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Investigation of the Impact of Different PWM Techniques on Rectifier-

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Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

Investigation of the Impact of Different PWM

Techniques on Rectifier-Inverter Fed Induction
Motor Drive
Shuvra Prokash Biswas, Md. Shamim Md. Rabiul Islam Kashem M. Muttaqi
Anower, Md. Rafiqul Islam Sheikh School of Electrical, Computer and School of Electrical, Computer and
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Telecommunications Engineering Telecommunications Engineering
Technology University of Wollongong University of Wollongong
Rajshahi-6204, Bangladesh New South Wales 2522, Australia New South Wales 2522, Australia
spbiswas@ete.ruet.ac.bd mrislam@uow.edu.au kashem@uow.edu.au

Abstract— The paper investigates the technology status of
recently developed different pulse width modulation (PWM)
techniques for rectifier inverter-fed induction motor drive
(IMD). The PWM technique used in inverter switching has
significant impacts on the performance parameters of IMD. A
group of power-quality indices, such as total harmonic
distortion (THD) and distortion factor (DF) of ac mains current,
input power factor, THD of supply voltage at point of common
coupling (PCC), dc-bus-voltage ripple, power loss due to
inverter switching and torque ripple for a IMD are considered
as the major performance parameters of IMD. At motor side, a
2 level-3 phase voltage source inverter is used, which is fed from
a 6-pulse diode rectifier. Different conventional and advanced
PWM techniques such as sinusoidal PWM (SPWM), third
harmonic injected PWM (THPWM), conventional space vector
PWM (CSVPWM), trapezoidal PWM (TRPWM), and bus
clamping PWM (BCPWM) are applied for inverter switching
for a 6 pulse diode rectifier-2 level 3 phase voltage source
inverter (VSI) fed IMD to investigate the power quality indices
mentioned above. The performance of different PWM
techniques for IMD is also compared to give a clear message to
the industrial community for selecting appropriate modulation
technique for VSI based on different power quality parameter.
The performances of IMD are examined in MATLAB/Simulink
environment against different PWM techniques for VSI.
Keywords—PWM, induction motor, power quality, drives,
modulation technique, torque ripple, harmonics distortion.
I. INTRODUCTION
The advancement in solid state power conversion has
inaugurated an era for versatile use of variable frequency
induction motor drives (VFIMD's) in diverse applications
such as air conditioning, blowers, rolling mills, textile mills,
fans, cement industry etc. The most popular induction motor
drive (IMD) has a 3-phase 6-pulse (DBR) at the grid side and
a 2-level voltage source inverter (VSI) at the motor side,
which results in injection of current harmonics in the mains,
thus deteriorating the power quality at the point of common
coupling (PCC), thereby affecting the alongside consumers
[1]. The extensive use of IMDs has sharpened the emphasis
on the harmonics distortion produced by them [2]. At grid
side, line current total harmonic distortion (THD), line
current distortion factor (DF) and input power factor (PF) are
considered as the main power quality indices. On the
contrary, at motor side, inverter output voltage THD, motor
current THD and torque ripple are regarded as the major
performance indices of IMD [3].
PWM techniques used in VSI for IMD have
significant impacts on the performance indices. Extensive
research has been carried out on pulse width modulation
(PWM) techniques for VSI fed IMDs. Several PWM
techniques have been documented for VSI-fed IMDs.
Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) and conventional space vector
PWM (CSVPWM) are very well known real-time PWM
methods.
Third harmonic injected PWM (THPWM) method is well
known for minimizing harmonic distortion at high
modulation indices at a given average switching frequency
compared to traditional space vector PWM (CSVPWM) [4],
[5]. Similarly, it has been shown that a few hybrid PWM
methods combining CSVPWM and advanced bus clamping
PWM (ABCPWM) result in reduced THD and torque ripple
over the constituent PWM methods.
In addition, hybrid PWM methods are able to minimize
both THD and switching loss over CSVPWM, including
traditional and ABCPWM sequences. CSVPWM, bus
clamping PWM (BCPWM) and TRPWM combinations have
also been investigated and the harmonic performance of
motor drives has been shown to increase across a wide range
of modulation indexes [6].
In terms of line current distortion, all the above PWM
schemes are thoroughly studied. A hybrid PWM was
suggested to further reduce the torque ripple, incorporating
the space vector-based optimal zero vector division and bus
clamping PWM techniques [6], [7]. In addition, advanced bus
clamping methods with double phase switching in a sub-cycle
have also been found to reduce the torque ripple in some drive
speed ranges. Several torque ripple reduction techniques for
high-frequency switching motor drives have been published
in literature. A method to reduce low order harmonic torques
has been reported for a two-level inverter fed motor drives for
motor drives operating at low switching frequencies [8].
Several studies have been carried out regarding the effect of
PWM techniques for VSI used in IMD. But, these are limited
to deal with some specific parameter of IMD such as torque
ripple or line current THD. But, there is no study regarding
the impact of PWM techniques on the all parameters of IMD
till now [9].
In this paper, a set of results giving the comparison of
different power quality and performance indices such as THD
of line current, input PF, dc-link voltage, line current DF,
motor current THD, inverter output voltage THD, inverter
power loss and torque ripple against six popular modulation
techniques is analyzed in detail. The result of load variation
on various power quality issues is also investigated. This

