SCIENCE NOTES

CLIMATE

What is Climate?
Climate is the average weather in a particular region over a fairly long period of
time. Climate is affected by the following factors:
1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Distance from bodies of water
4. Ocean currents
5. Topography
1. The amount of solar radiation received from the sun is determined by two factors: (a) the
angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth, and (b) the length of time in which the sun shines
during a particular day. In tum, these two depend on the latitude of a particular place (the
latitude of an area's distance from the equator).

Direct rays of the sun deliver more heat than slanted rays. Regions near the equator (low
latitude) receive sun throughout the year and therefore have higher average temperature
compared to regions near the poles (high latitude), which receive slanted rays. Also, the days
and nights near the equator are almost equal in length while near the poles, the length of days
and nights varies with the season. Toward the pole, the nights are long in winter while in
summer, daylights are long. Thus, the lower the latitude, the warmer the climate; the higher the
latitude, the colder the climate.

2.The altitude (height above sea level) of a place also determines its climate. Even places near
the equator experience a cold climate if they are located at a high altitude compared to those
located at sea level. Example, Baguio City has lower average temperature and colder climate
than the surrounding area because of its high altitude.

3. The presence of land and water masses affect the climate of a place. Since land surfaces
heat and cool faster than water surfaces, land regions experience hotter summers and colder
winters compared to sea regions in the same latitude.

4.There are different loops or gyres of surface currents around the world. In the northern
hemisphere, the current flows in a clockwise direction. On the other hand, in the southern
hemisphere, the current flows in a counterclockwise direction. These clockwise and
counterclockwise of ocean currents are caused by the Coriolis Effect. Ocean currents that flow
away from the equator carry warm water.

The air above the warm water has a higher temperature.

When ocean currents that bring cold water move towards a coastal region, the temperature of
that area decreases as warmer air from the land flows to the sea resulting in a cold climate.
When warm ocean currents that take along warm water go to a land mass, the temperature of
that place increases as warmer air above the water flows inland, resulting in a warm climate.
The direction of prevailing winds can cause cool summers and mild winters along the sea coast.

5. Mountains and plains determine how distant winds affect the climate of a region.

Mountainous areas greatly affect the amount of precipitation in a certain region. The area in
which the wind blows is called the windward side. Here, the wind is blocked by the mountain,
forcing it to move upward. As it moves up, the water vapor condenses and forms clouds. This
will result in precipitation on the windward side. The air moves down towards the opposite
region called the windward side. The cold air mass starts to absorb heat and becomes warm
and dry. As a result, the area near the leeward side becomes dry and has less precipitation. The
dry region on the leeward side is called rain shadow. Vegetation in this region includes desert
plants and grassland.

What factors affect the average rainfall in a given place?

1. Like temperature, rainfall is also affected by latitude. Regions where warm, moist
wind rises such as in the doldrums (area north of equator; an area with no wind or light
variable winds just north of the equator in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, situated
between the trade winds) have heavy rains throughout the year. Regions in the traders
and low latitude are mostly dry while those in the prevailing easterlies have moderate
rainfall all year.

2. Seasonal winds, called monsoons, may bring rainy weather during some months
and dry weather in other months.

NORTHEAST MONSOON (AMIHAN) December to January

SOUTHEAST MONSOON (HABAGAT) July to September

Amihan and Habagat refer to the two kinds of winds and seasons that occur in the
country every year. Amihan is known as the Northeast monsoon while Habagat is
known as the Southwest monsoon. A monsoon is a seasonal rain and wind pattern.
"Monsoon" is from the Arabic word, "mawsim' which means season.

A switch in wind direction is the primary indicator for the change between one monsoon
to the other. It usually takes place during nighttime. At some periods, the two monsoons
switch several times before settling into a pattern for the season.

3. Mountains affect the amount of rainfall a given region will get. When warm moist wind
strikes the windward side of a mountain and rise, there will be much rainfall on that side.
The opposite side will have correspondingly little rain (leeward).

4. When winds blow in from the ocean, the region nearest the ocean gets the most
rainfall. The warmer the ocean, the heavier the rainfall.

Climate Zone: are divisions of the Earth's climates into general 60°N climate zones
according to average temperatures and average rainfall. The three major climate zones
on the Earth are 30°N the polar, temperate, and tropical zones. Temperatures in these
three climate zones are determined mainly by the Equator (0°) latitude of the zone.

