Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

A comprehensive analysis and experimental investigation for the thermal

management of cell-to-pack battery system
Kai Shen a, Jieyu Sun a, Yuejiu Zheng a, Chengshan Xu b, Huaibin Wang c, *, Shuyu Wang a,
Siqi Chen d, Xuning Feng b, *
a
University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
c
China People’s Police University, Langfang 065000, China
d
School of Automotive Studies, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Driving range has become one of the primary issues restricting the electric vehicle development, which requires
Energy storage more battery energy to be filled in the pack volume. However, it is challenging to continuously to enhance the
Electric vehicles specific energy of battery. Compact pack structure can further enhance the specific energy of the pack, such as
The Cell-To-Pack
the cell-to-pack (CTP) design. Compared with the traditional design structure, the CTP battery system omitted
Lithium-ion battery
Thermal management
the small module components, which directly increased the volume energy density by 15%-20%, making an
Digital twin essential breakthrough in pack specific energy. The thermal performance of the CTP battery pack gradually
emerged in applications. Thermal performance analysis for the CTP battery system has become a critical factor
restricting the large-scale application. This paper carries out the primary work is for the digital twin modeling of
the CTP battery system. An accurate thermal model of cells and the battery pack with a liquid plate structure is
established based on measuring the heating characteristics and thermo-physical parameters. After calibration,
the thermal model can not only predict the temperature response of CTP system under fast charging and cooling
conditions, but also further guide the development of other battery systems. The calculation error of the CTP
thermal model is controlled within ± 15% under various operations compared with the experimental results. The
proposed thermal model synchronizes with the battery pack test, significantly enhances the efficiency of battery
system design, providing guidance for the thermal characteristics analysis, design, and optimization of CTP pack
thermal management systems.

battery pack. In addition to the battery cell, the module also includes a
metal cover plate shortboard, wire harness, adhesive, thermal grease,
1. Introduction
module control unit, and other components. There are also thermal and
control management 。systems in a battery pack. This structure has
In recent years, energy shortage and climate change caused by fossil
considerable waste in space arrangement and weight of structural parts,
fuels have gradually become the common challenges faced by all hu­
which leads to the group efficiency being only about 50%, which limits
manity [1]. As one of the biggest contributors to fossil fuels, vehicles are
the demand for long cruising range. Therefore, it has great potential in
gradually turning to clean energy technology. Electric vehicles (EVs)
structural lightweight design [6].
have broad prospects for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and envi­
On September 26, 2019, the world’s first CTP was jointly created by
ronmental pollution [2,3], like hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and pure
Beijing Electric Vehicle CO. LTD and Contemporary Amperex Technol­
electric vehicles. As the most important energy source of an electric
ogy [7]. Compared with the traditional battery pack, it simplifies the
vehicle, the battery has always been attention-focused. Lithium-ion
structure and manufacturing process of the module, which is also called
batteries (LIBs) gradually emerge from a variety of batteries because of
a module-free power battery pack. In the same year, the company Build
their low self-discharge rate, high energy density, no memory effect,
Your Dreams (BYD) released the blade battery system, which also
which become the main power source of new energy vehicles [4,5].
enlarged the battery based on the traditional battery and saved the
Traditional battery packs are assembled from cells, modules to the