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Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

3-Phase 415V 3-Phase Diode 3-Phase 2-Level

50Hz AC Supply Rectifier PWM Inverter
3-Phase 415V
Ld S3 S5 50Hz 7.5kW
S1
Induction
Rs Ls Lm Motor

Cd IM

S4 S6 S2
Cm

Ma
1
S1
0
S4
Mb
1
S3
0
Mc S6
1
S5
0
Carrier S2

Fig. 1. 6-pulse diode bridge rectifier fed IMD with PWM generation block.

study may provide a clear message to the industrial engineers
for choosing proper modulation technique for VSI fed IMD
based on the requirement of improving some targeted
performance parameters of IMD.
II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The schematic diagram of IMD with PWM generation
block is depicted in Fig. 1. This IMD has a 6-pulse ac-dc
conversion unit at grid side to produce the dc-link for the
inverter. Whereas, on the motor side, it has a 2-level inverter.
415 V, 50 Hz ac main supply is used to drive a 7.5 kW (10-
hp), 415 V, 50 Hz induction motor. Two second order LC type
filters are used here to suppress harmonics from the rectifier
end and inverter end.
A. Calculation of dc Link Voltage
In this paper, a 2-level VSI is used to drive an induction
motor. The voltage of the dc-link capacitor (Vdc) is obtained
by using the procedure given in [2]. The voltage across, Cd is
calculated as,
VLL=0.612mi (L-1) Vdc=415 V
Vdc=415/ (0.612×1×1)=678.10 V
where VLL, mi, and L are the input line-to-line voltage,
modulation index, and level of the inverter.
By considering the power losses in line impedance and
output filter inductor (Ld), the dc-link input voltage (Vdc) for
the inverter is taken as 450 V (average).
B. PWM Generation Unit
The PWM generation unit as shown in Fig. 1 is used to
generate the gate pulses for the inverter. Three modulating
signals Ma, Mb and Mc are out of phase by 1200 which are
compared to high frequency (about 10 kHz) triangular carrier
signal to produce the gate pulses. The frequency of the
modulating signal determines the output voltage frequency of
the inverter. Whereas, the frequency of the carrier signal
determines the switching frequency of the inverter. The shape
of the modulating signals (Ma, Mb, and Mc) has significant
impact on the overall performance parameters of the IMD
which will be shown later.
III. DIFFERENT PWM TECHNIQUES
The most popular PWM techniques are SPWM,
THPWM, CSVPWM, TRPWM, TDBCPWM, and
SDBCPWM [10]-[12]. The modulating signals with
techniques SPWM, THPWM, CSVPWM, TRPWM,
TDBCPWM, and SDBCPWM are depicted in Fig. 3. A
triangle carrier is compared with the modulating signals in the
PWM techniques and the corresponding gate pulses are
produced for the bipolar insulated gate transistors (IGBTs).
The waveforms are very similar to the modulating signals
(1) from the CSVPWM and THPWM techniques. The
CSVPWM technique provides marginally better harmonics
(2) than that of THPWM. TDBCPWM, SDBCPWM and
TRPWM modulating signals have a similar flattened top that
helps to reduce switching losses. Table I provides the
mathematical expression of these techniques of switching
[13]. Most of the PWM signals are formed from the basic
three sinusoids which are denoted by Ma1, Mb1, and Mc1 in
Table I. With the SPWM signal, a third-harmonic signal is
added and the THPWM signal is created. Common mode
injection is considered as the key method to develop new
modulating signal. Some signals are used as a multiplier to