● polar- has the coldest with temperatures almost always below freezing.
● temperate contains 30°S most of the Earth's land masses with more moderate
temperatures and rainfall year-round.
● tropical zones- has the warmest average temperatures and gets the most rain

Tropical Climates

These climates are located within 30° above and below the equator. Here, the sun is
nearly always overhead at noon. Tropical climates are therefore the warmest all year. In
the belt of the doldrums, rain is abundant all year. The climates included in this area are
(1) tropical rainforest, (2) savannah, (3) tropical desert and (4) tropical steep.

Middle-latitude Climates

These climates are located between 30° and 65° latitudes. There is a wide range of
temperatures with at least one month where the average temperature is 10°C or higher.
A variety of weather is produced because it is in the belt of the westerlies. The
middle-latitude climates are (1) mediterranean, (2) humid subtropical, (3) marine
west coast, (4) humid continental, (5) dry continental and (6) subartic.

Polar Climates

Close to the poles the sun is not seen during the winter for as long as six months. In
summary, the sun's rays that reach it are greatly slanted and therefore have less heat.
This region has less precipitation. The climates are (1) tundra and (2) ice cap.

CLIMATE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Type I-Two pronounced seasons: Dry from November to April, wet during rest of the
year. Dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. The regions
located on the western part of Luzon, Mindoro, Negros and Palawa

Type II- No dry season with a very pronounced rainfall from November to April and
wet during rest of the year. No dry season; with a very pronounced maximum rain
period from November to April. Regions that have type Il climate are Catanduanes,
Sorsogon, eastern Albay, eastern and northern Camarines Norte and Camarines Sur,
eastern Mindanao, eastern Quezon and Samar.

Type III - Seasons are not very pronounced: relatively dry from November to April,
wet during rest of the year. The regions with this type of climate are the western parts of
Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, the eastern portion of the Mountain Provinces,
Southern Quezon, Masbate, Romblon, Northeast Panay, Eastern Negros, Central and
Southern Cebu, part of Northern Mindanao, and part of Eastern Palawan.
Type IV- Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed through the year. Seasons are not
very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the
year. The regions with this type of climate are Batanes, North-eastern Luzon, South-
western Camarines Norte, Western Camarines Sur and Albay, Bondoc Peninsula,
Eastern Mindoro, Marinduque, Western Leyte, Northern Cebu, Bohol and most of
central, eastern and southern Mindanao.

WHAT ARE THE PREVAILING WIND SYSTEMS OR MONSOONS IN THE

PHILIPPINES?

NORTHEAST MONSOON (AMIHAN) usually from December to January

In the Northern Hemisphere, a high pressure area develops over India and Southern
Siberia in winter because of the colder air over them. The mass of cold air then moves
toward the Pacific Ocean. It reaches the Philippines from a north-easterly direction and
the air mass is called the Northeast Monsoon (Amihan) for that reason. This prevails the
cold morning experienced in the country from December to February.

Northeast monsoon or hanging amihan brings cool and dry winds formed from the
regions of Mongolia, Siberia, and Northern China during winter seasons. It brings
calmer and cooler climate in the Philippines and is experienced from November to
February.

SOUTHEAST MONSOON (HABAGAT) usually from July to September

The southwest monsoon is caused by the warm air passing over the ocean in the
equator. Because of this, air acquires moisture from evaporating water which brings

considerable amount of rain as it hits land. This warm, moist air actually comes from
Indian Ocean.

The hanging habagat visits the Philippines from the months of June to September. It
customarily produces abundant rain, causing strong winds and wet climate in the
country.

During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the Asian continent becomes warmer than
the oceans surrounding it. A cold air mass develops over the Pacific Ocean and begins
to move toward the Asian continent. This forms the Southwest Monsoon (Habagat)
which prevails over the Philippines in the months of July, August and September.

The trade winds, which are the prevailing winds in the tropics, likewise affect the
Philippines during the rest of the year and whenever the Northeast Monsoon and
Southwest Monsoon weaken.
CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns
in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole.

Impact of Climate Change

Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. These unexpected
weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in regions that rely on
farming because expected temperature and rainfall levels can no longer be relied on.
Climate change has also been connected with other damaging weather events such as
more frequent and more intense hurricanes, floods, downpours, and winter storms.

In polar regions, the warming global temperatures associated with climate change have
meant ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to
season. This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together
with expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level
has begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.

What causes climate change?

The cause of current climate change is largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels,
like natural gas, oil, and coal. Burning these materials releases what are called
greenhouse gases into Earth's atmosphere. There, these gases trap heat from the sun's
rays inside the atmosphere causing Earth's average temperature to rise. This rise in the
planet's temperature is called global warming. The warming of the planet impacts local
and regional climates.

