READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1–13, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.
Plastics: the early years
Plastics affect of our lives – from packaging to cutting-edge technologies in cars and
computers, from new textiles to replacements for worn-out parts of our bodies. But none
of the applications and innovations we take for granted would have been possible if it
weren’t for the early scientists who developed and refined the material.
The first man-made plastic, Parkesine, was unveiled in London in 1862. This was an
organic material derived from cellulose that once heated could be moulded, and on
cooling retained its shape until it was reheated. But because of the high cost of raw
materials, production soon came to an end.
During the 19th century, the game of billiards became so popular that thousands of
elephants were killed for their ivory – used to make billiard balls. A replacement,
celluloid, was found by an American, Hyatt, in 1866. On spilling a bottle of collodion, he
discovered that the material congealed into a tough, flexible film. He then used it to
produce billiard balls, but they shattered once they hit each other, a problem
subsequently solved by the addition of camphor. Celluloid was the first thermoplastic: a
substance that can be moulded under heat and pressure. Celluloid was later used in the
first flexible photographic film for still and motion pictures.
Rayon, another modified cellulose, was first developed in 1891 by Frenchman
Bernigaut, while searching for a way to produce man-made silk. Bernigaut noticed that
silkworms secrete a liquid that hardens upon exposure to air and turns into silk. He
produced a liquid with similar characteristics, which could the be processed to form
fibres that could be spun and would feel like silk. The only problem with his new
invention was that it was highly flammable. This problem was later solved by another
scientist.
The first completely synthetic man-made substance was discovered in 1907, when
Baekeland, a New York chemist, developed a liquid resin that he named Bakelite. All
previous plastics could be melted down innumerable times and reformed. Bakelite,
however, had the advantage that once shaped, it would never melt or burn. It could also
be added to almost any material – such as softwood – and would instantly make it more
durable and effective. This new material began to be used for a wide range of products.
Cellophane was discovered by Brandenberger, a Swiss textile engineer. He wanted to
apply a clear flexible film to fabrics, such as tablecloths, so that they could be cleaned
easily. In 1913 he succeeded by using Viscose (now known as Rayon), but this made
the material too stiff to be of any use. Brandenberger saw another potential use, though.
He produced sheets of it, which he marketed as Cellophane. This could be used as a
clear layer of packaging for any product – the first fully flexible, waterproof wrap.

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The 1920s witnessed a ‘plastics craze’, as the use of cellophane spread throughout the
world. Nylon, initially discovered in Germany, was developed in the USA. Its toughness
made it a suitable replacement for animal hair in toothbrushes, and when nylon
stockings were launched in 1939, they gained great public acceptance.
In 1933 Fawcett and Gibson, two British organic chemists working for the company ICI,
discovered polyethylene while testing various chemicals. An attempt to trigger a
reaction between ethylene and benzaldehyde under high pressure went wrong when
the testing seemed to spring a leak. Upon opening the tube the scientists found a waxy,
plastic-like substance, polyethylene. After further experimentation and analysis, they
discovered that while the process did have a small leak, the main cause of pressure
loss was a polymerization process that combined elements. In 1936, ICI developed a
compressor that made possible the production of vast quantities of polyethylene.
Polyethylene played a key role during World War II in the 1940s – first as an underwater
cable coating and then as insulation for radar. As polyethylene was very much lighter
that the materials traditionally used for the latter purpose, it was now possible for the
first time to place radar on planes. This helped in the detection of enemy bombers at
night.
After the war the material became very popular with consumers, and it is currently the
largest volume plastic in the world, used to make a wide range of common items, such
as plastic food storage containers.