchae
 Projections from the lateral walls
- Increase surface area
- Increase air turbulence
- Increase trapping of inhaled particles.
The Palate
 Separates the nasal cavity and oral cavity.
- Hard palate anterior; supported by bone.
- Soft palate posterior; unsupported
Paranasal sinuses
 Can drain the sinuses through blowing your nose.
 Within frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
surrounding the nasal cavity.
 Sinuses:
- Lighten the skull
- Resonance chamber for speech
- Produce mucus
The Pharynx
 Called the “throat”
 Passageway from nasal cavity to larynx
- Continuous with the posterior nasal aperture
 Three regions of the Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx – superior region; behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx – middle region; behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx – inferior region; attached to larynx
 Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx
- Common for air and food passageways.
- Epiglottis routes the food into the posterior tube.
 Pharyngotympanic tubes
- Open into the nasopharynx
- Drains the middle ear
Tonsils
 Are clusters of lymphatic tissue; protects the body from
infection.
1. Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoid) – a single tonsil; located in
nasopharynx
2. Palatine tonsils (2) – located in oropharynx
3. Lingual Tonsils (2) – base of the tongue
The Larynx
external
 Called the “voice box”
 Functions
- Routes air and foods
- Plays a role in speech
 Location is inferior to the pharynx
 Made of eight hyaline cartilage
- Thyroid Cartilage (Adam’s apple) – the largest
Epiglottis
 Spoon-shaped flap elastic cartilage
 Protects the superior opening of the larynx
 Routes food
 During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over
the opening of the larynx
Vocal Folds (true vocal cords)
 Vibrates with expelled air
 Allows us to speak
 The glottis includes all the vocal cords and the opening
between the vocal cords.
The Trachea
 Called the windpipe
 4 inch long; connects to the larynx
 The walls are reinforced with C-shaped wings of hyaline
cartilage.
 It is lined with ciliated mucosa
- Cilia beat continuously in the opposite direction
- Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
from the lungs
The Main Bronchi
 It is formed by the division of trachea
 Hilum – where the bronchus enters the lungs
 Right bronchus – much wider, shorter, and straighter than
the left bronchus.
 Bronchi subdivided into smaller and smaller branches.
The Lungs
 Occupies the entire thoracic cavity
 Clavicle (superior portion) – it is where the apex of each
lung is nearby.
 Base rests on the diaphragm.
 Lungs are divided into lobes by fissures:
1. Left lung – two lobes
2. Right lung – three lobes
 Serosa
- covers the outer surface
- Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface.
- Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity.
 Pleural fluid
- Fills the area between layers
- Helps the lungs to glide over
- Decreases friction during breathing.
 Pleural space (between the layers) – more of a potential
space.
The bronchial tree
 Main bronchi subdivided into smaller and smaller branches
 Bronchial (respiratory) tree – the network of branching
passageways
 The smallest passageways have reinforcing cartilage in the
walls
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
BS PHARMACY 1A (FINALS)
 Conduits to and from the respiratory zone - A passive process that depends in natural lung
 Bronchioles (smallest conducting passageways) elasticity
- Intrapulmonary volume decreases
Respiratory Zone Structures and the Respiratory Membrane - Gas pressure increases
- Forced expiration occur mostly by contraction internal
 Terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory zone structures intercostal muscles
and terminate in alveoli
 Respiratory zone includes the Intrapleural pressure
1. Respiratory bronchioles
 The pressure within the pleural space is always negative.
2. Alveolar ducts
 Preventing the lungs to collapse
3. Alveolar sacs
4. Alveoli (air sacs) – the only site of gas exchange  If the intrapleural pressure equals atmospheric pressure, the
lung recoil collapse.
 Conducting zone structures include all other passageways

Alveoli Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

 Simple squamous epithelial cells  Factors affecting respiratory capacity

 Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs - Size
 Pulmonary capillaries – cover external surfaces of alveoli - Sex
- Age
Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier) - Physical Condition
 Tidal Volume (TV)
 One side of the membrane is air, the other side is blood - Normal quiet breathing
flowing. - 500 mL of air is moved in/out of lungs with each other.
 Formed by alveolar and capillary walls.  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
- Air that can be taking in forcibly
Diffusion - 3,100 mL
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 It is how the gas crosses the respiratory membrane
- Forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration
 Oxygen enters the blood
- 1,200 mL
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli.
Residual Volume
Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
 Air remaining in lung after expiration (exhalation)
 Adds protect by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and
 Cannot be voluntarily exhaled
other debris.
 Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even between
Surfactant breaths, and helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
 1,200 mL
 A lipid molecule
 Coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces Vital capacity
 Secreted by cuboidal surfactant-secreting cells.
 Total amount of exchangeable air
 VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Respiratory Physiology
 4,800 mL in men; 3,00 mL in women
 Its function is to supply the body with oxygen and dispose of
Dead space volume
carbon dioxide.
 Four distinct events of respiration  Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
1. Pulmonary ventilation – Moving air into and out of the lung; alveoli
called breathing  150 mL