Throughout Earth's history, climate has continually changed. When occurring naturally,
this is a slow process that has taken place over hundreds and thousands of years. The
human influenced climate change that is happening now is occurring at a much faster
rate.

El Niño and La Niña

Aside from these impacts of the climate change that we are experiencing, we still have
two cyclical events that we encounter- El Niño and La Niña. El Niño is an abnormal and
lengthy warming in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. This natural phenomenon
occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and lasts for nine months or two years
at most. Usually, it starts at the end of the year or during the Christmas season that is
why it is termed as El Niño which refers to the "Christ child".

Normally, as trade winds move from east to west, they collect warm air. But when trade
winds are weakened, they cause the piling up of warm surface water and making the
part of the Pacific Ocean warmer leading to the El Niño phenomenon. This happens
when the upwelling of colder water is blocked by the large quantities of warm surface
water. (The cause of the weakening of the trade winds is still unknown and it is still
being investigated)
Since the Pacific Ocean is to the east of the Philippines, El Niño phenomenon will affect
the country. When there is an increase of the temperature in the eastern part of the
Pacific Ocean, it is expected that some areas in the Philippines will experience this
climatic phenomenon. Some areas in the country will experience near to above average
rainfall and some areas may experience drier than normal rainfall.

El Niño will most likely bring severe drought. It is believed that it causes stronger
thunderstorm disturbance and massive storms. It also causes the decrease in the
population of some species.

La Niña is the opposite climatic disturbance to El Niño. This natural phenomenon may,
but does not always, follow El Niño events. It may last for nine to twelve months but in
some cases, it lasts for two years. This event is triggered by the cooling of the eastern
part. La Niña of the Pacific Ocean that is why it is sometimes called "cold Pacific." Trade
winds that move from east to west are strengthened. Upwelling of colder water
intensifies. Moving air brings along too much water vapor. When it reaches the land
mass such as the Philippines, precipitation is experienced. There would be an increase
of rainfall in some areas in the Philippines. For instance, areas that experienced severe
drought caused by El Niño may encounter above normal rainfall. But in some cases,
areas that experience dry season will have drier than normal conditions. La Niña's
effects are the opposite of El Niño.

Lesson 15: Stars and Constellations

CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS

A star is a massive ball of plasma that emits light throughout the

universe. While there is only one star in our solar system, there are billions
upon billions of stars throughout our galaxy and exponentially more in
the billions of galaxies in the universe. A star can be defined by five Basic
characteristics: brightness, color, surface temperature, size and mass.

Brightness
The brightness of a star depends upon both its size and its temperature. How bright a
star looks from Earth depends on both its distance from Earth and how bright the star
actually is. The brightness of a star can be described in two different ways: apparent
brightness and absolute brightness. A star's apparent brightness is its brightness as
seen from Earth. Astronomers can measure apparent brightness fairly easily using
electronic devices. A star's absolute brightness is its true brightness irrespective of its
distance from earth.
Color
A star's color depends on its surface temperature. Cooler stars tend to be redder in
color, while hotter stars have a bluer appearance. Stars in the mid ranges are white or
yellow, such as our sun. Stars can also blend colors, such as red-orange stars or
blue-white stars.
Surface Temperature
Astronomers measure a star's temperature on the Kelvin scale. Zero degrees on the
Kelvin scale is theoretically absolute and is equal to - 273.15 degrees Celsius. The
coolest, reddest stars are approximately 2,500 K, while the hottest stars can reach
50,000 K. Our sun is about 5,500 K.
Size
Astronomers measure the size of a given star in terms of our own sun's radius. Thus, a
star that measure 1 solar radii would be the same size as our sun. The star Rigel, which
is much larger than our sun, measures 78 solar radii. A star's size, along with its surface
temperature, will determine its luminosity.
Mass
A star's mass is also measured in terms of our own sun, with 1 equal to the size of our
sun. For instance, Rigel, which is much larger than our sun, has a mass of 3.5 solar
masses. Two stars of a similar size may not necessarily have the same mass, as stars
can vary greatly in density.
Distances on Earth's surface are often measured in kilometers. However, distances to
the stars are so large that kilometers are not very practical units. Astronomers use a
unit called the light-year to measure distances between the stars. A light-year is the
distance that light travels in one year, about 9.5 million kilometers.