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: wanghuaibin@cppu.edu.cn (H. Wang), fxn17@tsinghua.edu.cn (X. Feng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118422
Received 5 November 2021; Received in revised form 8 March 2022; Accepted 26 March 2022
Available online 30 March 2022
1359-4311/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
K. Shen et al.
Nomenclature
A Convective heat transfer area (m2)
CP Specific heat capacity (J/(kg•K))
dE0∕dT Entropy heat coefficient (V/K)
E0 Open circuit voltage of battery (V)
E Terminal voltage of battery (V)
f Inertial force
hsurf.1h Convective heat transfer of liquid plate (W/(m2•K)
hsurf.1G Convective heat transfer coefficient of battery (W/(m2•K)
hsurf.2G Convective heat transfer coefficient of pole piece (W/
(m2•K)
I Current (A)
M Mass of battery (kg)
P Pressure (Pa)
Pheat Power of heater (W)
qbat Heat generation rate of the battery (W/m3)
qpole Heat generation rate of the pole piece (W/m3)
R Internal resistance of the battery (mΩ)
S Area of heater (m2)
T Temperature of the battery (K)
Tpole Temperature of pole piece (K)
module structure [5,6]. CTP only fixed 18 batteries together to form a
modular area. Compared with the traditional modules, CTP not only
reduced the side plates, bottom plates, connecting harnesses, fixing
pieces, unnecessary transverse beams and other components among
modules in the battery pack, but also achieved remarkable results in
light weight and significantly increased the energy density of the battery
pack. Moreover, in terms of manufacturing, traditionally, assembles
battery cells into modules and assembles modules into battery packs.
The CTP makes the battery cells directly into battery packs. The increase
of battery pack energy density directly improves the vehicle driving
range. Under the same battery chemical system conditions, the system
energy density of CATL’s CTP battery pack has increased by 10–15%; by
contrast, the BYD blade battery increases the volume energy density of
the lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP) by 50% to about 270 Wh/L,
this makes it competitive with ternary batteries (NCM). It can be seen
that the generation of CTP batteries will provide practical help for the
development of the electric vehicle industry.
The influence of temperature on battery performance and safety is
always significant [8–11]. Accurate calculation models are often used in
engineering to predict battery life, performance degradation, and
possible temperature runaway caused by design defects or operational
errors to carry out thermal management design of battery systems [12].
Once the thermal runaway occurs, the harm is great [13,14]. Earlier
research on battery thermal models started from cylindrical batteries
[15]. With the development of battery technologies, other battery
thermal models have gradually appeared. A semi-empirical heat model
is a high-efficiency, high-precision battery heat generation model. The
accurate battery heat generation rate can be obtained by establishing a
simple general formula [16]. Similarly, a model that uses numerical
calculations called Lumped parameter method is often used by people.
In recent years, the popular electric-thermal coupling model has had
good calculation accuracy and low calculation complexity in studying
the heat abuse behavior caused by battery overcharge [17]. Although
the electrochemical-thermal coupling model is more accurate in the
calculation, it needs many input parameters, which are difficult to
obtain [18,19]. The electrochemical-thermal coupling model is mainly
used to help battery design and comprehend temperature distribution
[20–23]. At the same time, it can also be used to study the process of
battery internal short circuits and safety protection methods [24].
There will be more influencing factors on the research of the cooling
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Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422
Tamb Ambient temperature (K)
t Time (s)
v Viscosity coefficient (Pa•s)
V Velocity of fluid (m/s)
Vbat Volume of battery (m3)
Vpole Volume of pole piece (m3)
Δx Thickness of battery (mm)
ρ Density of battery (kg/m3)
λx, λy, λz Thermal conductivity of battery (W/(m•K))
λglue Thermal conductivity of glue (W/(m•K)
λplate Thermal conductivity of liquid plate (W/(m•K)
Abbreviations
ARC Accelerating Rate Calorimeter
CTP Cell-To-Pack
C Charging rate
EVs Electric vehicles
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
HPPC Hybrid Pules Power Characteristic
LIBs Lithium-ion Batteries
SOC State of charge
UDF User Defined Functions
method based on the battery thermal model, including the thermal
conductivity of various solid materials around the battery, the convec­
tive heat transfer coefficient of cooling medium, and the contact thermal
resistance between the battery the liquid plate [25]. The cooling design
scheme that fully considers these factors can improve the cooling effect
of the battery and have better temperature uniformity [26,27]. Because
the thermal model for fast charging has more heat generation and a
worse environment, the requirements for thermal management are far
stricter. The demand for thermal management is also increasing with the
increase of battery capacity, a side plate cooling scheme was proposed
for large capacity LIBs and comprehensively analyzed the influences of
various parameters on the cooling performance [28]. It provides a basic
route for developing efficient and energy-saving thermal management
schemes. At the same time, realizing preheating control at low tem­
perature is also the focus of attention [29].
Basic on the study of CTP model at the present stage is in the blank.
The industry lacks a unified and in-depth understanding of its thermal
characteristics. In this paper, the thermal characteristics of the CTP
battery system are comprehensively explored and studied. The basic
thermo-physical parameters, such as internal resistance, entropy heat
coefficient, and thermal conductivity coefficient, are obtained from the
various experiments. Then combining the heat balance equation of
battery and the unsteady conduction theory of internal heat source, the
heat generation model is calibrated. Finally, based on the heat con­
duction structure, the influence of the liquid cooling plate at the bottom
is considered, and the CTP battery system model is established. The
model can have better accuracy (within 15%) for charging and cooling
conditions, which provides a reference for further developing the digital
twin simulation of the CTP battery system and optimizing the thermal
management design.
2. Description of the CTP battery system
2.1. Structure of the CTP battery system
The structure schematic of the CTP battery system is shown in Fig. 1
(a). The overall size of the battery pack is 2 m × 1.6 m × 0.5 m. The
battery pack is divided into five modules (M1, M2, M3, M4, and M5).
M1, M2, and M3 are placed side by side, M5 is stacked on top of M4, and
the battery management system (BMS) is in the middle. The battery pack
K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 1. Structure of CTP battery system, (a) Schematic figure of battery pack; (b) Schematic figure of battery module; (c) Schematic figure of liquid plate; (d)
Schematic figure of cell.

