MODULE 1 over a short period of time, with the same

measurement conditions, same instrument

Measurement System and observer, same location, and same
- traditionally used to measure physical and conditions of use maintained throughout
electrical quantities, such as mass, Reproducibility
temperature, pressure, capacitance and - describes the closeness of output readings
voltage. for the same input when there are changes
Calibration in the method
- process of configuring an instrument to
provide a result for a sample within an Error in Measurements
acceptable range (1) The instrument is not calibrated, and has an
- observing the instrument’s performance offset.
when measuring a standard of some sort (2) Reading uncertainty due to the presence of
Recalibration random noise.
- performed by adjusting the instrument at (3) Reading the instrument before it has reached its
each point in its output range until its output steady state.
readings are the same as those of a second (4) Mistakes in recording measured data and in
standard instrument to which the same calculating a derived measurand
inputs are applied
Measurand
- the property or the physical property that is
being measured
Tolerance
- term that is closely related to accuracy and
defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value
Accuracy
- closeness of a measured value to a
standard or known value
- a description of systematic errors as these
cause a difference between a result and a
"true" value
ISO
- International Organization for
Standardization in English and Organisation
Pressure
Internationale de Normalisation in French
- force per unit area exerted by a fluid on the
- defines accuracy as describing a
surface of the container
combination of both types of observational
error above (random and systematic), so
Atmospheric pressure
high accuracy requires both high precision
- pressure due to air surrounding the earth’s
and high trueness.
surface
Inaccuracy or measurement uncertainty
Absolute pressure
- extent to which a reading might be wrong
- equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
and is often quoted as a percentage of the
pressure
full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument
Gauge Pressure
Precision
- Unknown pressure is greater than the
- description of random errors and a measure
atmospheric pressure
of statistical variability
Vacuum Pressure
- closeness of two or more measurements to
- Atmospheric pressure is greater than the
each other
unknown pressure
- describes an instrument’s degree of
Static Pressure
freedom from random errors
- uniform in all directions, so pressure
Repeatability
measurements are independent of direction
- describes the closeness of output readings
in an immovable (static) fluid
when the same input is applied repetitively
Dynamic pressure
K.J.L.A.
 - directional component of pressure in a
moving (dynamic) fluid
Total Pressure or Stagnation Pressure
- An instrument facing the flow direction
measures the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures
Pressure Measuring Instruments
Manometer
- difference in fluid height in a liquid column
manometer is proportional to the pressure
difference
Dead Weight Tester
- pressure producing and pressure measuring
device
- used to calibrate pressure gauges
McLeod Vacuum Gauge
- used to measure vacuum pressure
- also serves as a reference standard to
calibrate other low-pressure gauges
Aneroid
- based on a metallic pressure sensing
element which flexes elastically under the
effect of a pressure difference across the
element
- "Aneroid" means "without fluid,"
- called mechanical gauges in modern
language
Bourdon tube
- most widely used as a pressure sensing
element
- consists of a narrow bore tube of elliptical
cross-section, sealed at one end
Diaphragm
- uses the deflection of a flexible membrane
that separates regions of different pressure
Bellows
- "without liquid"
- intended to sense small pressures or
pressure differences, or require that an
absolute pressure be measured, the gear
train and needle may be driven by an
enclosed and sealed bellows chamber
Electronic Pressure Sensors
Piezoresistive Strain Gage
- uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or
formed strain gauges to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
Capacitive
- uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to
create a variable capacitor to detect strain
due to applied pressure
Magnetic
- measures the displacement of a diaphragm
by means of changes in inductance
(reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy
current principal
Piezoelectric
- uses the piezoelectric effect in certain
materials such as quartz to measure the
strain upon the sensing mechanism due to
pressure
Optical
- uses the physical change of an optical fiber
to detect strain due to applied pressure.
Potentiometric
- uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive
mechanism to detect strain caused by
applied pressure.
Resonant
- uses the changes in resonant frequency in a
sensing mechanism to measure stress, or
changes in gas density, caused by applied
pressure.
Thermal Conductivity Vacuum Gauges
- works on the principle that at low pressure
the thermal conductivity of a gas is a
function of pressure.
K.J.L.A.

