Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lesson 15 Soil Formation
Lesson 15 Soil Formation
Parent
Material
Time Climate
Topography Biota
Main Objectives
1. Weathering
2. Soil forming factors
3. Soil forming processes
4. Alluvium
5. Colluvium
6. Loess
7. Glacial till
Statements:
Most soils are mineral soils formed by the weathering of
solid rock masses into unconsolidated materials, except
for organic soils that mostly develop from plant residues.
Parent material
Time
Topography
Climate Biota
Putting all actions together = soil formation or genesis
Figure 2.24
Soil forming factors: Parent material
3. Landforms and types of deposits (parent materials)
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.9 Characteristically shaped alluvial fans alongside a river valley in Alaska. Although the areas are
small and sloping, they can develop into well-drained soils. (Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey)
Figure 2.21 An interaction of topography and parent material as factors of soil formation.
The soils on the summit, toe-slope, and floodplain in this idealized landscape have formed
from residual, colluvial, and alluvial parent materials, respectively.
Figure 2.12 Illustration of how several glacial materials were deposited. (a) A glacier ice lobe moving to the left,
feeding water and sediments into a glacial lake and streams, and building up glacial till near its front. (b) After
the ice retreats, terminal, ground, and recessional moraines are uncovered along with cigar-shaped hills
(drumlins), the beds of rivers that flowed under the glacier (eskers), and lacustrine, delta, and outwash
deposits. (c) The stratified glacial outwash in the lower part of this soil profile in North Dakota is overlain by a
layer of glacial till containing a random assortment of particles, ranging in size from small boulders to clays.
Note the rounded edges of the rocks, evidence of the churning action within the glacier. Scale is marked every
10 cm. (Photo courtesy of R. Weil)
Areas in the United States covered by the continental ice sheet and the deposits either directly
from, or associated with, the glacial ice. (1) Till deposits of various kinds; (2) glacial-lacustrine
deposits; (3) the loessial blanket (note that the loess overlies great areas of till in the Midwest); (4)
an area, mostly in Wisconsin, that escaped glaciation and is partially loess covered.
Figure 2.10 Diagram showing sediments laid down in marine waters adjacent to coastal
residual igneous and metamorphic rocks. Note that the marine sediments are alternate
layers of fine clay, silts and coarse-textured sands and gravels. The photo shows such
layering on coastal marine sediment. This diagram and photo illustrate the relationship
between marine sediments and residual materials in the Coastal Plain of southeastern
United States. (Photo and diagram courtesy of R. Weil)
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.13 (a) Major eolian deposits of the world include the loess deposits in Argentina, eastern Europe, and
northern China, and the large areas of dune sands in north Africa and Australia. (b) Approximate distribution of
loess and dune sand in the United States. The soils that have developed from loess are generally silt loams,
often quite high in fine sands. Note especially the extension of the central loess deposit down the eastern side
of the Mississippi River and the smaller areas of loess in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The most prominent
areas of dune sands are the Sand Hills of Nebraska and the dunes along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan.
Soil forming factors: Climate
• Precipitation: enhances weathering,
leaching of elements (e.g. plant nutrients),
biological processes (plant growth,
microbial activity)
Young Old
Figure 2.22 Progressive stages of soil profile development over time for a residual igneous rock,
in a warm, humid climate that is conducive to forest vegetation. The time scale increases
logarithmically from left to right, covering more than 100,000 years. Note that the mature profile
(right side of this figure) expresses the full influence of the forest vegetation as illustrated in
Figure 2.16. This mature soil might be classified as an Ultisol (see Section 3.14).
4. Relating soil formation to soil degradation and sustainability
Please consider the fact that the rate of soil erosion under the
influence of human activities is often much higher than the natural
rate of soil formation.
Figure 2.25
Minnesota Spotosol Minnesota Mollisol
Figure 2.26 Generalized profile of the Miami silt loam, one of the Alfisols of the eastern United States, before and after land
is plowed and cultivated. The surface layers (O, A, and E) are mixed by tillage and are termed the Ap (plowed) horizon. If
erosion occurs, they may disappear, at least in part, and some of the B horizon will be included in the furrow slice.
Main Objectives
1. Weathering
2. Soil forming factors
3. Soil forming processes
4. Alluvium
5. Colluvium
6. Loess
7. Glacial till