consists of 90 cells, and every 18 cells form a module. The structure of cooling liquid enters from the inlet, then flowing through different
the battery cell used in the CTP system is shown in Fig. 1 (d). The modules, they flow out from the same outlet.
specifications of a large capacity battery with a capacity of 156Ah are
shown in Table 1. The nominal voltage of the battery cell is 3.7 V. The
2.2. Numerical model
maximum continuous charge and discharge rates are 5C and 10C,
respectively. The outermost layer of the cell is covered with an
There are three primary heat sources in battery applications: ohmic
aluminum shell, and the top is provided with a headcover, which is
heat, electrochemical reaction heat, and polarization heat [34,35]. In
provided with positive and negative poles and a safety vent. In addition,
the process of charge and discharge, the reaction heat is caused by the
there are four independent battery cores inside. The large-size module
thermal entropy change of the battery, which has little influence on heat
structure of the CTP battery pack is shown Fig. 1 (b). The whole module
generation. The material of the battery itself mainly causes ohmic heat.
consists of two rows of battery cells in parallel, with 9 cells in each row
The polarization heat of the battery is the polarization phenomenon
and 18 cells in total, and the capacity of a single module is 2808 Ah.
produced on the electrode surface during the charging and discharging
There is an insulation layer of 2 mm between the cell and the cell, which
process, which leads to the voltage deviation and the resulting heat [36].
functions to fix the battery, buffering vibration and reducing noise. The
All these factors have an impact on the heat generation of the battery. In
two ends of the module are provided with two endplates made of
order to understand the influence of internal heat generation on the
aluminum, and the batteries are bound by steel belts to fix the batteries
overall temperature distribution, it is necessary to establish a model to
and prevent the batteries from generating gas and deforming. The
analyze the internal temperature field of the battery.
cooling system is responsible for the temperature control of the whole
battery pack. Below the battery pack is an aluminum liquid cooling
(1) Heat generation model
plate. In order to reduce the contact thermal resistance between the
battery and the liquid plate, there has 2 mm heat-conducting glue be­
Bernardi put forward the mathematical model of the heat generation
tween them which also called gap-filler [30–33]. The liquid cooling
rate of LIBs in 1985. This model ignores convection heat transfer, and
plate is the main cooling system of the whole battery pack, which keeps
radiation heat dissipation in the battery simplifies the battery heat into
the temperature of the battery pack in a reasonable working range. The
Joule heat and reversible reaction heat. The most significant advantage
schematic structural diagram of the liquid plate is shown in Fig. 1 (c).
of this model is that the parameters are easy to obtain. For the conve­
The flow direction of the cooling liquid is divided into two parts after the
nience of research, this battery heat generation model is taken. The
model equation is as follows:
Table 1 1 dE0
qbat = [(E − E0 ) + T ] (1)
Specifications of the battery. Vbat dT
Basic performance parameters Parameter value Because E0 can be expressed by IR (R is the internal resistance of the
Rated capacity 156Ah battery), therefore, the equation can be expressed as:
Rated voltage 3.7 V
Charging mode Standard charging mode 1 dE0
qbat = [IR + T ] (2)
Charge cut-off voltage 4.3 V Vbat dT
Discharge cutoff voltage 2.8 V
Maximum charging current 5C where V is the battery volume, I is current, R is the internal resistance
Maximum discharge current 10C of the battery, E0 is the open-circuit voltage of the battery, E is the
Battery size 148 × 78 × 103 mm battery terminal voltage, T is the temperature of the battery, dE0∕dt is
Battery weight ≤2750 g
entropy heat coefficient.

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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

The pole piece will also pass current. The heat generation equation of responding boundary condition is Class I, and the boundary equation is:
this part is: ⃒ ⃒
∂T ⃒ ∂T ⃒
λbat ⃒⃒ = λrub ⃒⃒ (5)
I2R ∂n surf,12 ∂n surf,12
qpole = (3)
Vpole
T(x,y,z,0) = Tamb (6)

(2) Heat transfer and convection model Where λbat, and Tbat are Thermal conductivity of battery and rubber,
and temperature of battery.
Because the internal structure and materials of a lithium-ion battery As there is a layer of 2 mm heat-conducting glue between the battery
are complex when establishing the thermal model, the following as­ and the liquid plate. The battery first transfers the heat to the heat-
sumptions should be made for the physical properties of the battery: conducting glue and then takes away this part of heat through the
liquid plate. Having such a layer structure promotes uniform heat con­
)1. The density and specific heat capacity of cells are homogeneous; duction and avoids temperature differences caused by direct cooling of
)2. Uniform heat generation of cell; the liquid plate. The boundary condition is Class I, which can be express
)3. The battery has the same thermal conductivity in the same as:
direction. ⃒ ⃒
∂T ⃒ ∂T ⃒
λbat ⃒⃒ = λglue ⃒⃒ (7)
∂n surf,12 ∂n surf,12
Based on the above assumptions, the unsteady heat conduction for­
mula of the cell can be established.
T(x,y,z,0) = Tamb (8)
∂T ∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T
ρCP = λx 2 + λy 2 + λz 2 + q (4) The equations and boundary conditions for the flow in the cooling
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
pipe are as follows:
where ρ is the density, c is specific heat capacity; τ is time, λx, λy, λz is
dρ
the thermal conductivity in ×,y, and z, q is the heat generation rate. = ∇(ρv) (9)
dt
As shown in Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of battery pack heat flow, the
heat transfer inside the CTP battery system mainly includes heat con­ 1 ∂v
duction between batteries, heat exchange between batteries and liquid f− ∇P + v⋅∇2 = + v⋅∇v (10)
ρ ∂t
plate, and convection heat between batteries and air. The following
describes the boundary conditions corresponding to these processes in d V2
ρ (U + ) = ρF⋅v + ∇(P⋅v) + ∇(λ∇T) (11)
turn. dt 2
There is a layer of heat insulation between the batteries, and the
battery heat is transmitted to the adjacent battery through it. The cor­

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of battery pack heat flow.