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Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

TABLE I. MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT PWM TECHNIQUES

PWM Mathematical representation
SPWM M 1  A sin(t   )

[ M a1 M b1 M c1 ]  M 1 0 M 1 120 M 1 120 
THPWM C  kAsin(3t )
M 2  A sin(t   )  C

[ M a 2 M b 2 M c 2 ]  M 2 0 M 2  12 0 M 2 12 0 
CSVPWM
M3 
2
Asin(t   )  1 max M a1 , M b1 , M c1   min M a1 , M b1 , M c1 
3 2
[ M a3 M b3 M c3 ]  M 3 0 M 3 120 M 3 120  
M 4  A sin 1sin(wt   ) when B4   p4 , p4 
TRPWM

 0.98 A when M 4  0.98 A 

 0.98 A when M 4  0.98 A 

[ M a 4 M b 4 M c 4 ]  M 4 0 M 4 120 M 4 120 
TDBCPWM M 5  A sin(t   )  f1  Vc  max M a1 , M b1 , M c1  f 2   Vc  min M a1 , M b1 , M c1 
[M a5 M b5 M c5 ]  M 5 0 M 5 120 M 5 120  
SDBCPWM M 6  A sin(t   )  f 2  Vc  max M a1 , M b1 , M c1  f1   Vc  min M a1 , M b1 , M c1 
[M a 6 M b6 M c 6 ]  M 6 0 M 6 120 M 6 120  
f 2    1 (when 0    60) (5)

1 1  0 (when60    120) (6)

Amplitude (p.u)
Amplitude (p.u)

0.5 Ma Mb 0.5 Ma Mb Mc
Mc
0 0
0 0
IV. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF IMD FOR DIFFERENT
-0.5 -0.5 PWM TECHNIQUES
-1 -1
(a)
-1

(b) The presented IMD is designed and developed in

0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (ms) Time (ms)
MATLAB/Simulink environment and simulated results are
depicted here for different PWM techniques. The parameters
1 1

1 1

of IMD is mentioned in Appendix.

Amplitude (p.u)

Amplitude (p.u)

0.5 Ma Mb Mc 0.5 Ma Mb Mc

0 0
0 0
A. Analysis of Grid Side Parameters
-0.5 -0.5 Fig. 3 depicts the ac main current waveforms of the 6-
-1 (c) -1 -1

(d)
pulse ac-dc converter with their corresponding THDs for
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 different PWM techniques.
Time (ms) Time (ms)
60 THD=23.94% 60 THD=25.13%
Current (A)

Current (A)

1 1
Amplitude (p.u)

Amplitude (p.u)

0 0
0.5 0.5
Ma Mb Mc
0 Ma Mb Mc 0 -60 (a) -60 (b)
0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56
-0.5 -0.5 Time (s) Time (s)
-1 60 THD=26.83% 60 THD=25.82%
Current (A)

-1
Current (A)