Pirani Gauge (one wire)
- consists of a metal wire open to the
pressure being measured
Ionization Gauge
- most sensitive gauges for measuring very
low pressures or high vacuum.
- The ions are attracted to a suitably biased
electrode known as the collector.
Hot cathode
- electrically heated filament produces an
electron beam.
- electrons travel through the gauge and
ionize gas molecules around them
Cold cathode
- same with the only difference in the
production of electrons which are produced
in the discharge of a high voltage.
Calibration
- Dead weight tester
- McLeod
- mass spec + ionization
Dynamic Transients
- When fluid flows are not in equilibrium, local
pressures may be higher or lower than the
average pressure in a medium.
Sound
- disturbances propagate from their source as
longitudinal pressure variations along the
path of propagation
Sound pressure
- instantaneous local pressure deviation from
the average pressure caused by a sound
wave
- can be measured using a microphone in air
and a hydrophone in water
- normally small and are often expressed in
units of microbar
MODULE 2:
FLOW MEASURING DEVICE
Orifice Meter
- used to measure the rate of flow of Liquid or
Gas, especially Steam, using the Differential
Pressure Measurement principle
- mainly used for robust applications as it is
known for its durability and is very
economical
- a conduit and a restriction to create a
pressure drop
Brief History
- The first recorded use of an orifice device
for fluid measurement was in 1797 by
Giovanni B. Venturi, an Italian physicist
whose work led to the development of the
modern Venturi meter in 1886 by Clemons
Herschel.
Advantages:
- very cheap as compared to other types of
flow meters
- Less space is required to Install, ideal for
space constrained applications
Disadvantages
- Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas
or in unclear liquids
- minimum pressure that can be achieved for
reading the flow is sometimes difficult to
achieve due to limitations in the
vena-contracta length for an Orifice Plate
Function/Purpose:
- As the fluid approaches the orifice the
pressure increases slightly and then drops
suddenly as the orifice is passed. It
continues to drop until the “vena-contracta”
is reached and then gradually increases
until at approximately 5 to 8 diameters
downstream a maximum pressure point is
reached that will be lower than the pressure
upstream of the orifice
Venturimeter
- a measuring or also considered as a meter
device that is usually used to measure the
flow of a fluid in the pipe
- also called a venturi flowmeter
- used to calculate the velocity of fluids in
running through a pipeline
- calculates velocity by measuring the
pressure head at both points before and
after the narrowed throat
- may also be used to increase the velocity of
any type fluid in a pipe at any particular
point
K.J.L.A.
 - basically works on the principle of
Bernoulli's Theorem
Converting Part
- starting section of venturimeter which
attached at inlet pipe
Throat
- middle portion of venturimeter and its cross
sectional area is too small
Diverging Part
- is last part of venturimeter and its cross
sectional area is increases continually
Brief HIstory
- The principle of the Venturimeter was
demonstrated by Giovanni Batista Venturi
(Hence the name Venturimeter), But it was
first used in practical metering applications
by Clemens Herschel.
Advantages
- High-pressure recovery. Low permanent
pressure drop.
- High coefficient of discharge.
- Smooth construction and low cone angle
help to solid particles flow through it. So it
can be used for dirty fluids.
- It can be installed in any direction
horizontal, vertical and inclined.
- They are more precise and can be used for
a wide range of flows.
- More accurate than orifice and flow nozzle.
Disadvantages
- Size, as well as cost is high
- Difficult to inspection due to its construction
- They are large in size and, therefore, where
space is limited, they cannot be used.
- For satisfactory operation, the venturi must
be proceeded by long straight pipes.
- Its maintenance is not easy
- It cannot use in pipe that has small diameter
(70mm)
Function/Purpose
Plumbing
- used in pipelines at wastewater collection
systems and treatment plants.
- used in wastewater pipes because their
overall design structure allows for solids to
pass through it instead of collecting in front
of it
The Flow of Chemicals in Pipelines
- The temperatures and pressures of
chemicals in a pipeline do not affect the
accuracy of a Venturi flowmeter and
because of this they are used in crude oil
pipelines
Carburetors
- used to measure airflow in a car engine and
to ensure that a correct amount of fuel is fed
to the gas combustion engine when needed
during driving
How does it measure flow?
- A Venturi meter is used to measure the flow
rate through a tube. It is based on the use of
the Venturi effect, the reduction of fluid
pressure that results when a fluid runs
through a constricted section of pipe.
Operation of Venturi Meter
- The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured
enters the entry section of the venturi meter
with a pressure P1.
- As the fluid from the entry section of the
venturi meter flows into the converging