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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

⃒
∂T ⃒ automobile and other industries. In the pre-processing part, HyperMesh
λplate ⃒⃒ = − hsurf,1h (Tplate − Tliq ) (12)
∂n surf,1h is used for processing the geometry and dividing the grid, and then input
Fluent, and set the required boundary conditions to solve it.
T(x,y,z,0) = Tamb (13) In the process of grids division, the number of grids has a significant
influence on the accuracy of model solving. However, with the increase
where λglue, λplate, ρ, f, P, V, v, F, hsurf.1h are Thermal conductivity of of the number of grids, the calculation time is considerably prolonged, so
glue and liquid plate, density, inertial force, pressure, velocity, viscosity it is necessary to check the grid independence and select a more
coefficient, viscous force, internal energy, and Convective heat transfer appropriate number of grids. Fig. 3 shows the three-dimensional model
coefficient. of CTP battery pack with a cooling system. In Fig. 4, when the number of
Due to the low ambient temperature, the temperature difference grids is increased to a large number, increasing grids has not signifi­
between the pole piece and the environment will also produce convec­ cantly improved the calculation accuracy of the model.
tion heat transfer. The boundary conditions and initial condition can be To conduct the numerical calculation, some assumptions are needed
written as follows: to be stated:
⃒
∂T ⃒
λbat ⃒⃒ = − hsurf,1G (Tbat − Tamb ) (14) )1. No energy source from the battery casing and liquid plate.
∂n surf,1G
)2. Negligible heat loss from radiation.
⃒
∂T ⃒⃒ )3. Thermo-physical characteristics are constant;
λpole = − hsurf,2G (Tpole − Tamb ) (15) )4. neglected the gravity.
∂n ⃒surf,2G
)5. The liquid flow mode is laminar flow.
T(x,y,z,0) = Tamb (16)

where hsurf.1G, hsurf.2G are convection heat transfer coefficient of

battery and pole piece, Tpole is the temperature of the pole piece.

2.3. Grid model

Based on the accurate thermal model of the battery cell, the nu­
merical calculation model of the CTP pack is established. The geometric
model is simplified as follows:

1) The BMS system in the middle of the battery pack is ignored because
it does not participate in the cycle of the battery pack thermal
system;
2) Simplify some parts which have little influence on the heat transfer
of the battery, such as connecting lines and bolts. These parts have no
heating behavior, and the geometric structure is tiny, which will
increase the difficulty of meshing and affect the calculation speed.

We used FLUENT 2020R1 to carry out research work. Fluent is a

Fig. 4. Grids independence test.
powerful CFD simulation software, which is widely used in aerospace,

Fig. 3. Grid distribution inside the domain of CTP battery system.

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K. Shen et al.
3. Experimental
3.1. Experiment of internal resistance and entropy heat coefficient
It can be inferred from the mathematical model of battery heat
generation introduced in the equation (2), the heat generation rate of
the battery consists of reversible heat and irreversible heat. The irre­
versible heat is affected by current and internal resistance, the primary
source of battery heat generation. The internal resistance of the battery
can be obtained by the Hybrid Pules Power Characteristic (HPPC) test
[37].
Because the battery internal resistance is affected by both the SOC
and the temperature, so during the experiment, SOC was divided into 10
intervals and the temperature was divided into 8 intervals from 35 ◦ C to
55 ◦ C for HPPC test. Fig. 5 is the relationship between SOC and internal
resistance at different temperatures and entropy heat coefficient.
The change of internal resistance is fitted to a polynomial function
relationship with SOC and temperature for establish the subsequent heat
generation model of the battery.
6
R(T, SOC) =0.010069 − 0.0003411 × T − 0.05467 × SOC + 2.915 × 10−
2 2
× T + 0.001439 × T × SOC + 0.1265 × SOC − 9.307 × 10−
× T 2 SOC − 0.002359 × T × SOC2 − 0.1418 × SOC3 + 7.924
× 10− 6 × T 2 × SOC2 + 0.001829 × T × SOC3 + 0.07508
× SOC4 − 1.271 × 10− 6 × T 2 × SOC3 − 0.0006057 × T
× SOC4 − 0.01389 × SOC5
(17)
Reversible heat also has a particular influence on battery tempera­
ture, especially at a high rate. So, it is necessary to obtain the entropy
dE0 /dT = − 0.02431 × SOC + 0.03172 × SOC6 0.04867 × SOC5 − 0.1131 × SOC4 + 0.07758 × SOC3 − 0.02446 × SOC2 + 0.004333 × SOC − 0.0003614
heat coefficient of the battery and fit the heat generation rate of
reversible heat for an accurate heat generation model of the CTP battery
system.
The reversible heat in the battery heat generation model depends on
the working current and the Entropy heat coefficient. Moreover, the
entropy coefficient of heat is greatly affected by SOC. Therefore, we
need to measure the entropy heat coefficient under different SOC.
There are many methods for measuring entropy thermal coefficient
[38]. Potentiometry is more accurate compared with calorimetry
[37,39]. Therefore, in this paper, the entropy thermal coefficient of the
Fig. 5. Experimental equipment.
Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422
Fig. 6. Resistance and entropy heat coefficient.
battery is measured by the potential measurement method.
As shown in Fig. 6, when the battery is in the low SOC range (SOC
less than 25%), the entropy heat coefficient of the battery is negative,
and it increases with SOC. However, when the SOC is higher than 50%,
the temperature entropy coefficient is maintained at about 0.
6
The sampling interval of entropy coefficient is once in the charging
and discharging period of 1 s and once in the standing period of 30 s.
Three hours of standing time passed in each soc, and 52A as the charging
current of the battery in each SOC interval.
Since the entropy heat coefficient is related to the change of SOC, it
can be fitted by a polynomial with SOC and then input into the heat
generation model.
(18)
3.2. Experiment of thermo-physical properties
To obtain the heat capacity of battery, the experiment was carried
out in Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), as shown in Fig. 7 (a). A
constant power heating plate is clamped between the two batteries, and
an aluminum-plastic film is wrapped outside. With the adiabatic envi­
ronment, it can be approximately considered that the calorific value of
the heater is absorbed by the battery core and used to raise its temper­
ature. Equation (20) can be used to obtain the specific heat capacity of
the battery.
dT
MCp = Pheat (19)
dτ
Pheat Pheat
Cp = = (20)
M⋅dT
dt
M⋅K
where Cp, Pheat, M and dT∕dt are the heat capacity of the battery, the
mass of the battery, and the temperature rise rate of the battery.
For the acquisition of convective heat transfer coefficient, firstly,
putting the battery cell in a thermostat at 45 ◦ C as shown in Fig. 7 (c),
waiting for the temperature of the battery to be consistent with that of
the incubator, then taking the battery out and quickly placing it in a
25 ◦ C thermostat. Then identifying the parameters with the obtained
temperature drop curve to obtain the convective heat transfer coefficient
of the battery cell. The calculation of heat transfer coefficient is shown in
equation (21).
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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 7. Experiment of thermophysical properties, (a)Heat capacity experiment; (b) Thermal conductivity experiment; (c) Convective heat transfer coeffi­
cient experiment.