Standing on Earth looking up at the sky, it may seem as if there is no way to tell how far
away the stars are. However, astronomers have found ways to measure those
distances. Astronomers often use parallax to measure distances to nearby stars.
Parallax is the apparent change in position of an object when you look at it from
different places.
PATTERNS IN THE SKY: CONSTELLATION
Observers in ancient times imagined group of stars that form pictures of animals,
objects and people. These imaginary group of stars are called CONSTELLATIONS.

Many of these constellations have names that can be traced back to early Babylonians
and Greek civilizations, but nearly all cultures have different names for constellations.
For example, the Greek called the large constellation Orion which means hunter and is
prominent in the night sky all over the world in winter. Early Filipinos visualized the same
group of stars as Balatik, a trap used in hunting wild pigs. Christian Filipinos named the
three stars (at Orion's belt) Tatlong Maria or Tres Marias.

The POLARIS
Polaris, commonly known as the North Star, is the brightest star in the constellation
Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). It is very close to the North Celestial Pole, making it the
current northern pole star. Polaris stands almost motionless in the sky and all the stars
of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.

In the Philippines, to locate Polaris, face North and locate the Big Dipper. Two stars
(Merakland Dubhe) in the Big Dipper are called pointer stars because they seem to point
to Polaris.
Apparent Movement of the Stars through the Night While the rotation We see different
star patterns through the year of the Earth on its axis caused the apparent nightly
movement of the stars across the sky, the revolution is responsible for the fact that we
can see different parts of the sky at different parts of the year.
An observer from Earth will be able to see the stars on the night side. The stars on the
same side as the sun cannot be seen because sunlight overpowers all the starlight.
During summer, in the Philippines, the constellations of Orion and Taurus are not visible
at night. They will be visible again as the cold season begin. During that time, Scorpius
will not be seen in the night sky.
As the Earth revolves around its orbit, the stars that were concealed by the bright light of
the Sun in the previous months will appear in the night sky.


How Early People Used the Constellations

The first use for constellations was probably religious. People thought that the gods
lived in the heavens and that they created them. Many cultures believed that the
positions of the stars were their God's way of telling stories. So it seemed natural to
recognize patterns in the sky, give them names, and tell stories about them. We
inherited the names for our constellations from the Greeks. And they named the
constellations after their mythological heroes and legends. So behind every
constellation there is a story. For example, to the ancient Greeks, Orion was a great
hunter. He was the son of Neptune (god of the sea). But the same stars were
considered to depict Osiris by the Egyptians. Each different culture developed their own
interpretation.
While constellations were associated with religion, they also have practical uses. Before
the calendars, people had no way of determining when to sow or harvest except by
looking at these patterns in the sky. Ancient people developed a way to remember the
patterns by giving them names and stories.


Another use of constellations was in navigation. The Polaris is widely used in navigation
because it does not change its position at any time of the night or year. Also, one can
figure out his/her latitude just by looking at how high Polaris appears in the night sky.
This allowed sailors to find their way as they sail across the seas.
The constellations are used today by astronomers to determine the location and name
of the stars. When astronomers go to conferences they like to share their research with
others. And usually they will want to tell someone which stars or objects they may be
looking at. If they just give the coordinates (numbers) the other person is not likely to
have an immediate idea of where the star is located in the sky. But if you say that the
star's name is Alpha Tau then you will know that is the brightest star in the Taurus
constellation. The stars are named based on the constellation they are in (all stars are in
some constellation). The naming 
goes from brightest to dimmest star and is designated by the Greek alphabet. For
example, Beta Ori is the second brightest star in Orion (also called Rigel).
The Zodiac
The sun, the moon, and the planets travel on a set path through the sky known as the
ecliptic as the Earth rotates. The list of 13 constellations they pass through are known
as the stars of the Zodiac. The Zodiac constellations' names are:
In astronomy, the zodiacal constellations are a convenient way of marking the ecliptic
(the Sun's path across the sky) and the path of the moon and planets along the Modern
astronomy still uses tropical coordinates for predicting the positions the Sun, Moon, and
planets, except longitude in the ecliptic coordinate system is numbered from 0° to 360°,
not 0° to 30° within each sign.

Aries
Taurus
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
Virgo
Libra
Scorpio
Sagittarius
Capricorn
Aquarius
Pisces

Astrologers use 12 of these constellations as signs of the Zodiac, omitting Ophiuchus,

to make predictions. [Unlike astronomy, astrology is not a science. Signs differ from
constellations, bearing only a loose reference to one another. The sign of Pisces, for
instance, corresponds to the rise of the constellation of Aquarius. Ironically, if you are
born under a particular sign, that constellation it is named for is not visible at night.
Instead, the sun is passing through it around that time of year, making it a daytime
constellation that can't be seen.