section, its pressure keeps on reducing and
attains a minimum value P2 when it enters
the throat. That is, in the throat, the fluid
pressure P2 will be minimum.
- The differential pressure sensor attached
between the entry and throat section of the
venturi meter records the pressure
difference(P1-P2) which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through
the pipe when calibrated.
- The diverging section has been provided to
enable the fluid to regain its pressure and
hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of
the diverging section, greater is the
recovery
- Venturimeter works on Bernoulli’s
equation and its simple principle is when
velocity increases pressure decreases.
Rotameter
- also known as variable area flow meters
- simple industrial flow meters that measure
the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube
Brief History
- The history of variable-area meters dates to
1908 when they were invented by German
engineer Karl Kueppers in Aachen,
Germany. At that time, they were called
“rotameters,” named after the rotating float
that was originally a component of these
K.J.L.A.
 meters. Felix Meyer recognized the
commercial potential of Kueppers’ invention,
and in 1909 founded “Deutsche Rotawerke”
in Aachen. The product invented by Karl
Kueppers was the first variable-area
flowmeter with a rotating float.
Types:
Glass Tube Rotameters
- the original rotameter
- referred to as a "general-purpose"
rotameter
Metal Tube Rotameters
- also known as armored meters
- designed for applications where the
temperature or pressure exceeds the limits
of glass tubes
Plastic Tube Rotameters
- can be an entirely suitable, very
cost-effective alternative to glass or metal
meters for a wide variety of fluid
measurements.
Advantages:
- can use them for both liquid and gas or
steam applications
- design is simple and therefore economical
- do not require power supplies
Disadvantages
- difficult to handle the glass tube type
- must be mounted vertically.
- accuracy is not very high.
Turbine Flow Meter
- or axial turbine
- provides exceptionally accurate and reliable
digital outputs
- used for the measurement of liquid gas and
gases of very low flow rate
Advantages
- Good accuracy and excellent repeatability
and range
- Fairly low pressure drop
- Easy to install and maintain
Disadvantages
- High cost (expensive)
- Limited use for slurry applications
- Requires constant backpressure to prevent
cavitation
Vortex-Shedding Flow Meter
- best suited for flow measurements where
the introduction of moving parts presents
problems
Vortex shedding
- process by which vortices of gas or liquid
are formed around a solid object that
obstructs the path of a gas or liquid stream
Advantages
- has no moving parts, and the measuring
component has a simple structure, reliable
performance and long service life
- has a wide measuring range
Disadvantages
- has poor anti-vibration performance
- high flow velocity shock of the fluid causes
vibrations in the vortex body, which reduces
the measurement accuracy.
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
- used to measure liquid velocity with
ultrasound to analyze the volume of liquid
flow
- needs bubble or minute particles within the
liquid flow
Advantages
- does not block the path of liquid flow
- o/p of this meter is different for density,
viscosity & temperature of the liquid
- flow of liquid is bidirectional
Disadvantages
- expensive as compared with other
mechanical flow meters
- design of this meter is complex
Magnetic Flow Meter
- is a volumetric flow meter that does not
have any moving parts
- ideal for wastewater applications or any
dirty liquid which is conductive, or water
based
Advantages
- feature an obstruction-free design with no
moving parts which eliminates flow
impediment resulting to an accuracy over a
wide flow range as good as ± 0.5%.
Disadvantages
- only effective on conductive fluids
Thermal Mass Flow Meter
- designed to accurately monitor and
measure mass flow (as opposed to
measuring volumetric flow) of clean gases
- often used in monitoring or controlling
mass-related processes such as chemical
reactions that depend on the relative
masses of unreacted ingredients
K.J.L.A.
Advantages
- Measure gas mass flow rate directly
- Suitable for applications where temperature
and pressures fluctuate
Disadvantages
- Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non
abrasive fluids
- Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to
measurement inaccuracy
Coriolis Flow Meter
- known as inertial flowmeter
- often referred to simply as a mass
flowmeter because of its dominance in the
mass flowmeter market
Advantages
- could do a simultaneous measurement of
mass flow, density and temperature opens
up entirely new perspectives for process
control, quality assurance and plant safety
Disadvantages
- expensive
- Tubes are also subject to both corrosions
caused by chemical interaction with the
measured fluid and abrasion caused by
particles within the fluid
Target Flow Meters
- also known as drag force flow meters
- usually a flat disc or a sphere with an
extension rod, into the flow field
Advantages
- Low initial set up cost
- Can be used with a wide variety of fluids,