dT
MCP = h⋅A⋅(Tamb − T) (21)
dt
where A is the area of convective heat transfer for the battery cell.
Measurement of thermal conductivity in ARC in adiabatic environ­
ment as shown in Fig. 7 (b). There are two test batteries, with a heating
plate in the middle, the heating power is 200 W, and thermocouples are
attached to the upper and lower surfaces of each battery. After the power
is turned on, the upper and lower batteries are heated by the heater, and
the temperature data is recorded.
Pheat Δx
λ= (22)
S⋅ΔT
Where Δx, S and ΔT are the thickness of the battery, the area of the
heater, and the variation of temperature.
The parameters obtained after the experiment are shown in Table 2. Fig. 8. Battery cell charging test.

3.3. The experiment of the cell and CTP system Table 3

Main test conditions.
After various experiments, the main parameters in the formula of working condition Current Cooling ambient
battery heat generation were obtained. Finally, the battery heat gener­ fluid temperature
ation rate is fitted to the relationship between temperature and SOC. 1C charging condition 156A without 25 ◦ C
Based on the above, the thermal model of the cell is established, and test Multi-stage fast 195A → 175A → without
the temperature rise of the cell under 1C charging. The location of charging condition 132A → 78A
1C charging condition 156A 0. 98 m/s
measuring points is shown in Fig. 8. 20 ◦ C

Table 2
Thermophysical properties of the materials. The large module structure of the CTP system is different from the
traditional battery pack in establishing a thermal model. In order to
Material name Density Heat Thermal Convective heat
(ρ) capacity conductivity transfer coefficient accurately understand the thermal state of the CTP system, it is neces­
kg/m3 (Cp) (λ) (h) sary to test the temperature changes of various parts of the battery pack
J/(kg•K) W/(m•K) W/(m2•K) under different working conditions. Table 3 shows some experimental
Core 2345 979. 6 λx = 1. 21, h = 10 settings of working conditions. Fig. 9 shows the location of temperature
λy = λz = 17. 45 measuring points. On M1-M5, there are 5 temperature sensors on each
Positive pole 2719 871. 0 202. 4 module. For example, the temperature sensors on M1 are labeled 1–1,
Negative pole. 8978 381. 0 387. 6
1–2, 1–3, 1–4 and 1–5 respectively. For the convenience of distinction,
Pole piece 5438 1742. 0 202. 4
Heat- 1200 1240 0.4 the temperature sensor labels on other modules are similar.
conducting
glue

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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 9. Battery pack test and measuring point arrangement.

(1) At the ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C, the CTP battery pack was

Table 4
charged at a constant current rate of 1C (156A).
Main uncertainty analysis in instrument measurements.
(2) At the ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C, the battery pack was
charged quickly with variable current. Product model Measuring range Accuracy
(3) At the ambient temperature of 25 ◦ C, Cool the battery pack Thermocouples OMEGA GG-K-30 0～1250 C ◦
± 1.1 ◦ C
charged at a constant current of 156A. Data acquisition HIOKI LR 8410 − 200～2000 ◦ C ± 0.1 ◦ C
Battery test cycler NEWARE CT-4016–5 V 100A 0.025～5 V ± 0.1%
0.5～100 A
There are two reasons for choosing these three working conditions.
On the one hand, it provides multiple sets of data for model verification;
on the other hand, the selected working condition is the working envi­ inevitably lead to positional deviation. In the process of simulation, the
ronment that the battery system will often use in daily life, which is wrong position of measuring points may cause different results of tem­
quite representative. perature calibration. The attenuation degree of the battery will also
cause temperature difference in the experiment. As for the instrument
4. Results and analysis error, the thermocouple type we use is OMEGA GG-K-30, and the ac­
curacy is about 1.1 ◦ C, so there is some error in temperature measure­
4.1. Simulation and experimental results of cell ment. The temperature of the battery is the most concerned
characteristic parameter, and the uncertainty analysis in the experi­
Before analyzing the results, it is necessary to conduct uncertainty mental data was mainly exhibited in Table 4. The record time of the data
analysis for experiments. It is inevitable that there will be errors in the acquisition has an error of 1.0 s. There are manufacturing differences in
experiment. First of all, the arrangement of thermocouples will LIBs, which could not bring about the completely same heat generating