(e) (f)
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 0
Time (ms) Time (ms)
-60 (c) -60 (d)
0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56
Time (s) Time (s)
develop new technique based on different harmonics THD=41.57% THD=23.67%
Current (A)

60 60
Current (A)

injection. Two
0 0
Fig. 2. Modulating signals with PWM technique: (a) SPWM, (b) THPWM,
(c) CSVPWM, (d) TRPWM, (e) TDBCPWM, and (f) SDBCPWM. -60 (e) -60 (f)
0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56
Time (s) Time (s)
periodic signals f1(α) and f2(α) are used to generate BCPEM
signals which can be written as, Fig. 3. Supply current waveforms with PWM technique: (a) SPWM, (b)
THPWM, (c) CSVPWM, (d) TRPWM, (e) TDBCPWM, and (f)
SDBCPWM.
f1    0 (when 0    60) (3)
TDBCPWM shows more distorted supply current with
 1 (when60    120) (4) 41.57% THD than that of other techniques. Whereas,

3
Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

150 150 150 THD=8.62%

THD=4.33% THD=7.52%

Iabc (A)

Iabc (A)
Iabc (A)

0 0 0
Current changed Current changed Current changed
-150 -150 -150

Wr (rad/sec)

Wr (rad/sec)
Wr (rad/sec)

150 150 150

100 100 100
50 Speed changed 50 50
Speed changed Speed changed
0 0 Speed gained 0 Speed gained

200 200 200

Te (Nm)

Te (Nm)
Te (Nm)

Torque applied Torque applied Torque applied

100 100 100
0 0 0
-100 -100 -100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b) (c)
150 THD=9.68% 150 THD=12.59% 150 THD=4.08%
Iabc (A)

Iabc (A)

Iabc (A)
0 0 0
Current changed Current changed Current changed
-150 -150 -150
Wr (rad/sec)

Wr (rad/sec)
150

Wr (rad/sec)
150 150
100 100 100
50 Speed changed 50 Speed changed 50 Speed changed
0 Speed gained
0 0
300
Te (Nm)

200 200
Te (Nm)

Te (Nm)
200 Torque applied Torque applied Torque applied
100 100 100
0 0 0
-100 -100 -100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 4. Dynamic response of IMD with PWM technique: (a) SPWM, (b) THPWM, (c) CSVPWM, (d) TRPWM, (e) TDBCPWM, and (f) SDBCPWM.

SDBCPWM technique offers less distorted supply current tecniques. The voltage ripple profile of SPWM and
waveform with 23.67% THD. THPWM and TRPWM show SDBCPWM are quite similar. Moreover, THPWM and
quite similar supply current waveform. TRPWM offer overlapped dc-link behavior. CSVPWM also
B. Dynamic Response of IMD shows considerable amount of voltage ripple and very low
dc- link voltage than other techniques but its voltage ripple is
Fig. 4 shows the dynamic performance of IMD with slightly less than TDBCPWM.
different PWM techniques at starting and load perturbation.
The dynamic characteristics of the IMD are elaborated 500 DC link voltage (Vdc) vs Time
DC link voltage, Vdc (V)

in three different cases. These cases are as follows: (i) starting 400
(motor current), (ii) speed change, and (iii) load change. At
Transient region