even viscous fluids and slurries.
- Can be used in abrasive, contaminated, or
corrosive fluid flow
Disadvantages
- Pressure drop is inevitable due to the rod
and the drag element
MODULE 3:
MASS, WEIGHT, VOLUME AND AREA
Mass
- quantitative measure of inertia of a body at
rest
- product of density and volume
Weight or Weight Force
- force with which a body is attracted toward
the Earth
- determined by the product of the mass and
the acceleration of gravity
Weights
- embodiment of units of mass
Kilogram
- unit for mass
Newton
- unit for force
Weighing Instruments
Platform Beam Balance
- a triple beam poise carriage balance
- To determine the weight of the object placed
in the weighing pan, the weights, known as
poise, must be moved along the beams for
hundreds, tens and units (grams).
Platform Dial Scale
- Instead of moving the weights along the
beam, i.e., the horizontal arm on which the
pan is fixed, Ohaus introduced a dial
system that was turned to stabilize the
beam in a perfectly horizontal position.
Toledo Balance
- based on a system of counterweights: the
object to be weighed is deposited on the
pan and the counterweight equilibrates the
two ends of the weighing arm.
Analytic Balance
- that can measure precisely very small
masses of substances – in the order of the
milligram – is essential to laboratory work,
especially for chemical analyses.
Electronic Analytic Balance
- an essential laboratory instrument that can
measure with great precision very small
quantities of solid or liquid material
Dial Torsion Balance
- functioning is based on the torsion of a
metal wire
- used to measure weak forces (electric,
magnetic, and gravitational).
Two Pan Balance
- device for measuring mass
- often used to equilibrate, two by two,
solutions that will undergo centrifugation
K.J.L.A.
Speed
- a rate variable defined as the time rate of
motion
Speedometer (to Measure Car Speed)
- measures and displays the instantaneous
speed of a vehicle
- measure the traveling speed of land
vehicles
How does a speedometer work?
- When the engine turns over, the driveshaft
turns to make the wheels spin round.
- The speedometer cable, powered by the
driveshaft, turns as well.
- The cable spins a magnet around at the
same speed inside the speed cup. The
magnet rotates continually in the same
direction (in this case, counter-clockwise).
- The spinning magnet creates eddy currents
in the speed cup.
- The eddy currents make the speed cup
rotate counter-clockwise as well in an
attempt to catch up with the magnet.
Remember that the magnet and the speed
cup are not joined together in any
way—there's air in between them.
- The hair spring tightens, restraining the
speed cup so it can turn only a little way.
- As the speed cup turns, it turns the pointer
up the dial, indicating the car's speed.
Tachometer (to Measure Angular Speed)
- a device to measure the angular speed
- used to measure machine speed
- A contact tachometer touches the rotating
part you are measuring and is more
precise.
- A non-contact tachometer uses light from
a laser to illuminate a mark on the rotating
equipment; this is typical in certain
handheld models
Radar (for Determining Vehicle Speed)
- empowers the use of Radio waves to
measure the speed of a moving object
- does not only calculate speed (velocity),
but also the range and angle
- common in aircraft and ships
- stands for Radio Detection and Ranging
- works by transmitting electromagnetic
waves that bounce off of a moving object
Speed detectors that use radar can work in two
different ways:
Pulse Mode
- measures the time between the transmitted
wave leaving the radar unit and wave
reflected from the target.
Doppler Mode
- radio waves reflect off of a vehicle with a
small change in their frequency
LIDAR (for Determining Vehicle Speed)
- Light Detection and Ranging
- use LIDAR to calculate car and truck speed
much like RADAR is used, only LIDAR
uses light instead of sound
- aims an infrared light beam toward a
vehicle and measures how long it takes for
the light waves to reflect back
Anemometer (to Measure Wind Speed)
- device that is generally found in a weather
station.
- measure the wind speed along with the
wind direction
Liquid Flow Meter
- calculate the speed of water that flows in a
particular pipe
Range Finder
- like a binocular, but it’s able to read the
distance between the device and the object
being watched
Volume
- quantity of three-dimensional space
enclosed by a closed surface
- quantified numerically using the SI derived
unit, the cubic meter
- generally understood to be the capacity of
the container
Beakers
- used for approximate determination of the
volume of liquids and thus, are not
necessarily classified as measuring tools.
- used especially for dissolving compounds,
diluting liquids, heating and other
K.J.L.A.
 operations. Planimeter
- unique for their 'beak' that is used to pour
liquids. - instrument used to determine the area of a
two-dimensional shape or planar region
Volumetric Flasks and Cylinders - useful for measuring areas with irregular
shapes
- used to measure volume of liquids
contained in them Types
- liquid has accurate volume when it reaches
the corresponding marking on the scale