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K. Shen et al.
Fig. 10. Verification of heat generation model for cell, (a) Temperature contour (b) Simulation result and error.
behavior. In addition, due to the manual operation, it is difficult to
guarantee the location consistency of the thermocouple on the lithium-
ion batteries.
The temperature contour of cell is shown in Fig. 10 (a), and the
simulation results and test results and their errors are shown in Fig. 10
(b). The temperature in the center of the battery is high, and the tem­
perature around the center is gradually decreasing, this accords with the
conduction law of solid heat sources. The highest temperature in the
center of the cell is about 42. 5 ◦ C. The temperature rise curve in Fig. 10
(b) shows that the internal resistance of the battery is relatively large at
low SOC, so the temperature rise rate of the battery is swift, and the
temperature of the battery rises rapidly; on the contrary, the internal
resistance decreases at high SOC, and the temperature rises gently. From
Fig. 10.
(b), the simulation results agree with the experimental results, and
the maximum error is less than 5%, which proves the accuracy of the
fitting formula of the internal resistance and entropy coefficient and the
heat generation of the cell.
4.2. 1C charging condition of CTP system
The temperature rises of experiment and simulation at 1C charging
rate is verified in this section. Fig. 11 (a)-(e) shows the temperature
comparison and error curve between the simulation and experimental
measurements on the M1-M5 of the CTP battery pack under the 1C
charging condition. According to the arrangement of temperature
measuring points in Fig. 9, there are five points on each module. Each
simulation measuring point is located in the center of the pole piece. The
25 measuring points are tested and simulated respectively, and the
temperature comparison and error analysis are carried out. The tem­
perature rise trend of the five groups of measuring points is roughly the
same, the temperature in the first half is higher than the experimental
value, and the temperature in the second half is lower than the experi­
mental value. Among them, the temperature of M5 5–5 is the highest,
reaching 47.07 ◦ C, while the temperature of other measuring points is
lower than 45 ◦ C. Because the simulation boundary conditions are set
the same, and there is only cooling by convection heat transfer, the
temperature of the simulation measuring points is similar. The error
situation in Fig. 11 shows that the maximum temperature error point
appears about 1000 s during the whole temperature rise process of the
CTP battery pack, and the maximum temperature error is no more than
12%. After 1000 s, the error decreases continuously, and after the 2250
s, the maximum error increases inversely until it reaches about − 10%.
Among them, the simulated temperature curve of M3 fits the test best,
with a maximum error of only 10. 98% and an overall error of about ±
5%. Fig. 11 (f) is the temperature distribution of the battery pack and the
liquid plate. Because there is no cooling liquid flowing, part of the heat
generated by the battery pack is transferred to the liquid plate by heat
conduction and is not taken away by the cooling liquid. Therefore, in
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Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422
addition to the low temperature of the inlet and outlet pipes, the tem­
perature of the liquid cooling plate is close to the battery temperature.
The highest temperature appeared in M5, which was consistent with the
experimental results.
For the errors between the model and the experiment under 1C
working condition. On the one hand, there are some deviations between
the function fitting values of internal resistance and entropy heat coef­
ficient and the actual situation, on the other hand, there are some dif­
ferences between the calculation and the actual situation in CFD
software.
The Fig. 11 (f) is the temperature contour of CTP battery system. The
heat of the battery is quickly transferred to the aluminum liquid plate,
makes the temperature of the liquid plate rise because the cooling liquid
does no flow. The middle area is far away from the battery, so the
temperature is slightly lower than the liquid plate at the bottom of the
battery.
4.3. Fast charging condition of CTP system
In this section, the current change under multi-stage fast charging
condition is: before 500 s, the charging current was about 195A, after
500 s, it gradually decreased to about 175A and then decreased to about
132A at 1792 s, at the last stage, the current drops to about 78A. This
charging method is based on the current data given by the OEM, which is
considered to meet the needs of fast charging, and time the temperature
will not be too high at the same time.
The comparison of experimental and simulation results of battery
temperature rise under multi-stage fast charge conditions is shown in
Fig. 12 (a)-(e), there is a noticeable temperature step change in the
temperature rise process of the simulation measuring point, which has
the same trend with the current change curve. During the whole
charging process, the highest temperature was found at M5 5–4
measuring Point. The highest temperature reached 43.71 ◦ C, while the
highest temperatures of the other modules were 40.75 ◦ C, 41. 28 ◦ C,
40.68◦ Cand 41.25 ◦ C respectively. From the temperature variation
curve, the CTP system is charged at a current above 1C during the
charging stage from 195A to 175A, and the temperature continues to
rise; However, when the current is reduced to 132A, it has been charged
by current below 1C, so the temperature will drop slightly, and it can be
predicted that the temperature will balance at a position slightly lower
than 40 ◦ C; When charging for 78A, the temperature drops more obvi­
ously. Fast charge condition greatly influences the battery temperature,
so it is critical to design a reasonable thermal management system. The
simulation temperature is generally higher than the test temperature,
and the maximum error appears on M1, which is 13.7%. the maximum
error of M2-M4 are11.6%, 11.7%, 12.2%,10.9% respectively. The error
of temperature curve 4–4 on M4 is much smaller than that of the other
four curves, and the error remains at about 5%. Similarly, the error of
temperature curve 5–4 on M5 is also small, about 2%. Therefore, it can
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 11. Comparison of temperature and error between experimental and simulation measuring points on CTP battery system under 1C charge, (a) M1; (b) M2; (c)
M3; (d) M4; (e) M5; (f) Temperature contour of surface.
be considered that the three-dimensional simulation model and heat
generation model of the CTP system is more reliable.
4.4. 1C charging with liquid cooling
Liquid plate is the only cooling method for CTP battery system and
the research on cooling efficiency of CTP is very important. During the
experiment, the cooling liquid was turned on after the battery temper­
ature reached a set value, and it was found through records that the
cooling liquid was turned on at 1250 s. In the simulation process, in
order to correspond to the experimental situation, the cooling liquid was
also turned on at 1250 s. The simulation verification of CTP system
cooling conditions is carried out based on the above conditions. The
cooling strategy is: the battery is charged for 1C, and the battery pack is
cooled after the 1250 s. The cooling liquid is a mixed solution of 50%
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Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422
ethylene glycol and water, the flow rate is 0.98 m/s, and the tempera­
ture is 20 ◦ C.
Change of temperature under cooling condition is shown in Fig. 13,
(a)-(e) refers to the temperature rise curves of the measuring points on
the pole pieces of M1-M5 and the simulated measuring points, and (f) is
the measuring point on the liquid plate. The temperature of the liquid
plate rises due to the heat transfer of the battery, and the temperature of
the liquid plate drops obviously when the cooling liquid is turned on at
the 1250 s. It can be seen that there is a period of temperature rise in the
process of temperature drop. This phenomenon is because although it is
a steady flow condition, the cooling system has just started during the
experiment, the flow in the system is not stable, and the water pressure
of the pump is unstable for a while in backflow. However, there will be
no backflow in the model calculation, so the most significant error in the
whole simulation will be caused in the process of cooling liquid
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison of temperature and error between experimental and simulation measuring points on CTP battery system under multi-stage fast charging (a) M1;
(b) M2; (c) M3; (d) M4; (e) M5; (f) Temperature contour of surface.
backflow. The highest temperatures on M1-M5 are 40.05 ◦ C, 40.73 ◦ C,
39.75 ◦ C, 39.8 ◦ C and 41.57 ◦ C, which in agreement with the experi­
mental results. Due to the cooling pipe design, the highest temperature
of the CTP system will appear on M5. However, the maximum error
occurred at M3 3–3, which reached 12%, while the maximum error of
other parts did not exceed 10%.
After three groups of experiments, we further summarized some
reasons for the errors. Firstly, for the convenience of model setting, set
the surface heat transfer coefficient to a constant value. Actually, the
surface heat transfer coefficient should change with the change of bat­
tery temperature. Secondly, there are different thermal resistances at the
welding points of each pole piece. In order to ensure the unity of the
overall parameters, the calibration of all points cannot be met, so there
are some errors. Thirdly, the deformation of the heat-conducting glue
during the extrusion of the module and the pretightening force of the
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Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422
steel strip on the battery will have a certain influence on the battery
temperature, which cannot be fully considered in the simulation.
Fig. 14 shows the average temperature of cell1-cell18 on M5 under
the above three working conditions. Compared with the temperature of
the measuring point on the pole piece, the temperature of the battery is
slightly lower than that, which is reasonable. It can be seen that the
batteries with the highest temperature appear in cell5 and cell14, which
are in the middle of the module and where the heat is concentrated.
5. Performance of CTP battery system under extreme conditions
The ultimate purpose of the research model is saving experimental
cost and workload, improve efficiency through simulation to carry out
predictive work. In this section, to further demonstrate the capability of
the model, two extreme simulation conditions are designed to predict
K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 13. Comparison of temperature and error between experimental and simulation measuring points on CTP battery system under1C charging with cooling, (a) M1;
(b) M2; (c) M3; (d) M4; (e) M5; (f) liquid plate; (g) Temperature contour of surface.