t=0.35 s, 60% load torque of rated load is applied on the 300

Sudden torque
motor and at t=0.7 s the load is withdrawn to obtain the 200 applied
dynamic response of IMD as shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 depicts
motor current (Iabc), speed (Wr), and torque (Te) response of 100
SPWM THPWM CSVPWM
IMD during load perturbation. SDBCPWM offers 4.08% 0 TRPWM TDBCPWM SDBCPWM
THD for motor current which is lower than that of other
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
PWM techniques. On the contrary, TDBCPWM offers Time (s)
12.59% THD for motor current which is higher compared to
other techniques. THPWM, CSVPWM, and TRPWM offer Fig. 5. The dc-link voltage for different PWM techniques.
low inrush current than that of SPWM, TDBCPWM, and D. Torque Ripple Study
SDBCPWM techniques by gaining rated speed before t=0.35 The PWM technique used in inverter switching has
s. From the view point motor current THD, it is realized that considerable impact on torque ripple profile of IMD. Fig. 6
SDBCPWM and SPWM may be a good choice. Whereas, depicts the torque ripple profile of IMD for different PWM
based on the inrush current and speed gain performance techniques.
profiles, it is realized that the IMD has good dynamic
performance for THPWM, CSVPWM, and TRPWM than 150 Torque ripple while Torque ripple at full
that of SPWM, TDBCPWM, and SDBCPWM. changing load load
100
C. Impact on dc Link Voltage Starting torque ripple
Te (Nm)

The PWM technique used in inverter switching has 50 Time span: Time span: Time span:
significant impact on dc-link voltage of IMD. Fig. 5 depicts 0.03-0.09 s 0.35-0.4 s 0.4-0.5 s
the dc-link voltage profile for different PWM techniques. An 0
SPWM THPWM CSVPWM Full load torque
anlytical dc-link voltage of 450 V is taken into consideration TRPWM TDBCPWM SDBCPWM applied
for the IMD of Fig. 1. But, from Fig. 5, it is seen that the value -50
is not exactly 450 V but all values are around 450 V for 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Time (s)
different PWM techniques. At load perturbation point
(t=3.5s), the zoomed waveform of Fig. 5 indicates the Fig. 6. Torque profile for different PWM techniques.
voltage ripple profile of different PWM techniques.
TDBCPWM technique shows more voltage ripple than other

4
Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

The ratio of peak to peak value to the average value of
torque is defined as the torque ripple (Tripple) which can be
written as,
Tripple= (Tmax-Tmin)/ Tavg
where Tmax, Tmin, and Tavg are the maximum torque peak,
minimum torque peak and average torque.
From Fig. 6, it is seen that, the starting torque ripple is
minimum for TDBCPWM technique. The torque ripple
profile of THPWM and TRPWM are quite similar. At load
perturbation point (t=0.35 s), SPWM, THPWM, CSVPWM,
TRPWM, and SDBCPWM show almost similar response. Fig.
7 depicts the torque ripple (in %) for different PWM
techniques at full load condition (time span: 0.4-0.5 s).
1.6
1.51%
1.4
1.24%
1.2
Torque ripple (%)
other techniques. The total inverter loss is minimum for
TDBCPWM technique.
V. COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION
(7)
Table II depicts the result of load variation on the IMD to
study various power-quality indexes for different PWM
techniques. The THD of ac main current (IL) at full load (FL)
is observed as 23.16% and the PF as 0.96 for SPWM
technique. Similarly, at light load (LL) condition, the ac main
current THD is observed as 22.18% for SPWM technique, as
shown in Table II. For SPWM technique, the dc-link voltage
at full load is 474 V and, that, at light load is 461 V. The
inverter output voltage (Vs) THDs for SPWM are 2.18% at full
load and 1.54% at light load. TDBCPWM offers full load
THDs of 3.98% and 39.23% for inverter output voltage and ac
main current, respectively. SDBCPWM shows better
1.42% harmonics profile after SPWM for both full load and light load
conditions. TDBCPWM shows better DF, and PF than other
1.30%
1.25% techniques. It also offers minimum dc-link voltage variation
1.12% than other techniques for load perturbation.