2. External respiration Functional volume

- Gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
- Oxygen into the blood  Reaches the respiratory actions
- Carbon unloaded from the blood  Usually about 350 mL

3. Respiratory gas transport Spirometer – it is how the respiratory capacities are measured.
- Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
stream. Non-respiratory Air Movements

4. Internal respiration  Caused by reflexes or voluntary actions

- Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in  Examples are:
systemic capillaries. - Cough and sneeze – clear lungs of debris
- Crying – emotional induced mechanism
Mechanics of Breathing - Laughing – similar to crying
- Hiccup – sudden inspirations
Pulmonary ventilation - Yawn – very deep inspiration

 Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the Respiratory Sounds

thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to  Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
the flow of gases to equalize pressure.  Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a stethoscope
 There are two phases: 1. Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through large
1. Inspiration passageways (trachea and bronchi)
- Inhalation 2. Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling
- Air into the lungs alveoli.
- Diaphragm and external intercostal muscle contract 3.
- Intrapulmonary volume increases
- Gas pressure decreases External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration
- Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure
equals atmospheric pressure.  Gas exchange occurs as a result of diffusion
- External respiration an exchange of gases between
2. Expiration the alveoli and pulmonary blood
- Exhalation - Internal respiration an exchange of gases between
- Leaving lungs the blood and tissue cells
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
BS PHARMACY 1A (FINALS)
 Movement of the gas – towards the area of lower
concentration.
External Respiration
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood
- The oxygen diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the
alveoli to the oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary
capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the blood
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood of the
pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli.
Gas Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood
- Most oxygen travels will attach to hemoglobin and form
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
- A small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
- Most carbon dioxide that will transport into the plasma
is bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
- A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on
hemoglobin, but at different binding sited from those of
oxygen.
 Carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into the alveoli, it
must be released from its bicarbonate form:
- Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
- Combine with hydrogen ions
- Form carbonic acid
- Carbonic acid split to form water
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli.
Internal Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood and tissues
 An opposite reaction from what occurs in the lungs
- Loading is when carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue
cells
- Unloading is when oxygen diffuses from blood into
tissue.
Control of Respiration
Non-neural factors influencing rate and depth
 Physical factors
- Increased body temperature
- Exercise
- Talking
- Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and excitement
 Chemical factors: CO2 levels
- The body’s need to rod itself of carbon dioxide is the
most important stimulus for breathing.
- Increased levels of carbon dioxide may decrease or
acidic pH in the blood which also increase the rate and
depth of breathing.
- Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata.
 Chemical factors: oxygen level
- Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are
detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and common
carotid artery
- Information is sent to the medulla
- Oxygen is the stimulus for those whose systems have
become accustomed to high levels of carbon dioxide as
a result of disease
- Hyperventilation
 Rising levels of CO2 in the blood (acidosis)
which makes it faster and deeper breathing
 Elevates the blood pH due to its more CO2
 Result of apnea and dizziness (alkalosis)
- Hypoventilation
 Blood becomes alkaline (alkalosis)
 Shallow breathing
 Allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood
Respiratory Disorders
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
 Chronic bronchitis and emphysema
 Shared features of these two diseases
1. History of smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes progressively worse
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections
4. Patients are hypoxic, retain carbon dioxide and have
respiratory acidosis, and ultimately develop respiratory
failure
Chronis bronchitis (blue bloaters)
 Mucosa becomes severely inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs ventilation and gas
exchange.
 Patient becomes cyanotic; results of chronic hypoxia and
carbon dioxide retention
Emphysema (pink puffers)
 Alveoli walls are destroyed and enlarged
 Lungs lose elasticity
 Uses a large amount of energy to exhale
 Oxygen exchange are efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently expanded
barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease
Lung Cancer
 Leading cause of cancer death for men and women
 Nearly 90 percent of cases result from smoking
 Aggressive cancer that metastasizes rapidly.
 Three common types
1. Adenocarcinoma
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma
Development Aspects of the Respiratory System
 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks after birth
o This change from nonfunctional to functional
respiration depends on surfactant
o Surfactant lowers surface tension so the alveoli do
not collapse
o Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy, around 28
to 30 weeks
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
o Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per minute
o Infants: 30 respirations per minute
o Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
o Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
o Rate often increases again in old age
Asthma
 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive bronchiole passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing
Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a result of external
factors, such as infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways
Aging effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease
 Elderly is often hypoxic and exhibit sleep apnea
 More risks of respiratory tract infection
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
BS PHARMACY 1A (FINALS)