the thermal field of the battery pack under extreme working conditions.
The simulation is divided into two situations: the first is 4C fast charging,
and the second is low-temperature heating. The specific working con­
ditions are shown in Table 5.
5.1. 4C charging condition
The temperature contour of the CTP system after 4C fast charging is
shown in Fig. 15. The cut plane of each module is selected to observe the
temperature distribution inside the battery. The CTP battery pack’s
cooling system can only cool down to the lower end of the battery, so the
maximum temperature of the battery reaches 79 ◦ C, and the tempera­
ture of the pole reaches an exaggerated 181 ◦ C in Fig. 15 (a), which is far
beyond the reasonable range of the battery. At the initial cooling stage
shown in Fig. 15 (b), the temperature of the measuring points on the
liquid plate descends a little, it is because the initial temperature of the
battery and the liquid plate is higher than that of the cooling liquid, and
the cooling liquid can also reduce the temperature at this time. However,
with the heat generated by the battery pack increases continuously, the
cooling system cannot meet the heat dissipation requirements, so that
the temperature of the measuring points on the liquid plate also rises
continuously. In Fig. 15 (c), the temperature contour of cut plane, it can
be seen that the cooling system of this CTP system needs to improve its
cooling performance under the condition of high-rate charging.
The heat flow on the battery pack mainly consists of three parts, the
heat transfer between the battery and the insulation pad, convective
heat transfer on the battery surface, and the heat dissipation of the liquid
plate to the battery. Fig. 16 is the heat analysis diagram of each module
under 4C charging. It can be seen that the liquid plate takes away most of
the heat, and the heat transfer of the battery to the insulation pad and its