1 From the view point of torque ripple, TRPWM is better

than other techniques. Whereas, from dc-link voltage dynamic
TDBCPWM

SDBCPWM
CSVPWM
THPWM

TRPWM

profile, it is observed that THPWM, TRPWM, CSVPWM and

SPWM

0.8
SDBCPWM show good response than other two techniques.
0.6 But, from the dynamic response of IMD, it can be concluded
that THPWM, CSVPWM, and TRPWM show better response
0.4 than that of SPWM, TDBCPWM, and SDBCPWM. The ac
main current harmonic profile for different PWM techniques
0.2 can be further improved by increasing the number of pulses of
the ac-dc converter.
0
PWM Technique
VI. CONCLUSION
Fig. 7. Percentage torque ripple for different PWM technique at rated load The detail analysis of the impact of different advanced
condition.
PWM techniques on the performance parameters of IMD has
E. Inverter Loss Analysis been carried out under varying loads condition. How the
Inverter losses include switching loss (loss of switch off, dynamic response, dc-link voltage, torque ripple, inverter
loss of switch on, loss of diode turn off) and loss of conduction power loss and power quality parameters of IMD are affected
(loss of switch conduction and loss of diode conduction). In for different PWM techniques used in inverter switching is
practice, diode turn on loss is negligible due to first conducting broadly investigated in this paper. Each PWM technique
nature of diode. IGBT module 5SNA 1500E250300 is taken shows promising performance for one or more than one
into consideration to perform loss calculation. Fig. 8 shows performance parameters of the IMD. For example, TRPWM
the conduction loss and switching loss profiles for different is best for minimizing torque ripple of the IMD than others
PWM techniques. five techniques. On the contrary, THPWM, CSVPWM, and
TRPWM show better dynamic response than other three
2.5 10
Total conduction loss (W)

Total switching loss (µW)

techniques. SPWM shows maximum harmonics suppression

2 8 capability for inverter output voltage and ac main current.
TDBCPWM offers minimum inverter power loss which can
2.03

1.5 6
7.98
2.07

8.05

improve the efficiency of the IMD. Each technique has some

2.09

1 4
8.03

advantages and disadvantages based on different

2.08

7.99

0.5 2
8.07

performance parameters of IMD. This paper can be helpful to

1.92

8.01
2.02

0 0 the industrial engineers for choosing appropriate PWM

technique while designing IMDs.
APPENDIX
Motor specifications: Three-phase squirrel-cage induction
motor, 10 hp (7.5 kW), three phase four pole, Y connected,
(a) (b)
415 V, 50 Hz.
Fig. 8. Loss profile for different PWM techniques: (a) total conduction loss, Line filter: Rs= 2.5 Ω, Ls=2 mH.
and (b) total switching loss. DC link filter: Ld=2 mH, Cd= 3200 µF.
From Fig. 6(a), it is seen that, TDBCPWM offers low Inverter filter: Lm=2 mH, Cm=3.3 µF.
conduction loss than other techniques. Whereas, from Fig.
6(b), it is evident that SPWM offers low switching loss than

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Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 2020, Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29 November – 3 December 2020

TABLE II. COMPARISON OF POWER-QUALITY PARAMETERS OF IMD FOR DIFFERENT PWM TECHNIQUES
dc link
ac main voltage (V)
THD of VS (%) THD of IL (%) DF PF
current (A)
PWM Average
technique
FL LL FL LL FL LL FL LL FL LL FL LL
(100%) (20%) (100%) (20%) (100%) (20%) (100%) (20%) (100%) (20%) (100%) (20%)

SPWM 2.18 1.54 23.16 22.18 49.4 50.5 0.0431 0.0450 0.9664 0.9550 474.4 461.4

CSVPWM 2.92 2.29 25.42 23.99 63.55 64.47 0.0393 0.0416 0.9695 0.9688 434.1 420.6

TRPWM 3.48 2.87 24.43 23.02 67.38 68.27 0.0408 0.0433 0.9798 0.9790 416.6 403.1

THPWM 2.73 2.09 23.89 22.60 61.71 62.7 0.4182 0.0442 0.9681 0.9615 435.3 421.3

TDBCPWM 3.98 3.35 39.23 37.16 67.3 68.17 0.0254 0.0269 0.9802 0.9796 456.2 445.3

SDBCPWM 2.26 1.61 22.93 21.99 47.42 49.63 0.0435 0.0454 0.9588 0.9492 472.2 459.2

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