Burettes

- used for titrations or whenever the same

liquid is repetitively measured.

Glass pipettes

- can be non-scaled for measuring of a

certain volume or scaled with grades by 1
mL and tenth of milliliter
- pipette should never touch the bottom of the
vessel

Micro Syringes

- serve for dispensing small volumes

(0.1–1000 μL) of liquids.
- consist of a needle attached to a scaled
Theodolite
glass cylinder with a piston
- instrument for measuring both vertical and
Piston Dispenser
horizontal areas and angles in conjunction
with triangulation.
- consist of a piston with a scale attached to a
- Triangulation, associated with geometry
flask
and trigonometry, is the process of
- intended for repetitive dispensing of the
establishing the location of a point by
same volume from the stock container
measuring angles to it from several other
Pipettors points on a fixed line.

- In manual pipettors, the piston is moved Ruler

by a thumb using an operation knob.
- In case of electronic pipettors, the piston
is moved by a small electric motor
Area
- quantity that expresses the extent of a
two-dimensional region, shape, or planar
lamina, in the plane
Surface Area
- its analog on the two-dimensional surface of
a three-dimensional object.
- sometimes called a rule or line gauge
- device used in geometry and technical
drawing, as well as the engineering and
construction industries, to measure or draw
straight lines
Scale Ruler
- three-sided ruler used by architects and
readers of blueprints to convert between
scaled drawings and the actual dimensions
without having to resort to any mathematical
calculations.

K.J.L.A.
Caliper Dial Caliper

- used to measure the distance between two - reads the final fraction of a millimeter or inch
opposite sides of an object on a simple dial
- a small, precise rack and pinion drives a
Types: pointer on a circular dial, allowing direct
reading without the need to read a vernier
Inside Caliper scale.

- sometimes referred to as straight calipers Micrometer

- used to measure inside dimensions such as
the inside diameter of a hole or tube.
Outside Caliper
- sometimes called egg calipers or bow
calipers
- used to measure external diameters, for
example, the outside diameter or width of
an object
- sometimes known as micrometer screw
gauge
- a device incorporating a calibrated screw
widely used for accurate measurement of
components in mechanical engineering and
machining as well as most mechanical
trades, along with other metrological
instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital
calipers

Divided Caliper Feeler Gauge

- popularly called a compass - a tool used to measure gap widths

- used in the process of marking out locations - mostly used in engineering to measure the
clearance between two parts.
Oddleg calipers
Gauge Block
- used to scribe a line at a set distance from
the edge of a workpiece - a block of metal or ceramic with two
opposing faces ground precisely flat and
Vernier caliper parallel, a precise distance apart

- give a direct reading of the distance Gunter's chain

measured with high accuracy and precision.
1. Outside large jaws: used to measure - a geodetic measuring device used for land
external diameter or width of an object survey.
2. Inside small jaws: used to measure
internal diameter of an object Meter Stick
3. Depth probe/rod: used to measure depths
of an object or a hole - either a straightedge or foldable ruler used
4. Main scale (Metric): scale marked every to measure length, and is especially
mm common in the construction industry.
5. Main scale (Imperial): scale marked in
inches and fractions Opisometer
6. Vernier scale (Metric) gives interpolated
measurements to 0.1 mm or better - also called a curvimeter, meilograph, or
7. Vernier scale (Imperial) gives interpolated map measurer
measurements in fractions of an inch - measuring the lengths of arbitrary curved
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to lines
allow the easy transferring of a
measurement.

K.J.L.A.
Surveyor’s Wheel

- also called a click wheel, hodometer,

waywiser, trundle wheel, measuring
wheel or perambulator
- device for measuring distance
- marked in fractional increments of revolution
from a reference position

Tape Measure

- flexible ruler and used to measure distance

K.J.L.A.