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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 14. Average temperature of M5.

places where the weather is cold, the battery temperature is low, which
Table 5 will cause the capacity to be greatly reduced and the car will not start. In
Working condition setting.
order to understand the preheating of CTP battery system in cold
Working condition Current Cooling fluid Ambient temperature weather, it is necessary to conduct preheating simulation. In this section,
4C fast charge 624A 0.98 m/s 25 ◦ C the battery pack is heated with coolant under the low ambient tem­
20 ◦ C perature. Fig. 17 (a) is the average temperature of cell5 on M1-M5. Even
Low temperature heating Without 0. 49 m/S − 10 ◦ C M3-5 with the highest heating efficiency is only heated to 14.5 ◦ C, with
50 ◦ C
an average temperature rise rate of 0.81 ◦ C/min. This does not reach the
optimal working temperature of the battery. The temperature of the
convection heat transfer are less. Moreover, due to the least total heat measuring point on the liquid plate is shown in Fig. 17(b), they reached
flow on Module 2, the average temperature of electromagnetism on M2 the temperature equilibrium quickly, which also showed that the liquid
is higher than that of other modules. This phenomenon may be due to plate does not transfer enough heat for the battery. Therefore, how to
the structure of the liquid plate and the circulation path of the cooling improve the heating efficiency is also a significant problem faced by the
liquid. CTP battery system.
These two predicted cases have not been verified by experiments,
5.2. Heating under low ambient temperature however, the model verified by three working conditions has a certain
degree of credibility, and on this basis, the results of prediction simu­
Cold weather is a common extreme working condition. In many lation are acceptable.

Fig. 15. Performance of CTP battery system under 4C charging condition, (a) Temperature of pole piece; (b) Temperature of liquid plate; (c) Temperature contour of
cut plane.

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K. Shen et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 211 (2022) 118422

Fig. 16. Heat transfer of CTP battery system.

Fig. 17. Performance of CTP battery system under low temperature environment, (a) Pole piece; (b) Liquid plate; (c) Temperature contour of cut plane.

6. Summary
The development of the CTP battery system improves the volume
energy density of the battery pack, which is the trend of battery devel­
opment in the future. Therefore, it is crucial to study the thermal
characteristics, which can promote the improvement and optimization
of CTP technical safety design. At present, CTP battery system has not
been popularized in the market, and people don’t know much about the
thermal characteristics of this battery system. The main work of this
paper is to have a preliminary understanding of the temperature
characteristics of this battery system, and to make some extended pre­
dictions by developing the model. The details are as follows:
1) The relationship between the internal resistance and SOC of the
battery at different temperatures was measured by the HPPC
experiment, and the experimental curves of entropy heat coefficient
and SOC were measured by potential method experiment. Based on
the above experiments, the heat generation model of the battery cell
is established.

14
K. Shen et al.
2) Complete experiments on thermo-physical parameters, including
heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and convection heat transfer
coefficient between surface and air, are carried out to provide ac­
curate parameters for establishing a complete CTP battery system
model.
3) Irreversible heat dramatically influences the temperature rise of the
battery in the process of high-rate charge and discharge. At the same
time, it also verifies the importance of irreversible heat in the battery
heat generation model.
4) The thermal model of the battery cell was established, and the test
and simulation were carried out under the charging condition of 1C.
The relative error between the calculated results and the experi­
mental results was less than 15%, which verified the accuracy of the
cell model.
5) A complete three-dimensional model of the CTP battery system is
established, tested, and simulated under 1C constant current
charging condition, multi-stage fast charging condition, and 1C
charging with the cooling condition. The error between the simula­
tion results of the three working conditions and the test is small, and
the temperature change trend is entirely consistent. The above con­
firms that the model can be fully used in CTP thermal characteristics
research, digital twinning of battery pack temperature characteris­
tics in actual charge and discharge process, optimization of liquid
cooling plate, and development of thermal management control
system.
According to the simulation results under extreme working condi­
tions, the performance of CTP battery system is not satisfactory. Under
4C charging, due to insufficient cooling capacity, the maximum tem­
perature of the battery reaches 79 ◦ C, which may cause thermal
runaway. And the heating effect at low ambient temperature is poor, the
temperature rise rate is only 0.81 ◦ C/min. It can be seen that the tiled
cold plate is not suitable for extreme working condition. The further
works are based on the established model to optimizing thermal man­
agement efficiency, solving problem of the heat dissipation, even the
impact of cooling system during thermal runaway may also be
investigated.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (51806143,52076121,521006284),the Natural Science Foun­
dation of Hebei Province (B2021507001), the Ministry of Science and
Technology of China (2019YFE0100200)
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